English Grammar

R26 TIME WORDS

English has lots of words to talk about when things happen. They usually act as prepositions, conjunctions, or adverbs.

TIME WORD USE SAMPLE SENTENCE

shows an event will happen very soon
shows an event in the main clause follows
another event
shows an event has happened before another
event or a particular time
indicates an event happens at the same time as
another event
indicates an event (in the main clause) happens
straight after another event
shows an event (in the main clause) precedes
another event
shows an event precedes or happens at
the same time as an event in the main clause

shows an event happened after a long time

indicates an event at the end of a list /
sequence, or that happened after a long time

shows an event happened after a long time

shows an event happened very recently

indicates an event after the time of speaking or
the time that is being talked about
indicates an event happens at the same time as
another event

indicates an event in a sequence

indicates an event starts to happen (in the main
clause) after another one
shows an event continuing from a past time to
the present
shows an event at the time of speaking started
in the past and is continuing
indicates an event in a sequence, or one event
that happens after another
shows an event continues up to the time of
another event
shows an event happens at the same time as or
after another event
indicates an event happens at the same time as
another event
shows an expected event has not happened, or
asks whether it has happened

349

Glossary closed question continuous (progressive)
A question that can be Continuous tenses express
absolute adjective agreement answered with “yes” or “no,” actions that are in progress at
A word that describes a quality When the verb form is correct e.g. Are you English? a specific time, e.g. I’m writing.
which cannot be changed or for the subject, e.g. He is = see also open question
modified, e.g. unique. singular subject + singular verb. contraction
collective noun Two words that are joined with
abstract noun apostrophe A singular noun that refers to an apostrophe to form one
A word that refers to a quality The punctuation mark that a group of people or things, word, e.g. we’re.
rather than a thing or person, shows either belonging, e.g. e.g. family, team.
e.g. beauty, hope. John’s cat, or a contraction conversational ellipsis
e.g. I’m happy. comparative adjective When words are left out in
action verb (dynamic verb) An adjective that compares informal conversation, e.g.
A type of verb that describes article one thing or group of things [Do you] Want a cup of coffee?
an action, e.g. run, and can The words a, an, and the, which with another, e.g. better.
be used in the simple show whether something is see also superlative adjective coordinating conjunction
and continuous tenses. general or specific. A word that links two clauses
see also state verb see also zero article complement of equal importance, e.g. and,
The word or phrase that comes but, or.
active voice auxiliary verb after verbs such as be, become, see also subordinating
Indicates that the person or A verb which is used with seem, appear, e.g. “happy” in conjunction
thing who is doing the action another verb, e.g. to form She’s happy.
is the subject of the verb. tenses, most commonly be, do, see also linking verb countable
see also passive voice and have. A noun that can be counted,
see also main verb complex preposition e.g. one book, two books.
adjective A preposition that contains two see also uncountable
A word that describes a noun backchanneling or more words, e.g. next to,
or pronoun, e.g. quick. The words and noises that because of. defining relative clause
a listener makes to show they A clause that starts with a
adverb are listening, e.g. Really? compound noun relative pronoun (such as who
A word that describes a verb, A noun that contains two or or which). It gives information
adjective, or another adverb, backshift more words, e.g. post office. that defines something in the
e.g. quickly. In reported speech, when the main clause.
verb moves back one tense compound tense see also non-defining
adverb of degree into the past, e.g. present A tense which uses an auxiliary relative clause
An adverb that tells you “how simple to past simple. verb, e.g. the present perfect:
much,” e.g. extremely. has done. definite article
base form (bare infinitive) The word the, which specifies
adverb of frequency The most basic form of a verb, concrete noun which noun that follows it,
An adverb that tells you “how e.g. be, run, write. A noun that refers to e.g. the house in the woods.
often,” e.g. usually. see also infinitive something you can touch, see also indefinite article
see, hear, smell, or taste,
adverb of manner cardinal number e.g. table, teacher. demonstrative determiner /
An adverb that tells you “how,” The numbers used for pronoun
e.g. badly. counting, e.g. one, two. conditional Words that specify a noun as
see also ordinal number The verb structure used when closer to (this, these) or more
adverbial one event or situation depends distant from (that, those) the
A phrase that is used as an classifying adjective on another event or situation speaker, e.g. This watch is
adverb, e.g. on the table An adjective that describes the happening first. cheaper than that one
(expressing place), tomorrow type of the noun that it defines, in the window.
evening (expressing time). e.g. in medical student, conjunction
“medical” describes the A word that links two words dependent preposition
agent type of student. or groups of words, e.g. and, A preposition that always
The person or thing that does because, if. follows a particular verb, noun,
the action. The subject of the clause or adjective, e.g. afraid of.
verb in an active clause, but A group of words that consonant
not in a passive clause. contains a verb. Most letters / sounds in English, determiner
but not a, e, i, o, u. y can A word that comes before
operate as a consonant or a noun and identifies it, e.g. the
a vowel. book, this book.

350

direct object first conditional hedging inseparable phrasal verb
The person or thing affected A sentence with “if ” that Words or phrases that make A phrasal verb that is always
by the action of the verb, describes a possible future a speaker seem less certain or used with the particle,
e.g. “him” in We followed him. situation that depends on direct, e.g. apparently, I think. e.g. I take after my mother.
see also indirect object another situation, e.g. If it rains, see also separable phrasal verb
I’ll stay here. imperative
direct question An order to someone, e.g. intransitive verb
A question without an focus Stop! The imperative is often A verb that does not take
introductory phrase, Part of a sentence that is a verb on its own in its a direct object.
e.g. What time is it? moved to the beginning base form. see also transitive verb
because it is more important.
direct speech indefinite article introductory “it”
The words that are actually formal The words a and an, which “It is” used at the start of
said to make a statement or Formal language is used in come before nouns when it a sentence to refer to a general
question, e.g. It’s raining. situations where you don’t doesn’t matter which noun is idea, e.g. It is difficult to ski.
know the people very well, being referred to, or if it is
discourse marker or when you want to keep being mentioned for the first inversion
A word or phrase that is social distance. time, e.g. Can I borrow a pen? When positions of two parts
used in conversation to see also informal see also definite article of a clause swap around,
direct the discussion or add e.g. the subject and the verb
comment, e.g. Well, Right. future continuous indefinite pronoun in questions.
A tense that is formed with will A pronoun that does not refer
double object verb be and the present participle. to a specific person or thing, irregular
A verb that has two objects, It expresses an action that will e.g. someone, nothing. A word that behaves differently
e.g. “me” and “the phone” in be in progress at a point in from most words like it,
Give me the phone. the future. indirect object e.g. men is an irregular plural
The person or thing that is noun. see also regular
dummy subject future perfect affected by the action of
The word “it” used without A tense that is formed with will a transitive verb, but is not the linking verb
referring to a noun, have and the past participle, direct object, e.g. “the dog” in A verb that links two parts
e.g. It’s five o’clock. e.g. will have done. It expresses I gave the ball to the dog. of a clause (the subject and
an action that will be complete see also direct object complement) rather than
-ed adjective at a point in the future. describing an action, such
An adjective that describes indirect question as be, seem, become,
how somthing is affected, future perfect continuous A question that begins with e.g. She is really angry.
e.g. bored, excited. A tense that is formed with will a polite phrase, e.g. Can you
see also -ing adjective have been and the present tell me what time it is? main clause
participle, e.g. will have been A clause that could form
ellipsis doing. It expresses an ongoing infinitive a complete sentence on its own.
When words or phrases are left action that will be complete at The base form of a verb, often see also subordinate clause
out of a clause, usually because a point in the future. with the infinitive marker “to,”
they don’t need to be repeated, e.g. to go, to run. main verb
e.g. He got up and [he] had gerund (verbal noun) The verb in a group of verbs
a shower. The -ing form of a verb, when infinitive clause that carries the meaning,
it is used as a noun, A clause whose verb is in e.g. “ride” in I can ride a bike.
emphasis e.g. No smoking. the infinitive form, e.g. It’s
When a word is said more important to complete the form modal verb
loudly because it is more gradable adjective in full. A type of auxiliary verb that
important. An adjective that can be used is used with a main verb
see also stress with adverbs of degree (such as informal to show ideas like ability
very) and can be used in the Informal language is used in and permission.
extreme adjective comparative form. situations where you know the
An adjective that has a stronger see also non-gradable adjective people well and feel relaxed. modifier
meaning than a gradable see also formal A word that adds information
adjective with a similar grading adverb to another word, e.g. “really”
meaning, e.g. freezing is the An adverb of degree that can -ing adjective in really interesting.
extreme adjective for cold. be used with gradable An adjective that describes
adjectives. the effect something has, negative
see also non-grading adverb e.g. boring, exciting. A clause that contains a word
see also -ed adjective like not or never.

351

negative adverbial participle who is being spoken to (you) present continuous
A phrase that acts as an adverb The form of a verb used to A tense that is formed with the
and has a negative meaning, make compound tenses. or who or what is being present of be and the present
e.g. not only, not until. see also past participle and mentioned (he, she, it, they). participle, e.g. is doing.
present participle Verbs also reflect person,
non-defining relative clause e.g. am is the first person It expresses an ongoing action
A clause that starts with particle singular form of be.
a relative pronoun (such as A word that follows a verb in the present.
who or which). It gives to form a phrasal verb.
non-essential information personal pronoun present participle
about the main clause. passive voice The participle form of a verb
see also defining relative clause Indicates that the person or A word that refers to people that is used to make continuous
thing affected by the action or things that have already tenses, e.g. walking, doing.
non-gradable adjective is the subject of the verb. been mentioned, e.g. he, they.
An adjective that cannot be see also active voice
used in the comparative form phrasal verb present perfect
and can only be used with past continuous A combination of verb + particle A tense that is formed with the
certain adverbs of degree A tense that is formed with that is always used together and present of have and the past
(such as absolutely). was or were and the present has a different meaning from the participle, e.g. have done.
see also gradable adjective participle, e.g. was doing. verb on its own, e.g. make up It expresses an action that
It expresses an ongoing meaning “invent.” started in the past and is still
non-grading adverb action in the past. continuing or that happened
An adverb of degree that can plural in the past but has a result
be used with non-gradable past participle The form of a word used when in the present.
adjectives. The participle form of a verb there is more than one of
that is used to make perfect something, e.g. books, they. present perfect continuous
noun tenses and the passive, see also singular A tense that is formed with
A word that refers to a person, e.g. walked, done, eaten. has / have been and the present
place, or thing. positive participle, e.g. has / have been
past perfect A clause that expresses what doing. It expresses an ongoing
noun phrase A tense that is formed with someone or something is or action that started in the past
A noun, pronoun, or a number had and the past participle, does. It does not contain and is still continuing.
of words that are linked to e.g. had done. It expresses a negative word.
a noun, e.g. the blue house. a completed action that see also negative present simple
happened before another A tense that consists only of
object action or state in the past. possessive determiner the present form of a verb,
A noun or pronoun that follows A word that comes before a e.g. walk, say, eat. It expresses
a verb or a preposition. past perfect continuous noun and shows belonging, a general truth about
A tense that is formed with e.g. my, our, his. the present.
object pronoun had been and the present
A pronoun that usually follows participle, e.g. had been doing. possessive pronoun pronoun
a verb or a preposition, It expresses an ongoing action A word that replaces a noun A word that replaces a noun,
e.g. me, them. that happened before another
action or state in the past. and shows belonging, when the noun has already
object question e.g. mine, ours, his. been mentioned, e.g. it, that.
A question where the question past simple
word is the object, e.g. “What” A tense that consists only of the prefix proper noun
in What did you say? past form of a verb, e.g. walked, Letters at the beginning of A noun that is the name of
said, ate. It expresses a a word that change its a person, place, day, etc.,
open question completed action in the past. meaning, e.g. “re-” in replace. e.g. Maria, France, Sunday.
A question that cannot be see also suffix
answered with “yes” or “no” and perfect quantifier
starts with a question word Perfect tenses express a link preposition A word that usually comes
(such as when or who). between two times, e.g. the A short word that links two before a noun and expresses
see also closed question present perfect links the past nouns or pronouns to show a quantity or amount,
with the present. a relationship, e.g. to, at, e.g. several, many, much.
ordinal number with, from.
The numbers used for person question
ordering, e.g. first, second. The form of a pronoun that prepositional phrase A sentence that asks for
see also cardinal number shows who is speaking (I, we), A phrase that starts with a something, usually information.
preposition, e.g. on the bus, The verb usually comes before
352 at five o’clock. the subject.

question word second conditional stress tense
A word is used to start open A sentence with “if ” that Saying one syllable in a word, The form of a verb that shows
questions, e.g. What, Which, describes an imaginary future or one word in a sentence, the time of the action,
Who, Why, How. situation, or an impossible more strongly than the others. e.g. present simple, past simple.
present situation, e.g. If I were see also emphasis
question tag you, I’d take an umbrella. third conditional
A short phrase that makes subject A sentence with “if ” that
a statement into a question, sentence The person / thing / place, etc. describes an impossible past
e.g. “isn’t it” in It’s hot today, A group of one or more clauses. that usually comes before the situation and its impossible
isn’t it? verb in a clause. result, e.g. If I had studied
separable phrasal verb harder, I would have passed
reflexive pronoun A phrasal verb that can be subject pronoun the exam.
A word that refers to the used with the particle after a A word that replaces a noun
subject of the clause, when noun or pronoun, e.g. bring as the subject of a clause, time marker
the subject and object are the subject up / bring it up. e.g. I, she, they. A word or phrase that indicates
the same, e.g. myself. see also inseparable a time, e.g. now, at the
phrasal verb subject question moment, tomorrow.
regular A question where the question
A word that behaves in the short answer word is the subject, e.g. “Who” transitive verb
same way as most words like An answer to a closed question in Who invited you? A verb that takes a direct object.
it, e.g. books is a regular plural that only uses the subject and see also object question see also intransitive verb
noun and waited is a regular auxiliary verb, e.g. Yes, I do.
past simple form. subordinate clause uncountable
see also irregular short question A clause which is dependent A noun that cannot be
A question with just an on the main clause, usually counted, e.g. water, money.
relative clause auxiliary verb and subject, introduced by a subordinating see also countable
A clause that gives information which is used to show interest conjunction.
about the subject or object of in a conversation, e.g. Is it? verb
the main clause. subordinating conjunction A word that refers to a situation
simple A word that links two clauses that or an action, e.g. stay, write.
relative pronoun Simple tenses are formed with are not of equal importance,
A word that introduces a main verb only; they don’t i.e. a subordinate clause to a vowel
a relative clause, e.g. who, need an auxiliary verb in their main clause, e.g. because, if. The English letters a, e, i, o, u.
that, which. positive forms. see also coordinating see also consonant
conjunction
reported question singular word class
A question that is repeated The form of a word that is used substitution Shows the function of a word
after it was actually asked, often to refer to just one person or The use of a word to replace in a sentence, e.g. noun, verb,
by another person, e.g. She thing, e.g. book. another, e.g. “He” in He’s in the adjective are all word classes.
asked if the bus was full. see also plural kitchen.
word order
reported speech stalling suffix The position that different
Statements and questions that Using words or short phrases in Letters at the end of a word words have in a clause,
are repeated after they were conversation to give yourself that change its meaning, e.g. the subject usually comes
actually said, often by another time to think about what to say, e.g. “-able” in enjoyable. before the verb, and adjectives
person, e.g. He said the bus e.g. Let’s see… see also prefix of opinion come before
was full. adjectives of fact.
state verb (stative verb) superlative adjective
reporting verb A type of verb that describes An adjective that indicates the zero article
A verb that introduces reported situations, thoughts, or feelings, most extreme of a group of When there is no article before
speech, e.g. say, tell. e.g. seem, think, like. things, e.g. best. plural or uncountable nouns.
see also action verb see also comparative adjective
root zero conditional
The part of a word to which statement syllable A sentence with “if ” or “when”
a suffix or prefix is added, A sentence that offers Every word is made up of that describes a present
e.g. “employ” is the root information, i.e. not a question a number of syllables, each of situation or a regular action,
of employable. or an imperative. which contain a vowel sound, e.g. If it rains, the roads flood.
e.g. teach (one syllable),
teacher (two syllables).

353

Index “and” 68, 89 “because” 111, 112
as coordinating conjunction 110 “been”
All locators refer to unit numbers. Numbers in in spoken numbers 74
bold indicate the main entry for the subject. “have been” 12, 27, 28
Locators with the prefix R, for example “R1,” refer answering questions 41, 66, 80 in future tense 21, 26
to information in the reference section. “any” 63, 70 in past tense 14
“anyone” and “anybody” 79 in present tense 11, 12, 25
A “anything” 79 “before” 107
“anyway” 20, 118 “being” 24
“a” 63, 64, 70 apostrophes 80 “best” 97
abilities 56, 57 “appear” 119 “better” 99
“-able” suffixes 115 approximations 76 “between” 106, 109
“about” 101, 108, 109 “are” and “is” 24, 71, 85 “between...and...” 107
absolute adjectives 93 body language 118
“absolutely” 100 “are not” and “aren’t” 2 “both” 68
abstract nouns 72 see also “be” “but” 110, 112
action verbs 49, 50 articles 63, 64, 69, R1 with ellipsis 89
definite article (“the”) 97 with inversions 88
in present tense 4, 5 “as... as” comparisons 76, 96 “by ”
“actually” 118 asking questions see questions as preposition 105, 107, 108, 109
adjectives 63, 84, 92, R1 “as soon as” 111 “by far” 97
“at” 106, 107, 109 “by the way” 118
adding emphasis to 103 “-ate” suffixes 115 in passive voice 24
comparative 94, 95, 96 “at the moment” 19
gradable and non-gradable 93 auxiliary verbs 1, 49, 88, R13 C
hedging with 119 in questions 34, 37
same forms as adverbs 98, 99 in indirect questions 38 “can” 56, 57
superlative 97 in open questions 36 after “nor” 110
with “enough” and “too” 104 in question tags 39 “cannot” and “can’t” 41, 57, 61
with prepositions 109, R15 in short answers 40, 41 for permission and requests 58
with suffixes 115 with present and past participles 51 in first conditional 30
adverbials 88, R25 see also modal verbs in short answers 41
adverbs R1 avoiding repetition 89, 90, 91
comparative and superlative 99 “awful” 93 capitalization 69
describing verbs 100 cardinal numbers 74
in phrasal verbs 55 B cause and effect, adjectives for 95
of degree 93, 100 “certainly” 118
of frequency 102 backchanneling 120 “chance” 90
of manner 98 “bad” and “badly” 98, 99 changes in meaning 52, 55, R22
of time 101 base form (verbs) 51
same forms as adjectives 98, 99 addition of prefixes and suffixes 114, 115
with “enough” and “too” 104 in questions 34 addition of defining relative clauses 81
see also gradable adjectives with modal verbs 56 auxiliary verbs with main verbs 49
advice 56, 59 with “can” and “cannot” 57 degrees, of adverbs and adjectives 100, 104
“afford” 90 with “might” 62 question words with “-ever” 84
“afraid” 90, 118 with “did” and “did not” 8, 9 use of prepositions 106, 109
“after” 105, 107, 117 with “going to” 17 changes to subject 118, 120
“afternoon” and “morning” 107 with “should” 59 classifying adjectives 93
age, adjectives for 92 with “used to” 15 closed questions 38, 41, 42, 47
agents, of sentences 24, 25 see also infinitives (verbs) collective nouns 71
agreement “be” collocations, reflexive 78
noun-verb 68 adjectives after 92 colors, adjectives for 92
subject-verb 71 contractions of R13 comma use
“all” 77, 82 in future tense 20, 26, 85 in numbers 74
“almost” 76, 96 in passive voice 24, 26, 27, 28 in sentences 29, 31, 82
“a lot” 75, 94 in past tense 7, 8, 9 with coordinating conjunctions 110
alphabet R2 in present tense 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 11 common nouns 69
“already” 101 common prefixes 114
“although” 111 in questions 4, 34, 39 common suffixes 115
“always” 102 open questions 36 comparative adjectives 94, 95, 103
“am” 24 short questions 40 comparative adverbs 99
see also “be” in short answers 41 comparisons 94, 95, 96
“an” 63, 64, 70 with personal pronouns 77 in arguments 119
“-ance” suffixes 115 with shortened infinitives 90 with conjunctions 112
with “used to” 116 complements 90
354 “beautiful” 94 “completely” 100

complex prepositions 105 “did” “-est” suffixes 97, 99
compound nouns 73 “did not” and “didn’t” 8, 60 “even though” 111
conceding a point 118 in questions 9, 34, 37 “-ever,” with question words 84
conclusion markers 117 in open questions 36 “every” 67
concrete nouns 72 “everyone” and “everybody” 79
conditional sentences 29, 30, 31, 59 direct objects 53, 55 “everything” 79
conjunctions 110, 111, 113, R1 pronouns 77 evidence, predictions with 17
exclamation marks 6
ellipsis after 89 direct speech 44 expressions, comparative adjectives 95
consonants R2 see also reported speech expressions of frequency 102
continuous forms 12, 14, 50 extreme adjectives 93
disagreeing subjects 118
in future tense 20, 21 discourse markers 117 F
see also past continuous; present continuous discussions 119
contractions 6, 77, R13 distances, with “it” 86 fact adjectives 92
negative 2, 4 distancing, from statements 119 “fairly” 93, 100
use of apostrophes in 80 “do” and “does” 49, 80 “fast,” “faster,” and “fastest” 97
contrasting phrases 110, 111, 113 “feel” and “felt” 43, 50
conversational English see spoken English “do you know” 38 feelings 52
coordinating conjunctions 110, 113 for substitution 91 female and male nouns 80, 92
correcting subjects 118 in answers 40, 41
“could” 44, 56 in questions 3, 34, 37 see also “he,” “him,” and “his;” “she”
“could not” and “couldn’t” 61, 62 “few” and “fewer” 75, 91
“could you tell me” 38 open questions 36 “finally” 117
for past abilities 57 question tags 39 “fine” and “finely” 98
for permission and requests 58 reported questions 47 “first” 117
for suggestions 59 in requests 6 first (real) conditional 29, 30, 31
in deductions 61 in short answers 41 first person pronouns 77
in second conditional 29, 30 see also “do not” and “don’t” focus, on parts of sentences 87
with “wish” 33 “-dom” suffixes 115 “for” 107, 109
countable nouns 70, 75 “do not” and “don’t” 2, 79
abstract 72 as imperatives 6 “for example” 117
substitution of 91 “does not” and “doesn’t” 2, 80 formal English
with “enough” and “not enough” 104 “don’t have to” 60
see also uncountable nouns in reported speech 46 conjunctions 112
in short answers 41 “nor” 110
D with “have” 80 “ought to” 59
double object verbs 53 polite requests 6, 58
dates 74, 75 dummy subject (“it”) 86 using inversion 30, 88
decade phrases 80 duration, prepositions for 107 “whether” 47
decimals 74 “during” 107 “whom” 35, 81, 82
decisions formal organizing phrases 117
E fractions 74
with “going to” 17 frequencies, questions about 35
with “will” 18 “each” 67, 78 frequency, adverbs of 102
deductions 56, 61 “-ed” suffixes 7, 11, 51 “friendly” and “friendlier” 94
defining relative clauses 63, 81 “from... to...” 107
see also non-defining relative clauses adjectives with 92 “-ful” suffixes 115
definite article (“the”) 63, 64, 97 “either” 68, 110 future 19, 23, 33, R10
degrees, of adverbs and adjectives 100, 104 elision see contractions near, with “about to” 101
demonstrative determiners 65 ellipsis 89, 110, R3 obligations 60
“that” 86, 87, R13 emphasis 59, 78 possibilities 32, 62
“that” as relative pronoun 81 with “yet” 101
“that” in passive voice 28 imperatives 6 future continuous 20, 23
“that” with “so” and “such” 103 in formal organizing phrases 117 future in the past 22, 23
“these” and “those” 44 inversion of words 88 future, passive voice in 26
“this” 43, 45 “no” and nouns 66 future perfect 21, 23, R11
dependent prepositions 109 shifting focus 87 passive 26
describing words see adjectives through repetition 95 future simple 23, 26
desires (“wish”) 33 with conjunctions 112 future with “going to” 17, 23
determiners R1 with “far” and “much” 104 future with “will” 18, 23
“each” and “every” 67 with “little” 75 in first conditional 29
“no” 41, 47, 66 with “so” and “such” 103 in reported speech 44
possessive 80 see also stress phrasal verbs in 55
“whichever” and “whatever” as 84 empty subject (“it”) 86 with “there” 85
with “either,” “neither,” and “both” 68 “-en” suffixes 115 future with “shall” 18
“-ence” suffixes 115 future with “will be able to” 57
“enough” 75, 104
“entirely” 100
“-er” suffixes 94, 99, 115
“-es” suffixes 1, 5, 69

355

G I irregular verbs 1, 7
“is” and “are” 24, 71, 85 see also “be”
gender, nouns 69 “I” 77, 80, R13
general opinions 92 “I am” 1 “is not” and “isn’t” 2, 4, 46
generic “the” 63 “I am not” 2 “-ism” suffixes 115
gerunds 51, 52, 54, R18 “I have” and “I’ve” 12 “-ist” suffixes 115
“it” 77, 80, 86
after prepositions 105 “-ible” suffixes 115
patterns 53, 54 “-ify” suffixes 115 clauses 86, 87
“get” and “got” 28 “-ier” suffixes 94 contractions of R13
“get / have something done” 116 “-iest” suffixes 97 in passive voice 28
“get on / up” 55 “if ” 47 “it is” and “it’s” 80, 86, 87
“get used to” 116 “its” 80
“go” 7, 11, 102 closed questions 38 “itself ” 78
“going to” 17, 20, 22, 23 “if I were you” 59 “it was” 87
“going to be” 85 “if only” 33 “-ize” suffixes 115
“gone” 11 in conditional sentences 29, 30, 31
“good” 93, 98, 99 “-ily” suffixes 98 JL
“good question” 120 “im-” prefixes 114
gradable adjectives 93 imperatives 6, 29, 78, R5 “just” 6, 101
grading adverbs 100 “in” 106, 107, 109 for emphasis 96
“in case” 32 “just in case” 32
H “in order to” 111 with statistics 76
indefinite articles 63, 64
“had” 13, 25, R13 indefinite pronouns 79 “later” and “latest” 99
“had been” 14 “indicate” 119 “least” 97, 99
“had better” 59 indirect object 53 “less” 75, 99
in conditional sentences 29, 30 pronouns 77
indirect questions 38 “less...than...” 94
“half ” 96 infinitives (verbs) 51, 105, R18 “-less” suffixes 115
“harder” 95 clauses 28, 86, 90 “let’s” and “let’s not” 6, 120
“has” 1, 11, 49 with “enough” and “too” 104 “like” 44, 87, 90
patterns 52, 53
“has been” 28, 85 with reporting verbs 45, 46 as conjunction 112
“has not” and “hasn’t” 46 shortening of 90 likely actions and events 29
“has to” 60 see also base form (verbs) linking words 49, 112, R25
possession 80 informal English
subject-verb agreement 71 answers 58 conjunctions 89, 110, 111, R1
see also “have” “can” 58 lists of nouns, conjunctions with 110
“hate” 87, 90 conjunctions 112 “little” 75
“have” 10, 21, 90 ellipsis 89, 111 long adjectives 94, 95, 97
contractions of R13 “get” and “have” 116 longer compound nouns 73
“have been” 12, 27, 28 question tags 39 “look up to” 55
“have / get something done” 116 see also spoken English “lots” 75
“have got” 80 informal organizing words 120 “loudly” 98
“have not” and “haven’t” 80 “-ing” suffixes 115 “love” 87, 90
“have to” 56, 60 adjectives with 92 “-ly” suffixes 98
in third conditional 29, 31 gerunds 51, 52, 54, R18
questions with 40, 80 after prepositions 105 M
with pronouns 77 patterns 53, 54
see also “has” with continuous tenses 4, 10, 12 main verbs 49
hedging 119 with prepositions 54 action (dynamic) verbs 4, 5, 50
“he,” “him,” and “his” 77, 80, R13 inseparable phrasal verbs 55, R21 state (stative) verbs 4, 5, 50, R19
“he has” and “he’s” 12 interjections R1
“hence” 112 “wow” 120 “majority” and “minority” 76
“her” and “hers” 77, 80 “yes” 41, 47 male and female nouns 80, 92
“herself ” and “himself ” 78 see also exclamation marks
“how” 35, 89 interviewing techniques 120 see also “he,” “him,” “his,” and “she”
“how often” 35, 102 intonation 39, 40, 44, 55 “man” and “men” 69
“however” 84 intransitive verbs 49 manners, adverbs of 98
hyphenated words 73 inversion, of words 38, 88 “many” 70
hypothetical situations 29, 31 irregular adverbs 98, 99 materials, adjectives for 92
irregular comparative adjectives 94 “may” 56
356 irregular past participles 11, 51
irregular plurals 69, R24 for permission and requests 58
irregular superlative adjectives 97 “may not” 62
with deductions 61
with possibilities 62
see also “might”
“me” 77
meanings, changes in see changes in meaning
“-ment” suffixes 115

“might” 56 negatives continued obligations 56, 60
in deductions 61 with ”have” 80 “occasionally” 102
in suggestions and advice 59 with indefinite pronouns 79 “of ” 68, 109
in third conditional 29, 30 with “neither” 68, 88 offers 18, 56, 58
“might not” 61, 62 with “use to” and “used to” 15 “often” 102
with possibilities 62 see also “not” “OK” 120
omitted words 95
minority” and “majority” 76 “neither” 68, 88
“mis-” prefixes 114 “-ness” suffixes 115 ellipsis 89, 110, R3
mixed conditionals 29 neutral questions 20 “on” 105, 106, 107
modal verbs 49, 56 “never” 88, 102
newspaper headlines 73 “on the one / other hand” 119
for abilities 57 “next” 117 “on top of ” 106
for advice and suggestions 18, 59 “one” and “ones” 91
for deductions 61 “next to” 105, 106 “one another” 78
for obligations 60 “no” 41, 47, 66 “one of ” 97
for offers and requests 18, 20, 58 “only when” 88
in conditional sentences 29, 30 “no sooner” 88 open questions 4, 36, 42
in questions 39, 40 “none” 66 indirect 38
in reported speech 44 non-defining relative clauses 82 reported 47
in short answers 41 opening phrases 38
passive voice with 27 see also defining relative clauses opinions 92
with wishes and regrets 33 non-gradable adjectives 93 “or” 110
see also “could;” “would” non-grading adverbs 100 for suggestions 59
modifiers non-reflexive verbs 78 in questions 47
adverbs 101 “no one” 79 with “either” 68
adjectives with 94 “nor” 68, 110 with ellipsis 89
gradable adjectives 93 ordinal numbers 74
in compound nouns 73 see also “or” organizing phrases 117
prefixes 114 “not” 2, 8, 17 organizing words, informal 120
with comparisons 96 “other” 65
with superlatives 97 for substitution 91 “ought to” 33, 56, 59
“more” 75, 94, 99 in reported speech 46 “our” and “ours” 80
“more and more” 95 “not as...as” and “not so...as” 96 “ourselves” 78
“more… than…” 94 “not enough” 75 “-ous” suffixes 115
“morning” and “afternoon” 107 “not only” 88 “over-” prefixes 114
“most” 76, 97, 99 “not quite” 96 ownership 80, 108
“much” 70, 94 with modal verbs 61
“must” 56, 59 “nothing” 79 P
in deductions 61 nouns R1
in obligations 60 abstract and concrete 72 parallel prepositions 105
“must not” and “mustn’t” 60 adding emphasis to 103 participles 10, 51
“my” and “mine” 80 agreement, with verbs 68
“myself ” 78 and shortened infinitives 90 see also past participles
articles with 63 particles 55
N based on phrasal verbs 55 parts of speech R1
compound 73
names, personal 63 focusing with 87 articles 63, 64, 69, 97
narrative tenses 10, 16 singular and plural 69 conjunctions 89, 110, 111
nationalities, adjectives for 92 with imperatives 6 interjections 41, 47, 120
“nearly” 102 with “no” 66 see also adjectives; adverbs; determiners;
negatives R12 with possessive determiners 80
with prepositions 105, 109, R16 nouns; prepositions; pronouns; verbs
adverbials 88 with suffixes 115 passive voice 24, 28
answers to questions 58 “nowhere near” 96
avoiding repetition in 90, 91 numbers 74, 67 “by” in 108
imperatives 6 quantities 75, 76 in the future 26
in “as...as” comparisons 96 in the past 25
in future tense 17, 18 O with modals 27
in past tense 8, 33 past 16, R6
in present tense 2, 4, 5 object pronouns 77 abilities 57
in reported speech 46 object questions 37, 42 possibilities 62
modal verbs 56, 57 objects recent, with “just” and “already” 101
questions 39, 40 “past,” use in time phrases 107
use of articles in 63 in defining relative clauses 81 past continuous 10, 15, 16, 22
with “but” 110 in passive sentences 24 passive 25
with countable and uncountable nouns 70 in reported speech 47 in reported speech 44
use of articles with 63 past, future in 22
with prepositions 105
with verbs 49, 53, 54 357
reporting verbs 45, 46

past participles 13, 51 prepositions 105, 108, R1, R14–R17 Q
in passive voice 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 dependent 109
in third (unreal past) conditional 29 of place 106 quantifiers 76, 82
regular and irregular 11 of time 107 quantities 70, 76
with verbs 53, 54
past perfect quantity phrases 75
continuous 14, 16 present 5, 34, R4 questions 34, 42, 56
in reported speech 44 for future events 19
in third conditional 29, 31 with future continuous 20 about frequency 102
passive 25 with possibilities 32 about quantities 70
simple 13, 16 with “still” 101 indirect 38
with possibilities 32 in future tense 17, 20
with “wish” 33 present continuous 4, 5, 23 in past simple 9
for future events 19 in present tense 3, 4, 5
past simple 7, 11, 14, 16 in reported speech 44 in reported speech 47
in direct and reported speech 44 passive 24 object and subject 37
in second conditional 29, 31 phrasal verbs in 55 open questions 36
negative 8 with future continuous 20 short 40
passive 25, 28 with present participles 51 tags 39
phrasal verbs in 55 use of articles in 63
questions 9, 34, 39 present participles 10, 51 with “have” 80
short questions 40 present particle 4 with indefinite pronouns 79
with other past tenses 10, 13, 14 present passive 27 with “might” 62
with “there” 85 present perfect R7 question words 35, 36
with unlikely possibilities 32 ellipsis after 89
with “wish” 33 continuous 12, 14, 16 in relative structures 83
in reported speech 44 with “-ever” 84
percentages 74 passive 25 with modal verbs 58
perfect passive 27 simple 11, 12, 16 “quietly” 98
permissions 56, 58 “there has been / have been” 85 “quite” 75, 100
personal pronouns 68, 77 with past participles 51
phrasal verbs 54, 55, R20–R21 with auxiliary verbs 49 R
present possibilities 62
see also three-word phrasal verbs present simple 1, 5, 23 “rarely” 102
“pick up” 55 for future plans 19 “re-” prefixes 114
places, description of 44, 106 in conditional sentences 29, 31 reactions, to statements 120
plans 52 in direct speech 43 “really” 59, 100, 120
“please” 6 negative 2 reasons, in sentences 111
plural forms passive 28 recommendations 59
phrasal verbs in 55 reduced infinitives 90
compound nouns 73 questions in 3, 39, 40 reflexive collocations 78
irregular R24 “pretty” 100 reflexive pronouns 78
nouns and pronouns 69, 77, 78 “probably” 18 regrets 33
subject-verb agreement 71 “promise” 90 “regularly” 102
substitution of 91 promises, using “will” 18 regular past participles 11
use of apostrophes with 80 pronouns 6, 53, 75, R1 regular verbs 7
use of articles with 63, 64 indefinite 79 relative clauses 87, 81, 82
with “both” 68 in reported speech 44 relative pronouns 81
with “there” 85 “none” 66 relative structures 83
with “these” and “those” 65 personal 77 repetition, avoiding 89, 90, 91
see also countable nouns; uncountable nouns possessive 80 reported speech 43
polite English see formal English reflexive 78
positive statements 79 relative 81 questions 47
substitution in 91 “this” and “that” 65 tenses in 44
with “but” 110 with prepositions 105 with negatives 46
with “do” 88 with separable phrasal verbs 55 reporting verbs 28, 45
with question tags 39 pronunciation 74 requests 20, 56, 58
possession 80, 83, 108 intonation 39, 40, 44, 55 results, in sentences 29, 108, 111
possibilities 62 see also stress reversing of words (inversion) 38, 88
in questions 35 proper nouns 69 “right” 120
modal verbs for 56, 59 punctuation R3
predictions 17, 18 apostrophes 80
prefixes 114 see also comma use

358

S speech, parts of see parts of speech “that” 65, 86, 87, R13
spelling rules R23 as relative pronoun 81
“-s” suffixes 1, 5, 69 in passive voice 28
in questions 3 for gerunds 51 with “so” and “such” 103
negatives 2 for plurals 69 see also “this”
to show regular events 107 for suffixes 7, 115
with singular agreement 71 in past simple 7 “the” 63, 64, 97
in present particle 4 “the more... the merrier” 95
“say” and “said” 43, 45 spoken English 120 “the... the better” 95
saying English see pronunciation “although” 111
scene-setting 10 ellipsis 89 “their” and “theirs” 80, R13
second (present unreal) conditional 29, 31 “have got” 80 “them” 68
intonation in 39, 40, 44, 55 “themselves” 78
“if I were you” 59 phrasal verbs 55 “then” 94, 117
with modal verbs 30 questions 38, 39, 40 “there” 28, 41, 85
second person pronouns 77 stalling techniques 120 “therefore” 112
“seem” 119 state verbs 49, 50, R19 “these” and “those” 44, 65
“-self ” and “-selves,” suffixes 78 in present tense 4, 5 “they” 77, 80, R13
sentences, parts of see parts of speech statistics 76 “think” 18
separable phrasal verbs 55, R20 “still” 101 third (past unreal) conditional 29, 30, 31
sequencing phrases and markers 117 “stop” 6 third person 1, 5, 77
“shall” 18, 56, 58 storytelling 10, 16 “this” 43, 45, 65
shapes, adjectives for 92 stress 74, 112
“she” 77, 80, R13 on first syllables 55 see also “that”
shifting focus, in parts of sentences 87 on last syllables 4, 7, 51, 115 “those” and “these” 44, 65
short answers 41 “stronger” 95 “though” 112
shortened words see contractions subject pronouns 77 three-word phrasal verbs 55
short questions 40, 42 subject questions 37, 42 time, descriptions of 15, 107, R26
“should” 36, 56, 59 subjects and verbs 49
“should have” 33 agreement 7, 71 adverbials 88
similar-sounding words 74, R22 inversion of 38, 88 conjunctions as time phrases 113
simple forms 13, 26, 50 subjects in defining relative clauses 81 specific expressions of 19, 44, 86
in present perfect tense 11, 12 subjects in passive voice 24, 25, 28 “-tion” suffixes 115
see also past simple; present simple subjects in questions 34 “to”
“since,” with times or dates 107 in future tense 17 as preposition 105, 109
singular forms, verbs 79 in past tense 9 in reduced infinitives 90
singular forms, nouns 69, 73 in present tense 3, 4 use in time phrases 107
subject-verb agreement 71 subjects in reported speech 47 see also infinitives (verbs)
substitution of 91 subjects with imperatives 6 “tomorrow” 19
use of apostrophes with 80 subordinate clauses 111, 113 “too” 75, 104
use of articles with 64 subordinating conjunctions 111, 113 “totally” 100
with “either” and “neither” 68 substitution 65, 91 transitive verbs 49, 53
with “there” 85 “such” 103, 117
with “this” and “that” 65 suffixes 7, 115 U
see also countable nouns; uncountable nouns “suggest” 119
“-sion” suffixes 115 suggestions 18, 56, 59 UK and US English, differences between
sizes, adjectives for 92 superlative adjectives 97 collective nouns 71
“slightly” 94 superlative adverbs 99 “further” and “furthest” 94
“slower” and “slowest” 99 “suppose” 32 prepositions 107
“so” 18, 88, 103 syllables 74, 94, 97 “quite” 100
as conjunction 110 see also long adjectives; stress short questions 40
as informal organizing word 120 spoken numbers 74
for substitution 91 T subordinate time clauses 111
in comparisons 96 tenses 11
“so that” 111 “tall” and “taller” 94
“some” 63, 64, 76 “tell” and “told” 43, 45 “un-” prefixes 114
for substitution 91 tenses uncertainties 62
in non-defining relative clauses 82 uncountable nouns 64, 70, 75
with countable and uncountable nouns 70 auxiliary verbs to form 49
“someone” and “somebody” 79 in reported speech 43, 44, 47 abstract 72
“something” 79 phrasal verbs in 55 with “enough” 104
“sometimes” 102 see also future; past; present with “there is” 85
specific opinions 92 “than” 94 with zero article 63
speculations see deductions see also countable nouns
“under-” prefixes 114
“underneath” 106
understatements 75
“unique” 93
“unless” 30
unlikely actions and events 29

359

unreal past actions and events 29 W “whoever” 84
“until” 107 “whom” see “who” and “whom”
“us” 68, 77 “want” 53, 87, 90 “whose” 35, 83
“used to” and “use to” 15, 16, 116, R9 “was” and “were” 25 “why” 35
US English see UK and US English, “will” 18, 20, 21, 23, R12-R13
questions 9, 34
differences between in past tense 7, 8, 10 passive voice 26
usually” 102 future in the past 22 in first (real) conditional 30, 31
subject-verb agreement 71 “will be” 85
V “were not” and “weren’t” 8 “will be able to” 57
with “there” 85 “will have to” and ”will not have to” 60
verbal nouns 51 “we” 77, 80, R13 “will not” and “won’t” 18
see also gerunds weather, described with “it” 86 “wish” 33
weighing up arguments 119 wishes 52
verbs 49, 52, R1, R17–R19 “well” 99 “with” and “without” 108, 109
action verbs 4, 5, 50 for stalling 120 “woman” and “women” 69
adjectives after 92 in approximate quantities 76 “won’t be able to” 57
agreement, in sentences 68, 71 “went” 7 word endings (suffixes) 7, 115
described by adverbs 100 “were” see “was” and “were” word order
hedging verbs 119 “what” 35, 87 for formal English 30
in shortened infinitives 90 ellipsis after 89 for questions 34, 38, 40
inversion of subjects and 17, 47, 88 in relative structures 83 inversion 17, 47, 88
negatives with 2, R12 “what if ” 32 “work out” 55
non-reflexive verbs 78 “whatever” 84 “would” 44, 56, 59, R9
objects with 53 “when” 35, 87 contractions of R13
phrasal verbs 55, R20-R21 in conditional sentences 29 future in the past with 22
see also three-word phrasal verbs in questions about frequency 102 in conditional sentences 29, 30, 31
prepositions with 54, 109 in relative structures 83 with “wish” 33
regular and irregular verbs 1, 7 in subordinate time clauses 111 with past habits 15, 16
reporting verbs 28, 47 “whenever” 84 “would like” 90
state verbs 4, 5, 50 “where” 35, 87, 106 “wow” 120
see also base form (verbs), “-ing” suffixes, ellipsis after 89
infinitives (verbs) in relative structures 83 YZ
“whereas” 112
verbs in questions 3, 4, 9, 34 “whereby” 83 “-y” suffixes 69, 115
question tags 39 “wherever” 84 year phrases 80
open questions 36 “whether” 38, 47 “yes” 41, 47
short questions 40 “which” 35, 87 “yet” 101, 110, 112
as relative pronoun 81, 82 “you” 68, 77, 80, R13
“very” 93, 94, 100 “whichever” 84
vowels 63, R2 “while” 111 “your” and “yours” 80, R13
“who” and “whom” 35, 37, 87, R13 “yourself ” and “yourselves” 78
as relative pronoun 81, 82 zero article 63, 64
ellipsis after 89 zero conditional 29, 31

Acknowledgments

The publisher would like to thank:
Carrie Lewis for proofreading; Elizabeth Wise for indexing; Lili Bryant and
Laura Sandford for editorial assistance; Tim Bowen for language advice;
Chrissy Barnard, Amy Child, Alex Lloyd, and Michelle Staples for design
assistance; Gus Scott for additional illustration.

All images are copyright DK. For more information, please visit
www.dkimages.com.

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