The Village Preacher

manner in which he is to lead, or does he cause uneasiness due
to his weaknesses, ignorance and oncompetence? Fazl-ur-
Rahman states fittingly that leaders are those who teach and
guide each member through all levels of life, from the smallest
issues to the biggest scientific discoveries. They are like
representatives of the Prophet, spiritually, morally and
intellectually illumined23. Quwwah or strength embodies the
leader, who, in turn, promulgates it in the society.

‫… إِنَّ َما ا ْلم ْؤ ِمنو َن الَّ ِذي َن إِذَا ذ ِك َر ّل هلا َو ِجلَ ْت قلوبه ْم َوإِذَا ت ِليَ ْت َعلَ ْي ِه ْم آ َياته َزادَتْه ْم‬
‫ِإي َمانا َو َعلَى َر ِبه ِه ْم يَتَ َو َّكلو َن ۝‬

“...believers are those when Allāh is mentioned, feel the
tremor in their hearts, and when they hear His Signs
rehearsed, find their faith strengthened, and put (all) their
trust in their Lord” (Q. 8:2).

Apart from the spiritual, intellectual, social, emotional,
cultural and moral strengths, the leader as well as the society
must embody potencies in knowledge and the know-how, and
possess a robust defence. Abū Hurairah (r.‘a) said that the
Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w.) said,

The strong believer is better and more beloved to Allāh
than the weak believer although there is good in each.

23 Muhammad Faz’l-ul-Rahman (2005): 136
215

Desire that which will bring you benefit, and seek help from
Allāh and do not give way to incapacity […].24

Building and sustaining a society that is characterised by what
the Qur’ān terms as “khaira ummah” (Q. 3:110) and “ummat
wasaṭ” (Q. 2:143) need all aspects of the physical, intellectual,
affectional, spiritual, moral and ethical, cultural and
civilisational strengths, and careful planning, strategising,
striving and persevering – a jihād in all its facets. In this
respect, one must take heed of the Qur’ānic injunction
regarding the manner of unity, cohesion, organisation and
discipline, “… as if they were solid cemented structure” (Q. 61:4).

The Islamic leadership does not violate the rights of
others because it is aware of its accountability towards Allāh
S.W.T., resurrection and the hereafter. The leadership respects
other beliefs and safeguards their rights for Allāh said in the
Qur’ān,

‫َولاَ تَسبُّواْ الَّ ِذي َن يَ ْدعو َن ِمن دو ِن ّل هلاِ فَيَسبُّواْ ّل هلاَ َع ْدوا بِ َغ ْي ِر ِع ْلم َكذَ ِل َك َزيَّنَّا ِلك ِهل‬
‫أ َّمة َع َم َله ْم ث َّم إِلَى َربِه ِهم َّم ْر ِجعه ْم َفينَ ِبهئهم بِ َما َكانواْ يَ ْع َملو َن ۝‬

“Revile not ye those whom they call upon besides Allāh, lest
they out of spite revile Allāh in their ignorance. Thus have
We made alluring to each people its own doings. In the end

24 (Ṣaḥῑḥ Muslim, Qadar, 34). “Striving (Mujāhadah)”, ḥadīth no, 62 Imām al-
Nawāwī (2014), Riyad al-Salihin: The Gardens of the Righteous, New Jersey:
Tughra Books.

216

will they return to their Lord, and We shall then tell them
the truth of all that they did” (Q. 6:108).

In short, a society that radiates with pristine Islamicity is that
which is characterised by being justly balanced – ummatan
wasaṭa – that which is an embodiment of justice, excellence and
strength, with the rightful balance against laxity and mediocrity
on the one hand and extremism and fanaticism on the other25.
Such a society bears witness over mankind and the Prophet
bears witness over it (Q. 2:143) – it exudes with Tawḥīdic
theocentricity and receives barakah or Divine blessings from
Allāh, The Lord Almighty.

‫َوإِ ْذ َقا َل إِ ْب َرا ِهيم َر ه ِب ا ْج َع ْل َهـَذَا بَ َلدا آ ِمنا َوا ْرز ْق أَ ْهلَه ِم َن الثَّ َم َرا ِت َم ْن آ َم َن‬
‫ِم ْنهم ِبال هِلِ َوا ْليَ ْو ِم اْل ِخ ِر َقا َل َو َمن َكفَ َر َفأ َم ِتهعه قَ ِليلا ث َّم أَ ْض َط ُّره ِإلَى َعذَا ِب النَّا ِر‬

‫َوبِئْ َس ا ْل َم ِصير ۝‬
“And remember Abraham said: ‘My Lord, make this a City of
Peace, and feed its people with fruits,- such of them as
believe in Allāh and the Last Day.’ He said: ‘(Yea), and such
as reject Faith - for a while will I grant them their pleasure,
but will soon drive them to the torment of fire - an evil
destination (indeed)!’" (Q. 2:126).

Because such a society is living with devotion and obedience
towards Allāh, it receives Divine blessings and intervention

25 See M. Kamal Hassan, Voice of Islamic Moderation from the Malay World
(Ipoh, Perak: EMIR, 2011); also M. Kamal Hassan, The Need to Understand al-
Wasaṭiyyah (Kuala Lumpur: CENTRIS, IIUM, 2013).

217

from Him in the way that all goodness multiplies and
proliferates to a level beyond that achievable through human
effort.

3. CAPABILITY IN FACING CHALLENGES OF
GLOBALISATION

Allāh The Almighty says in the Qur’ān:-

… ‫… ا ْليَ ْو َم أَ ْك َم ْلت َلك ْم ِدينَك ْم َوأَتْ َم ْمت َع َل ْيك ْم نِ ْع َمتِي َو َر ِضيت َلكم ال ِإ ْسلاَ َم ِدينا‬
“...this day have I perfected your religion for you,
completed my favour upon you, and I have chosen for you
Islam as your religion (dīn)...” (Q. 5:3).

Of the nature of the humankind, He states that “… mankind was
one single nation….” (Q. 2:213). Also,

‫َش َر َع لَكم ِهم َن ال ِدهي ِن َما َو َّصى بِ ِه نوحا َوالَّ ِذي أَ ْو َح ْينَا إِ َل ْي َك َو َما َو َّص ْينَا بِ ِه إِ ْب َرا ِهي َم‬
‫َومو َسى َو ِعي َسى أَ ْن أَ ِقيموا ال ِدهي َن َو َلا تَتَ َف َّرقوا ِفي ِه َكب َر َع َلى ا ْلم ْش ِر ِكي َن َما‬

‫تَ ْدعوه ْم ِإ َل ْي ِه ّل َّلا يَ ْجتَ ِبي إِلَ ْي ِه َمن َي َشاء َو َي ْه ِدي إِلَ ْي ِه َمن ينِيب ۝‬
“The same religion has He established for you as that
which He enjoined on Noah – that which We have sent by
inspiration to thee – that which We enjoined Abraham,
Moses, and Jesus. Namely, that ye should remain steadfast
in religion, and make no divisions therein. To those who
worship other than Allāh, hard is the (way) to which thou
callest them. Allāh chooses to Himself those whom He
pleases, and guides to Himself those who turn (to Him).

218

‫َو َما تَفَ َّرقوا إِ َّلا ِمن َب ْع ِد َما َجاءهم ا ْل ِع ْلم بَ ْغيا بَ ْي َنه ْم َولَ ْو َلا َك ِل َمةٌ َس َب َق ْت ِمن َّربِه َك ِإ َلى‬
‫أَ َجل ُّم َسمى لَّق ِض َي َب ْينَه ْم َوإِ َّن الَّ ِذي َن أو ِرثوا ا ْل ِكتَا َب ِمن بَ ْع ِد ِه ْم َل ِفي َش هك ِهم ْنه‬

‫م ِريب ۝‬
And they became divided only after Knowledge reached
them, through selfish envy between themselves. Had it not
been for a Word that went forth before from thy Lord,
(tending) to a Term appointed, the matter would have
been settled between them. But truly those who have
inherited the Book after them are in suspicious
(disquieting) doubt concerning it.

‫فَ ِلذَ ِل َك فَا ْدع َوا ْستَ ِق ْم َك َما أ ِم ْر َت َو َلا تَتَّ ِب ْع أَ ْه َواءه ْم َوق ْل آ َمنت ِب َما أَن َز َل ّل َّلا ِمن‬
‫ِكتَاب َوأ ِم ْرت ِْلَ ْع ِد َل بَ ْي َنكم ّل َّلا َربُّ َنا َو َربُّك ْم لَ َنا أَ ْع َمالنَا َولَك ْم أَ ْع َمالك ْم َلا ح َّجةَ َب ْينَنَا‬

‫َوبَ ْينَكم ّل َّلا يَ ْج َمع بَ ْينَ َنا َو ِإلَ ْي ِه ا ْل َم ِصير ۝‬
Now then, for that (reason), call (them to Faith), and
stand steadfast as thou art commanded, nor follow thou
their vain desires, but say: “I believe in the Book which
Allāh has sent down; and I am commanded to judge justly
between you. Allāh is our Lord and your Lord: for us is (the
responsibility for) our deeds, and for you for your deeds.
There is no contention between us and you, Allāh will
bring us together, and to Him is (our) final goal” (Q.
42:13-15).

All the revelations in the history of humanity, through all ages
and Prophetic periods hence, point to the One and Only God—
Allāh S.W.T. He is The Creator of all beings in the heavens and
earths, and everything in between.

219

Thus, Islam and the society that pulsates with its
Tawḥīdic spirit transcend the physical limits of time and space.
It is Universal. This being the case, then the Islamic society is by
its precept—global. It is not confined to the ‘followers’ of
Prophet Muḥ ammād (ṣ.‘a.w.). It transcends earthly time from
Ādam (‘a.s.) through all the ages, and all the Prophets till the
Day of Judgement. It also transcends all realms of creations, as
its message is raḥmatan li al-‘ālamīn – mercy onto the worlds.
Therefore, the society with each building block—the
individuals and the families – which breathes and lives by the
spirit of Islam, the Divine Qur’ānic Injunctions and the
Prophetic traditions—strives to internalize and actualize all the
characteristics of theomorphism and theocentricism discussed
above; not only should it be capable of facing the challenges of
globalisation—it should be the force behind globalisation. The
fully functioning Islamic society, in actualising its duties as
Allāh’s khalīfah, should emerge (as promised by Allāh S.W.T.) as
global leaders, the forerunners of the civilisation of virtue and
of truth:

‫كنت ْم َخ ْي َر أ َّمة أ ْخ ِر َج ْت ِللنَّا ِس تَأْمرو َن ِبا ْل َم ْعرو ِف َوتَ ْن َه ْو َن َع ِن ا ْلمن َك ِر َوت ْؤ ِمنو َن‬
‫ِبال هِلِ َو َل ْو آ َم َن أَ ْهل ا ْل ِكتَا ِب َل َكا َن َخ ْيرا لَّهم ِهم ْنهم ا ْلم ْؤ ِمنو َن َوأَ ْكثَرهم ا ْلفَا ِسقو َن‬

Ye are the best of peoples, evolved for mankind, enjoining
what is right, forbidding what is wrong, and believing in
Allāh. If only the People of the Book had faith, it were best

220

for them: among them are some who have faith, but most
of them are perverted transgressors” (Q. 3: 110).

The fervour of imān and the strength of the soul (rūḥ,
nafs, ‘aql and qalb) in the society promulgate conviction and
confidence, motivation and discipline, all of which summit to
progress in the quest of Truth. Out of iḥsān – the love of Allāh
S.W.T. manifests in the love for fellow-beings, animate and
inanimate members of the cosmos, guided by the Qur’ānic
Revelations and the Sunnah of the seal of the Prophets,
Muḥ ammād (ṣ.‘a.w.). Through iḥsān, the social order integrates
the physical, spiritual, intellectual, social and moral aspects of
humanity, and develops and progresses holistically and
comprehensively through tazkiyat al-nafs, ultimately for an
activism that reforms the global society. For a millennium,
while the rest of the world was in the age of darkness and
ignorance, the Islamic society and its civilisation were the
beacon for knowledge, progress and enlightenment, in all true
sense of the word. The Muslims were the powerhouses that
changed the course of global history and the prevalent force
that set the stage for globalisation. This is historically
evidenced through the emulation and the assimilation of
Islamic advancement and culture: everything from Arabic as
the language of progress to elegant arcs, sciences to social
ethics, gravity fed running water to alkali, medical surgeries to
music, and fashions to kahwā. The medieval Europeans, for

221

example, proudly paraded their garbs fashioned after Islamic
styles and designs, such as the embroidering of the beautiful
Arabic and Qur’ānic scripts on to their textiles.

4. THE ANTI-THESIS

The above are the ideals set up by The Almighty through the
examples of His Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w.). Far from being remote ideals,
they have been proven feasible through the millennium of
history from the time of the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w.), the four rightly
guided caliphs (r.‘a.) (al-khulafā’ al-rāshidīn), to countless
generations that came after them. Regardless of the many
challenges they faced, the spirit of the Islamic society was not
only thriving, but was very much alive and was dynamically
pulsating, feasible because Islam is in full harmony and
resonance with the innate nature of humans – it is at peace
with our fiṭrah.

Today, however, Muslim societies have been inflicted and
afflicted by the physical, spiritual, intellectual, emotional,
moral, social and civilisational diseases, due to the lack of
acquaintance to and ignorance in both the revealed and the
acquired knowledge. This undeniably was brought on by the
weakening of the people’s faith, with society progressively
becoming detached from Divine Guidance, inevitably bringing
the ummah to the vicious cycle of the above. When humanity
goes contrary to its inherent fiṭrah, it is in a state of

222

incongruence, resulting in tensions and conflicts. The very
fabric of society – the family – weakens and suffers from
dissolutions. The ensuing void precipitates into the love of the
material world – al-wahn, where greed, materialist and
hedonist cultures, oppressions and manipulations become the
order of the day, as God consciousness dissipates away from
the heart. On the authority of Thawbān, the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w.)
said:

The People will soon summon one another to attack you as
people when eating invites others to share their food.”
Someone asked, “Will that be because of our small numbers
at that time?” He replied, “No, you will be numerous at that
time: but you will be froth and scum like that carried down
by a torrent (of water), and Allāh will take the fear of you
from the breasts (hearts) of your enemy and cast al-wahn
into your hearts.” Someone asked, “O Messenger of Allāh,
what is al-wahn?” He replied, “Love of the world and dislike
of death.26

Placements and installations of incompetent and weak
leaders sometimes come about because of material greed,
which in turn cause internal conflicts and revolts, and, without
doubt break up unity. Today, Muslim societies are among the
top on the list of corruption and backwardness, of

26 An authentic ḥadīth recorded by Abī Dāwūd and Aḥmad, Sunan Abī Dāwūd,
Book 38, ḥadīth 4284.

223

environmental disregard and social instability, of weakness in
character and personal integrity, etc. It is true that a diseased
society is incapable of conceiving strong leadership, but more
so it does not deserve a better one, for weak societies deserve
weak leaders.

َ‫… إِ َّن ّل هلاَ لاَ يغَ ِيهر َما بِ َق ْوم َحتَّى يغَ ِيهرواْ َما بِأَ ْنف ِس ِه ْم َو ِإذَا أَ َرادَ ّل هلا بِ َق ْوم سوءا فَلا‬
‫َم َردَّ لَه َو َما َلهم ِهمن دونِ ِه ِمن َوال ۝‬

“…Verily, Allāh S.W.T. does not change men's condition
unless they change their inner selves; and when Allāh
S.W.T. wills people to suffer evil [in consequence of their
own evil deeds], there is none who could avert it: for they
have none who could protect them from Him” (Q. 13:11).

Inundated by the waves of the contemporary globalisation, the
spiritually withering Muslims are sucked into material greed
and a material rat race; and due to the rust in their internal
compass, lose their bearing, leading them to nowhere. This
condition ‘AbdulḤamīd Abūsulayman (2002) ascribes to the
contemporary Muslims’ lack of clarity of vision.

Indeed, (the) lack of clarity of the Ummah’s vision and its
educated elites’ being dazzled by and imitating the West
without understanding what they are imitating, and
without critically distinguishing the good of the West
from its bad and its pleasant from its rot, in addition to
their confusion and hesitation between knowledgeably
holding on to the good things they have and selecting

224

what is suitable of the good things that others have on
(the) one hand, and being dazzled by and blindly
following what others have, are regarded one of the
causes of their failure and backwardness. This is because
they do not take life seriously and resolutely neither are
they serious and resolute in the path they tread in living
this life. This is regarded as one of the greatest
obstructions to the Ummah’s resurgence and the greatest
hindrance to its reform movement. For, it prevents the
upsurge of its energies, undermines its capabilities and
forms a stumbling block in its way to convey the noble
message it is carrying to the humanity.27

It is of significant import that one examines Ibn Khaldūn’s
prologue to his Muqaddimah written in 1377, where he gives a
thorough critique on the mistakes regularly committed by his
fellow historians and the difficulties which lurk. One may
extrapolate his observations to the circumstances rampant in
contemporary Muslim societies, which no doubt, together with
other important factors, have contributed significantly to the
pathetic condition that the Ummah is in. He notes seven critical
issues, which characterise diseases in Muslim societies:

27 ‘Abdul Ḥamīd AbūSulaymān, Man Between The Two Laws: a Qur’ānic
Perspective in Understanding Self and Understanding The Other, 2002:
http://i-epistemology.net/abdul-hamid-a-abu-sulayman/1143-man-between-
two-laws-a-quranic-perspective-in-understanding-self-and-understanding-
the-other.html, PDF, (accessed 26th August 2013): 40.

225

(i) Partisanship towards a creed or opinion
(ii) Over-confidence in one's sources
(iii) The failure to understand what is intended
(iv) A mistaken belief in the truth
(v) The inability to place an event in its real context
(vi) The common desire to gain favour of those of high

ranks, by praising them, by spreading their fame, and
(vii) The most important is the ignorance of the laws

governing the transformation of human society.28

5. CONCLUSION

At present, it is scarce to find Muslim societies, which live by
collective and concerted adherence to the principles of Islamic
society, as pointed out earlier. In addition, there has not been a
truly successful Islamic leadership in bringing together the
many Muslim nations and communities in the world as a single
collective entity, so we have yet to fulfil the requirements of
being the forerunners in the global scene. The various
contemporary Muslim societies struggle for their survival and
to maintain their Islamic identity, let alone to place and sustain
a niche as a force of globalisation. Due to the prevalent internal
weaknesses, the many Muslim societies may have not qualified

28 Abd Ar Rahman bin Muhammed ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah (Trans.
Franz Rosenthal, 1969, Introductory material to Book One of the Kitab al-
'Ibar), PDF: 5-7.

226

for sustained Divine intervention and help, and thus have failed
to emerge as leaders. Perhaps they have yet to deserve barakah
from The Almighty, or conceivably it is by Allāh S.W.T.’s Design
that Muslim societies have been made to struggle, just as past
Prophets did.

As long as they profess and proclaim their Islamic faith,
there are ideals that need to be striven for – ideals, which may
not be attainable until the final comeback of al-Masīḥ ‘Īsā (‘a.s.)
– nonetheless, for which they have to keep struggling. Allāh
S.W.T. does not account on what is achieved, for achievements
are attained only by His Leave. On the other hand, He, by His
Grace and Mercy, accounts for rightful conduct, sincere efforts
and sustained struggles on His Path, i.e. ‘amal ṣāliḥ and jihād fī
sabīli’Llāh, regardless of their apparent outcomes.

Be that as it may, history testifies that notwithstanding
certain aspects of the practices of the Muslim ummah which did
not adhere to Islamic principles, and because the prevalent
spirit of the people during those periods – the rūḥ that
immersed the peoples of the times was collectively Islamic –
the Muslims were the force behind globalisation. For about a
millennium, they were the global leaders, until the decline that
finally led to the doom of the Othmaniyyah Caliphate in 1922,
which marked the horrific end of the Islamic era.

227

Therefore, the question perhaps is not whether or not a
society founded on Islamic principles is capable of facing
challenges of globalisation. Rather, the Muslims should
question themselves on whether or not they are ready to strive
to reengineer their societies on Islamic principles so that they
are able to fulfil the nature and purpose of creation, their raison
d’être, which is to serve The Lord of the Worlds as the khalīfah
of Allāh S.W.T. on Earth. This is so that not only are they able to
face the challenges of globalisation, but be the very force
behind it – to live by, exemplify, share and spread the beauty of
this dīn of fiṭrah and in so doing, attain al falāḥ.

‫ِص ْبغَةَ ّل هلاِ َو َم ْن أَ ْح َسن ِم َن ّل هلاِ ِص ْب َغة َو َن ْحن لَه َعا ِبدو َن ۝‬
“(Our religion is) the Baptism of Allāh. And who can
baptize better than Allāh. And it is He Whom we worship”
(Q. 2:138).

228

REFERENCES

Abī Dāwud, “Book of Battles (Kitāb al-Malahim), Sunan Abī Dāwud,
Retrieved Mach 1st 2009. http://sunnah.com/abudawud/39/7.

AbūSulaymān, ‘AbdulḤ amīd. (2002). Man Between The Two Laws: a
Qur’ānic Perspective in Understanding Self and Understanding The
Other. Retrieved 26th August 2013. http://i-
epistemology.net/abdul-hamid-a-abu-sulayman/1143-man-
between-two-laws-a-quranic-perspective-in-understanding-self-
and-understanding-the-other.html. PDF

Al-Ansaari, Muhammad Fazl-ul-Rahman. (2005). The Qur’ānic Foundations
and Structure of Muslim Society. Vol I. Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Book
Trust.

Mohd. Kamal Hassan. (2011). Voice of Islamic Moderation from the Malay
World. Ipoh, Perak: EMIR.

Mohd. Kamal Hassan. (2013). The Need to Understand Al-Wasaṭiyyah.
Kuala Lumpur: CENTRIS, IIUM.

Muhammed ibn Khaldun, Abd Ar Rahman. The Muqaddimah. (Trans. Franz
Rosenthal, 1969). PDF.

Yūsuf ‘Alī, ‘Abdullah. (1992). The Meaning of The Holy Qur’ān. Maryland,
USA: Amana Corporation.

Sahih Bukhari. Retrieved Mach 1st 2009.
http://www.Islamicity.com/mosque/sunnah/bukhari/.

229

THE AUTHENTICITY OF THE QUR’ĀN AND THE
SUNNAH, ATTACKS BY ORIENTALISTS
AND THE RESPONSE


Sevgi Atundal Hajdari 1

1 Submitted for The Qur’ān and Sunnah: Foundations of Islamic Personality,
Society and Culture, no date. (Ed.)

230

1. INTRODUCTION

Sacred texts have always been the first source to be used in
intellectual discourses on religion – whether with the spirit of
submission, empathy or vested animosity. In order to preserve
and secure the foundation of Islam, the authenticity of the
religious texts and the reliability of the Sunnah are often
studied exhaustively. Islam and its revealed Book, the Qur’ān,
together with Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w) and his tradition, the
Sunnah – are not spared from attacks from those with vested
animosity. Many orientalist writers have published voluminous
books to create suspicious doubts around the origin and the
authenticity of the Qur’ān and the historical records on the life
of Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w).

However, the authentication of the Qur’ānic text and the
Ḥadīth literature have been established through careful and
painstaking processes by well renowned Muslim scholars
centuries ago, before the Orientalists. This field of study has
developed much since its genesis, on both objective and
subjective grounds. When studying such a delicate issue, the
early Muslim scholars placed great emphasis on the
preservation, compilation and transmission of these sources.
This endeavour has been scientifically carried out by many
generations as part of the intellectual inquisitive worldview of
Muslims due to the command given in the Qur’ānic verse,

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‫َيا أَيُّ َها الَّ ِذي َن آ َمنوا إِن َجاءك ْم فَا ِس ٌق ِبنَبَأ َفتَبَيَّنوا أَن ت ِصيبوا قَ ْوما بِ َج َها َلة َفت ْصبِحوا‬
‫َعلَى َما َف َع ْلت ْم َنا ِد ِمي َن ۝‬

“O ye who believe! If a wicked person comes to you with
any news, ascertain the truth, lest ye harm people
unwittingly, and afterwards become full of repentance for
what ye have done” (Q. 49:6).

It is only natural that such diligence is given to the Qur’ānic text
and the Ḥadīth literature as they are the most authoritative
sources in Islamic belief and practice.

These studies mostly include the Sunnah and the inquiry
of the Qur’ān because it is quite impossible to discuss the
Qur’ānic text without authentication from the Ḥadīth literature.
By virtue of this, the life of Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w) has
been an independent field of study, namely the Sīrah, to both
Muslim and non-Muslim scholars. The non-Muslim scholars of
Islamic Studies are divided into two groups: one the real
knowledge seekers with an intention to study Islam as part of
the world’s religions, and the second group not as congenial.
The latter group started to evolve since the Crusades, with an
intention of carrying the Mission of Christianity to the
‘heathens’ of Arabia. Later, the annals of history witnessed
almost all the ‘under-developed’ nations of the world, having
had a share from this missionary movement. This particular
group’s intention was to prove Islam wrong. The studies done
and literature produced with such a motive were tainted with

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the bias predisposed against all matters Islamic. This wave of
Orientalism gave rise to a defensive field of study by Muslim
scholars, who wrote responses to the accusations of the
attackers.

Since the Revelation of the Qur’ān, studies in this genre
exist in a variety of languages, showing the enormity of the
field. Muḥammad Hamidullah, in the preface of his book on the
history of the Qur’ān in the Turkish language,2 aspires that his
work stimulates the young generation to master the knowledge
of the Qur’ān and to put up an (intellectual) battlefront against
its enemies. It has been a constant endeavour of the
Orientalists to show that the Qur’ān is a product of the human
mind and hand. This claim, which is as old as the Qur’ān itself –
beginning with the unbelievers of Mecca, has been rehearsed
throughout history.

Debates around the authenticity of the Qur’ān evolve
mainly around three accusations: First, it is argued that the
Qur’ān is a composition of Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w), who
had made preparations by cultivating skills of poetry in his
early age and that he had borrowed ideas and information from
Judaism and Christianity. Second, notwithstanding the agreed
upon premise that the Qur’ān is a Revelation from God – the

2 Muhammad Hamidullah, Kur’ani Kerim Tarihi: ozellikleri, tedvini, Turkce ve
bati dillerine yapilan tercumeleri, (Salih Tug Trans.) (Istanbul: Marmara
Universitesi Ilahiyat Fakultesi Vakfi Yayinlari, 1993).

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same God of Jesus and Moses who had revealed the Torah and
the Bible, the compilations and preservations of which were
done after the death of the respective Prophets. Therefore, just
like the former two Books, the Qur’ān has changed in the
course of history. Third, the revelation was not written from
the beginning, thus, the existing Qur’ān came into being
through a process of evolution and growth over the first two
centuries of Islam. These ideas sowed the seeds of bias in the
work of the Orientalist writers on Islam. Above all, the
Orientalists’ translations of the Qur’ān have been used to serve
the purpose of deceiving the non-Arabic speaking masses,
together with false biographical accounts of Prophet
Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w). This has been the strategy of the
Orientalists, capitalising on Islam’s two primary sources of
religious knowledge, namely the Holy Qur’ān and the Sunnah of
the Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w).

The authenticity of the Qur’ān and its history from the
first revelation to its compilation has been the object of serious
study by a number of Muslim scholars.

2. HISTORY OF THE QUR’ĀN AND ITS PRESERVATION
The German scholar Muḥammad Asad describes the Qur’ān as,

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“…the ultimate manifestation of God’s grace for man, the
ultimate wisdom, and the ultimate beauty of expression:
in short, the Word of God.”3

The term Qur’ān means ‘recitation’ and it occurs several times
in the text itself, sometimes it refers to a part of the text or
sometimes to the entire collection. In Islam, the recitation of
the Qur’ān is the most direct connection between the believers
and God. The Words in the Qur’ān are God’s communication to
humankind. Consequently, the art of recitation is highly valued
by all Muslims to the extent that there are specific disciplines
such as the tajwīd and tartīl related to it. Muslims read and
hear the Qur’ān day and night on the streets, in mosques, at
home and while travelling. This is because the recitation and
participation as a thoughtful listener to the recitation are
considered as acts of worship in Islam. All these recitations,
with their textual scripts, are all the same regardless of the
differences in cultures and tongues across the globe. In a
discussion on the authenticity of the Qur’ān, the first thing to
study is the Qur’ān itself. The Qur’ān, in the manner that it was
revealed to Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w) in fragments, has
responses for all kinds of accusations, even to future inquiries.
As the Words of God, the Qur’ān speaks for itself.

3 Muhammad Asad, “Foreword” in The Message of The Quran (United
Kingdom: The Book Foundation, 2004) i-ii.

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3. RELEVANCE TO TIME

The Qur’ān is the irrefutable, inimitable Word of God. It was
revealed by Allāh Ta‘āla to the Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w)
over a period of twenty-three years. All the verses are relevant
to the people and the environment around its revelation. If
there were any such irrelevancy, the unbelievers of Mecca
would have not hesitated to bring it out since it would have
supported their claims, as the following Qur’ānic verse
narrates,

‫ا ْقتَ َر َب ِت ال َّسا َعة َوان َش َّق ا ْلقَ َمر ۝ َوإِن َي َر ْوا آ َية ي ْع ِرضوا َو َيقولوا ِس ْح ٌر ُّم ْستَ ِم ٌّر ۝‬
‫َو َكذَّبوا َواتَّ َبعوا أَ ْه َواءه ْم َوك ُّل أَ ْمر ُّم ْستَ ِق ٌّر ۝ َو َل َق ْد َجاءهم ِهم َن ا ْْلَنبَاء َما ِفي ِه‬
‫م ْزدَ َج ٌر ۝ ِح ْك َمةٌ َبا ِلغَةٌ فَ َما ت ْغ ِن النُّذر ۝ فَتَ َو َّل َع ْنه ْم يَ ْو َم َي ْدع الدَّاعِ إِ َلى َش ْيء‬
‫نُّكر ۝ خ َّشعا أَ ْب َصاره ْم يَ ْخرجو َن ِم َن ا ْْلَ ْجدَا ِث َكأَنَّه ْم َج َرادٌ ُّمنتَ ِش ٌر ۝ ُّم ْه ِط ِعي َن‬

‫ِإلَى الدَّاعِ َيقول ا ْل َكا ِفرو َن َهذَا يَ ْو ٌم َع ِس ٌر ۝‬
“The Hour (of Judgement) is nigh, and the moon is cleft
asunder. But if they see a Sign, they run away, and say, this
is (but) transient magic. They reject (the warning) and
follow their (own) lusts but every matter has its appointed
time. There have already come to them Recitals wherein
there is (enough) to check (them), Mature wisdom; but
(the preaching of) Warners profits them not. Therefore, (O
Prophet) turn away from them. The day that the Caller
will call (them) to a terrible affair, They will come forth,
their eyes humbled from (their) graves, (torpid) like
locusts scattered abroad, Hastening, with eyes transfixed,

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towards the Caller! – “Hard is this Day!” The Unbelievers
will say” (Q. 54: 1-8).

3.1 Authorship of Qur’ān and its Divine Origin
The Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w) played absolutely no role in authoring the
Qur’ān, but was purely inspired to speak what he heard from
the Divine Creator that was brought to him through the
Archangel Jibrīl:

‫َو َما يَن ِطق َع ِن ا ْل َه َوى ۝ ِإ ْن ه َو إِ َّلا َو ْح ٌي يو َحى ۝‬
“Not does he (Prophet Muḥammad) say (aught) of (his
own) Desire. It is no less than inspiration sent down to
him” (Q. 53: 3-4).

If there was any doubt about the Prophet’s authorship of the
Qur’ān then again the unbelievers of Mecca would have argued
thus.

3.2 Uniqueness in its Language and Style
The Qur’ān was revealed in the Arabic language. It is composed
in a unique style that cannot be copied or replicated by anyone
at any time. In the Qur’ān, Allāh Ta‘āla challenges mankind to
produce anything similar to the Qur’ān if he thinks he can:

‫أَ ْم يَقولو َن ا ْفتَ َراه ق ْل َفأْتواْ بِسو َرة ِهمثْ ِل ِه َوا ْدعواْ َم ِن ا ْستَ َط ْعتم ِهمن دو ِن ّل هلاِ إِن كنت ْم‬
‫َصا ِدقِي َن ۝‬

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“Or do they say, he forged it? Say: bring then a like unto it,
and call (to your aid) anyone you can, besides Allāh, if it be
ye speak the truth!” (Q. 10: 38).

Due to the unique style in its language, the Qur’ān is not only
highly readable, but also relatively easy to remember. This
latter aspect has played an important role not only in the
preservation of the Qur’ān, but also in the spiritual life of
Muslims as well. Allāh Ta‘āla declares in the Book,

‫أَ ْم يَقولو َن ا ْفتَ َراه ق ْل َفأْتواْ بِسو َرة ِهمثْ ِل ِه َوا ْدعواْ َم ِن ا ْستَ َط ْعتم ِهمن دو ِن ّل هلاِ ِإن كنت ْم‬
‫َصا ِدقِي َن ۝‬

“And we have indeed made the Qur’ān easy to
understand and remember: then is there any that will
receive admonition?” (Q. 54: 17).

The Qur’ān emphasizes on being a book in the Arabic language
on more than one occasion,

‫َو ِإنَّه لَتَن ِزيل َر ه ِب ا ْلعَا َل ِمي َن ۝ َن َز َل بِ ِه ال ُّروح ا ْْلَ ِمين ۝ َع َلى َق ْل ِب َك ِلتَكو َن ِم َن‬
‫ا ْلمن ِذ ِري َن ۝ بِ ِل َسان َع َربِ هي ُّمبِين ۝‬

“Verily this is a Revelation from the Lord of the Worlds:
With it came down the Spirit of Faith and Truth, to thy
heart and mind, that thou mayest admonish, in the
perspicuous Arabic tongue” (Q. 26: 192-195).

3.3 Preserved in Its Original Form Since the 14th Century

One of the most important characteristics of the Qur’ān is that
it remains as it was to the present day. It has never changed

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and remains free from any form of adulteration. The Qur’ān
was written down during the lifetime of the Prophet and under
his close supervision. It was compiled together shortly after his
death by a rigorous method, which scrutinized both the written
and the oral traditions. Thus its authenticity is unblemished,
and its preservation is seen as the fulfilment of Allāh Ta‘ālā’s
promise:

‫إِنَّا َن ْحن نَ َّز ْلنَا ال ِذه ْك َر َوإِنَّا لَه لَ َحافِظو َن ۝‬
“We have, without doubt, sent down the message; and we
will assuredly guard it (from corruption)” (Q. 15: 9).

The above discussion is but a small window of the
Qur’ān’s detailed answers to the claims of the unbelievers,
through the Divine Words inscribed on its pages. In addition to
this, the Muslim scholars widely inspired by these themes in
the Qur’ān, have put up a great effort in contributing further to
this discussion. Their views paved the way for other Muslim
writers to understand the value of the Qur’ān. These views
shall be included in the discussion on the content of the Qur’ān.

4. CONTENT OF THE QUR’ĀN

Fazl-ur-Rahman Ansari, in his book The Qur’ānic Foundation
and Structure of Muslim Society, writes on the era in which the
Qur’ān was revealed and the necessity of Divine Revelation.
According to Fazl-ur-Rahman, the Qur’ān gives “a well-
coordinated system of belief, a fully integrated philosophy and

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a comprehensive code of practice”.4 With its comprehensive
content, the Qur’ān provides the necessary spiritual and
intellectual nourishments that human beings need. It includes
the Oneness of God, the purpose of human existence, a way of
life with faith and God-consciousness, the Hereafter and its
significance. The Qur’ān also lays heavy emphasis upon
reasoning and understanding. The Qur’ān not only goes beyond
satisfying the human intellect, but also causes one to reflect on
its implications.

4.1 Historical Process

The Holy Qur’ān was revealed to Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w)
in intervals. It took altogether 23 years and out of it, 13 years
were in Mecca while 10 years were in Madinah. As soon as
Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w) received the Revelation, he related
the verses and used them in his communications to his
companions and people. They used to learn the verses by heart
and wrote them down and made copies. The recording of the
Qur’ānic verses were written as early as the revelation itself.
Historical evidences show that ‘Umar ibn Khaṭṭāb is the fortieth
Muslim, which refers to the 5th year of Muḥammad’s (ṣ.‘a.w)
Prophethood or nubuwwah, yet he embraced Islam through
reading a leaflet of the written text, the rest of which had been

4 Muhammad Fazl-ur-Rahman Ansari, The Quranic Foundation and Structure
of Muslim Society (Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Book Trust, 2001), xxvi.

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studied extensively by the believers since the very first
Revelation. During the life time of Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w),
the Qur’ān was recited in congregation as well as individually
as an act of worship. The most prominent of these occasions
was the Prophet’s recitation of the Qur’ān with the Archangel
Jibrīl in the month of Ramaḍān, which was done annually. It
was during these sessions that the recitations as well as the
order of the Revelation were reaffirmed.5

On the subject of the preservation of the Qur’ān, one of
the most authoritative texts in the English language is by
Mustafa ‘Azami. From his exhaustive study on the history of the
Qur’ān from revelation to compilation, we learn that the
method of verification of the textual authenticity was employed
by Zayd ibn Thābit. This was one of the most reliable methods
that would be readily acceptable even today. It is well known
that Zayd ibn Thābit had been assigned by Abū Bakr, the first
caliph, the task to compile a complete copy of the Qur’ān so that
it would serve as a reference copy against which all written
Qur’ānic texts could be checked for accuracy. Zayd was most
suited for the task given by the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w). He was
endowed with superb intelligence, a sharp memory, good
education and experience in recording the Qur’ānic Revelation.
He had carried out Abū Bakr’s instructions of accepting only

5 Muhammad Hamidulla, Introduction to Islam (Pakistan: Sh. Muhammad
Ashraf, Publishers, 1979)

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the written text to which two witnesses would testify to having
been written as dictated by the Prophet in their presence.6

The author, ‘Azami, compares the 20th century
methodology in verifying the authenticity and reliability of
historical manuscripts with that which Zayd Ibn Thābit had
established over 1,400 years ago. It was found that Zayd
applied the same stringent criteria required by the best
academic institutions. It is well known that Zayd completed the
task as assigned to him by Abū Bakr and handed to the first
caliph a complete and accurate copy of the Qur’ān. Abū Bakr
died less than two years after the Prophet’s death. Barely 15
years later, ‘Uthmān, the third caliph, wanted to send reference
copies of the Qur’ān to the main population centres of the
Muslim state. He assigned the task rightfully to Zayd ibn Thābit.
Zayd did not simply make copies of the Qur’ān, as would be the
most likely course by anyone charged with a similar project. He
painstakingly repeated the entire procedure of his first effort,
starting from scratch, but this time produced eight standard
copies. Working under the guidance of ‘Uthmān, who was long
recognized as a top authority on the Qur’ān, Zayd and his
committee of four thoroughly knowledgeable companions of
the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w), produced a newly collated master copy,

6 Muhammad Mustafa ‘Azami, The History of The Quranic Text From
Revelation To Compilation: A Comparative Study With The Old and New
Testament (England: UK Islamic Academy, 2003), 78-86.

242

and made the required number of copies. It was at this point
that Uthmān recalled the original first copy, kept by Ḥafṣah bint
‘Umar, the Prophet’s widow, so that a thorough comparative
check could be undertaken. This was yet another exercise
aimed at ensuring accuracy. Thus we realize that ‘Uthmān did
not opt for the easy task of copying the first master work.
Instead, he undertook a thorough task of re-verification,
authentication and validation unequalled in the history of any
nation or religion. Hence, he thoroughly deserves the historical
honour of being associated with the most important task of
preserving the Qur’ān intact as in its original form. The task
had lent the additional benefit of checking the accuracy of the
copies of the Sūrahs and passages of the Qur’ān held by
individuals who were keen to learn it.7

5. ḤADĪTH LITERATURE AND HISTORY

The term Ḥadīth means ‘new’ or ‘recent’ in its literal sense.
Technically, there are different definitions. According to Ḥadīth
scholars, Ḥadīth means what was transmitted on the authority
of the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w), his sayings, deeds, tacit approvals, or
description of his physical features and moral behaviours. On
the other hand, the term sunnah literally means ‘path, way or
habit’ whether it is good or bad. In a religious sense, it applies
to the Prophetic way, the law he brought and taught as an

7 Ibid, 87-108.

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explanation or further clarification of a Divinely Revealed Book.
Some of the scholars included the words and deeds of the
companions and successors in the definition of Sunnah.

The Sunnah of Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w) is transmitted
to us through his companions and successors. These narrations
include any kind of exemplary actions of the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w)
for the Muslims. Each narration is composed of two parts: the
isnād (the chain of people who narrated a particular narration)
and the matn (the actual text of the narration). The isnād must
comprise the individuals, whose uprightness, sincerity and
integrity are without question.8

6. ḤADĪTH AND SUNNAH
The speech of Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w) refers to his sayings.
For example, he said:

Actions are judged by their intention; everyone will be
rewarded according to his/her intention. So whoever
migrates for the sake of Allāh and His Prophet then his
migration will be noted as a migration for the sake of Allāh
and His Prophet. Conversely, one who migrates only to
obtain something worldly or to marry a woman, then his

8 Fathiddin Beyanouni, Methodology of Learning and Evaluating Hadis in the
First Century of Islam (Kuala Lumpur: Research Center, IIUM, 2006), xxiii.

244

migration will be worth what he had intended (Ṣaḥīḥ al-
Bukhārī).9

His actions, on the other hand, pertain to anything he did, as
authentically reported by the companions. For instance, a
companion of the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w), Ḥudhayfah, reported that
whenever the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w) got up at night, he would clean
his teeth with a tooth-stick. Also, his wife, ‘Ā’ishah, reported
that the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w) loved to do everything starting with
the right side – putting on shoes, walking, cleaning himself and
in all his affairs generally. His silent approvals on different
issues meant he did not oppose or mind what he heard or knew
of the actions or sayings of his companions. On one occasion,
for instance, the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w) learnt of the actions by some
of his companions from the other companions. Soon after the
battle of Khandaq, Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w) gave the order
to the companions to move quickly to surround the tribe of
Banῑ Quraydhah, encouraging them to hurry so that perhaps
they would pray ‘asr there. Some of the companions of the
Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w) responded immediately and left without
praying ‘asr. They arrived after sunset, pitched camp and
prayed ‘asr – after sunset. At the same time another group of
companions formulated their judgment differently. They
thought that the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w) was merely encouraging them
to hasten to their destination, rather than delay ‘asr until after

9 Ibid, 3.

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sunset. Consequently, they decided to stay in Madinah until
they had prayed ‘asr. Immediately thereafter, they hastened
towards the tribe of Banu Quraydhah. When the Prophet
(ṣ.‘a.w) was told of how each group responded differently to his
announcement, he (ṣ.‘a.w) affirmed both judgments (Ṣaḥīḥ al-
Bukhārī, Book of Friday Prayer, Ḥadīth no: 894).10

Everything authentically narrated concerning the
Prophet’s (ṣ.‘a.w) complexion and the rest of his physical
features are also included in the definition of the Sunnah. For
instance, Umm Ma‘bad described what she saw of the great
Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w). She said,

I saw a man, his face radiant with a bright glow, not too
thin or too fat, elegant and handsome. His eyes had a
deep black hue with long eyelashes. His voice was
pleasant and his neck long. He had a thick beard. His long
black eyebrows were beautifully arched and connected to
each other. In silence, he remained dignified,
commanding utmost awe and respect. When he spoke,
his speech was brilliant. Of all people, he was the most
handsome and the most pleasant, even when
approaching from a distance. In person, he was unique
and most admirable. Graced with eloquent logic, his
speech was moderate. His logical arguments were well
organized as though they were a string (of) gems. He was

10 Ismail ‘Abdullah & Shayuthy ‘Abdul Manas, Introduction to The Science of
Hadis (Kuala Lumpur: research Center, IIUM, 2006), 14.

246

not too tall or too short, but exactly in between. Among
three, he appeared the most radiant and most vibrant. He
had companions who affectionately honoured him. When
he spoke, they listened to him attentively. When he gave
orders, they were quick to execute them. They rallied
around him guarding him. He never frowned or spoke
frivolously. (al-Ḥakim)

Along with his physical features, his companions also described
his habits and behaviour with people. Once, Anas (r.‘a)
reported:

I served the Prophet of Allāh (ṣ.‘a.w) for ten years. Never
once did he so much as express any bit of displeasure nor
did he ever ask, ‘Why did you do it?’ for something I did
or ‘Why didn’t you do it?’ for something I didn’t do.

We see from the above examples which include all types of
Sunnah that guides the life of Muslims in accordance to the
Qur’ān and the examples set by the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w), whose life
embodied the authority given from Allāh Ta‘āla .

6.1 The Importance and the Authority of the Sunnah

Since the exemplary life of Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w) is a
form of guidance to the Muslims, it is authoritative in its nature.
Once a Muslim learns of the authenticity of any narration, he or
she is obliged to follow and obey it accordingly. Such obedience
is mandated by Allāh as He declares in the Qur’ān,

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‫يَا أَيُّ َها الَّ ِذي َن آ َمنواْ أَ ِطيعواْ ّل هلاَ َو َرسو َله َولاَ تَ َولَّ ْوا َع ْنه َوأَنت ْم تَ ْس َمعو َن ۝‬
“O ye who believe! Obey Allāh and His Messenger, and turn
not away from him when ye hear (Him speak)” (Q. 8: 20).

‫أَيُّ َها الَّ ِذي َن آ َمنواْ أَ ِطيعواْ ّل هلاَ َوأَ ِطيعواْ ال َّرسو َل َوأ ْو ِلي اْلَ ْم ِر ِمنك ْم فَإِن تَ َنا َز ْعت ْم‬
‫ِفي َش ْيء فَردُّوه ِإ َلى ّل هلاِ َوال َّرسو ِل إِن كنت ْم ت ْؤ ِمنو َن ِبال هِلِ َوا ْليَ ْو ِم اْل ِخ ِر ذَ ِل َك َخ ْي ٌر‬

‫َوأَ ْح َسن تَأْ ِويلا ۝‬
“O ye who believe! Obey Allāh, and obey the Messenger,
and those charged with authority among you. If ye differ
in anything among yourselves, refer it to Allāh and His
Messenger, if ye believe in Allāh and the Last Day: that is
best, and most suitable for final determination” (Q. 4:59).

These verse of the Qur’ān clearly indicate that the original
sources of knowledge in Islam are only two: the Holy Qur’ān
and the Sunnah of the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w). The first addresses the
companions of the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w). It was they who were the
first to be told that they should refer to the Qur’ān (refer to
Allāh) and the Sunnah (and His Prophet) in case of a difference
of opinion in any matter pertaining to the dīn or religion.11
Therefore, only these two can be considered as the principal
sources of religious knowledge by the Muslims. All other
sources of religious guidance are subservient to them.

11 Beyanouni, Methodology of Learning and Evaluating Hadith…, 25.
248

6.2 Transmission and Preservation of the Sunnah

The transmission of the practices and sayings of the holy
Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w) from one person to another, thus becomes
necessary during the Prophet’s lifetime. In fact, the Prophet
(ṣ.‘a.w) himself used to give instruction with regard to the
transmission of what he taught. The popular Western idea was
that the people felt the need for the Sunnah only after the death
of Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w) is thus negated.12

The record from the early years of the Islamic call to
prayer shows that the companions of the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w) were
well aware of this importance of preserving the tradition for
the future generation. Hense, they did not only keep them in
their memory, but even resorted to pen and ink for their
preservation. As the chain of transmission of Aḥadīth went on,
it became evident that some were being forged. Therefore,
scholars of Ḥadīth formulated numerous methods of evaluation
by which genuine Aḥadīth could be sifted out of the mess of
forgeries. These methods belong to either of the two disciplines
essential for investigating the authenticity of Ḥadīth: al-‘ilm al-
riwāyah and al-‘ilm al-dirāyah.

a) ‘Ilm al-riwāyah, which has many branches, involves the
investigation of the complete chain of narrators going

12 Muhammad Hamidullah, The Life and Works of The Prophet of Islam (New
Delhi: Adam Publishers, 2007), 3-17.

249

back to the original narrator of a particular version of
the Ḥadīth in question. This science, thus, investigates
the bona fides, the moral character, truthfulness, and
the power of memory of the narrators.
b) Ilm al-dirāyah, on the other hand, investigates the
authenticity of a Ḥadīth by determining whether or not
its subject-matter is acceptable.

A Ḥadīth is accepted only when its authenticity has been
established on the basis of both ‘ilm al-riwāyah and ‘ilm al-
dirāyah. Therefore, a Ḥadīth can be regarded as a source of
religious guidance only if the basis of that Ḥadīth exists in the
Qur’ān or the Sunnah or the established principles of human
nature and intellect. Moreover, it should not be contradictory
to any of these bases and should have been transmitted by
reliable sources. A Ḥadīth, which meets these criteria, are
accepted as truthful records of the Sunnah and of the
information pertaining to Islam.13

We find that many of the Prophet’s (ṣ.‘a.w) companions
recorded Aḥadīth. This is in the spirit of facilitating them to
remember the Ḥadīth. For example, ‘Abdullah Ibn ‘Amr was
permitted and even encouraged by the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w) to write

13 Muhammad Hashim Kamali, Hadith Methodology: Usul al-Hadith
Authenticity, Compilation, Classification and Criticism of Hadith (Kuala
Lumpur: Ilmiah Publishers, 2002), 15-30.

250

down Ḥadīth. In addition, some 50 companions and many
followers were said to have possessed manuscripts (ṣaḥīfah,
Arabic plural ṣuhūf), which was used as a term to designate a
compendia of Aḥadīth that emerged during the century before
the formation of the classical collections. The original
manuscripts have been lost, but few copies survive. An example
is the manuscript of Hammām Ibn Munabbih, who learnt from
Abū Hurairah and from him, he wrote his manuscript, which
contained 138 Aḥadīth. The manuscript was believed to have
been written around the middle of the first century after the
Hijrah (7th century CE).14

In the beginning of the second Hijri century, during the
reign of ‘Umar Ibn ‘Abdul ‘Azīz (715-19 CE), the texts of Aḥadīth
were committed to writing. These were collected in Syria,
Egypt, Iraq, Yemen, and Khurasan. Leading theologians uttered
some statements warning against unscrupulous reporters and
their unreliable reports. Imām Mālik (d. 179 AH) was the first
to undertake the comprehensive and systematic compilation of
the Aḥadīth. His work is known as al-Muwaṭṭā’ (The Trodden
Path). Later, other compilations came into existence. In this
regard, it is very important to note that there are two kinds of
compilations: musnad and muṣannaf. In the musnad collections,

14 Muhammad Hamidullah, An Introduction To The Conservation of Hadith In
The Light of The Sahifah of Hammam Ibn Munabbih (Kuala Lumpur: Islamic
Book Trust, 2003), 21.

251

Ḥadīth are arranged alphabetically under the names of the
companions on whose authority these Aḥadīth were reported.
An example of this kind is the Musnad of Ibn Ḥanbal (d. 241
AH). In the muṣannaf collections, Aḥadīth are recorded under
various headings dealing with juridical subjects such as Al-
Sihah al-Sittah (The six Authentic Books of Aḥadīth), namely the
compilations of al-Bukhārī (d. 256 AH), Muslim (d. 261 AH), al-
Nasā‘i (d. 303 AH), Abū Dawūd (d. 275 AH), al-Tirmīdhī (d. 279
AH), and Ibn Mājah (d. 273 AH).15

7. ORIENTALISTS’ CLAIMS AGAINST THE
AUTHENTICITY OF THE QUR’ĀN AND THE SUNNAH
AND THE RESPONSES OF MUSLIMS

Orientalism is the study of the Near and Far-Eastern societies
and cultures from the West. It can also be referred to as the
imitation or depiction of aspects of the eastern cultures in the
West by writers, designers, and artists. The first meaning of the
term is mainly used to refer to the study of the East during the
period of the European imperialism in the 18th and 19th
centuries. Today the ‘Orientalists’ we study are mainly those
19th century scholars who translated the writings of the Orient
into English based on the supposition that an effective colonial
conquest required knowledge of the conquered peoples. This is

15 Al-Qazwīnī The Book of Continuous Reports by Single Narrators Collected In
Brochures and Copies Thereof, As Reported On The Authority of The Chief of
God’s Messenger (Islamabad: Pakistan Hijrah Council, 1991), 1-15.

252

the idea of knowledge as a power exposed by Edward Said (a
Palestinian scholar). Edward Said thinks that by knowing the
Orient, the West came to own it. According to Said, it is
imperialism which motivated Orientalism. Orientalism in its
specific meaning refers to the studies by Western scholars on
Islam extensively. These studies mostly approach the subjects
from a critical perspective and analyse the religion with
existing predispositions.

There are different views on when and how the Western
study of Islam started, which could be traced back to the
Prophet’s (ṣ.‘a.w) time or, for some others, at the time of the
Crusades. In his introduction to the topic of Orientalism, Sanuri
explains:

Many experts have different viewpoints of when and who
was originally the first Western learner [of] Islam. Some
said that it began from the Mu’tah war (8 H), while some
others said that it started from Tabūk war (9 H) when the
first contact between Romans and Muslims happened.
However, some others experts commented that it
occurred when the crush side broke in Andalusia (488
H), mainly after King Alphonse VI had dominated Toledo
in 488 H/1085 A.C. The others also agreed that it had
continuously been taking place since the Europeans felt
distorted by the expanse of Muslim after the failing down
of Istanbul in 857 H/1453 A.C. under the Muslim empire.
The European needed to block the Muslim’s expansion.

253

However, the matter to be noted is that the people like
Jerbert de Oraliac (938-1003 A.C.), Adelard (1070-1135
A.C.), Pierre Le Venerable (1094-1156 A.C.), Gerard de
Gremona (1114-1187 A.C.), Leonardo Fibonacci (1170-
1241 A.C.) had ever lived in Andalusia to learn Islam at
the leading cities such as Toledo, Cordova, Seville, and
etc.. At that time they came back to their hometown, it
was still dominated by Andalusia, they informed
European countries about Islam. Jerbert de Oraliac
established two Arabic schools and he himself was as a
Pope Silvestre II (999-1003 A.C.). Both were at Romania,
where he took an office and another one was in his
hometown, France. Even, Robert of Chester (popular
between 1141-1148 A.C.) and his colleague, Herman
Alemanus (d. 1172 A.C.) after their coming back from
Andalusia, both translated al-Qur’ān into Latin language
and assisted by a number of Arabian scholars based on
the suggestion of Pope Silvestre II. Such translation was
the first attempt in the history. Such names were quite
remarkable among the European countries as the first
period of scholars who had focused on studying Islam
that later were called as Orientalist.16

The following section briefly reviews Orientalists’ arguments
against the authenticity the Qur’ān and Sunnah.

16 Sanuri, “Muslims’ Responses Towards Orientalists’ Views on Hadith as The
Second Source of Law in Islam With Special Reference to Mustafa al-Siba‘i’s
Criticism Towards Ignaz Goldziher’s Viewpoints” in al-Qanun, Vol. 12, No. 2,
December 2009.

254

8. QUR’ĀN IS NOT A DIVINE REVELATION BUT THE
WRITINGS OF THE PROPHET.

The most common accusation of non-Muslims is that the Qur’ān
is not a Revelation from God, but written by the Prophet
Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w). This view belongs to the older generation
of Orientalists rather than the more contemporary ones. It is
already accepted as out-dated and false. However, there are
serious studies on the issue that Muslims should be aware of.
For instance, The Qur’ān: Translated with a Critical Re-
arrangement of the Surahs by Richard Bell. Arberry mentioned
almost the same view in his introduction to his translation of
the Qur’ān while Kenneth Cragg expresses similar views in his
book The Call of The Minaret: Ad Nauseum. On the other hand,
Montgomery Watt noted that if such a claim is true, then what
is the source of the information in the Qur’ān? This claim has
already been answered by Orientalists themselves.17

8.1 Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w) Learnt the Knowledge of
the Qur’ān from Jews and Christians

The Orientalist writers, who made the previous statement,
followed it with another ridiculous statement. They alleged that
the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w) had had teachers from other faiths, from

17 Muhammad Mohar Ali, The Quran and the Orientalists A Brief Survey of
Their Main Assumptions with and Appendix of the Orientalists’ Translation of
Quran (London: The Jam’iat Ihyaa’ Minhaaj al-Sunnah, 2002), 25.

255

whom he studied the information pesent in the Qur’ān. This
claim is not logical because the geographic area that Mecca was
located is not really suitable for such an information
transmission. Moreover, these claims usually include very few
individuals as the sources of information, who either had met
the Prophet or the Prophet had met—once. It is not possible for
a person to acquire all the knowledge of a Sacred Book from
only one meeting with a Christian monk. Two of the Orientalist
writers on Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w) and the Qur’ān are Muir
and Margoliouth, who attributed the information found in the
Qur’ān to a Christian Nestorian monk in Syria, with whom the
Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w) had met only once during his youth. Such
arguments are flatly illogical and extremely far-fetched.
Secondly, these claims are not grounded in rational knowledge.
Had the information in the Qur’ān been taken from the
Christians and the Jews, why is it then that neither the Bible
nor the Old Testament has similar information and
prophesies?18

8.2 Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w) was Delusional

Some critics of Islam were forced to admit that Prophet
Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w) was known to be an extremely honest and
sincere person. They also noted how he had never taken
material benefits for himself and had continually led a very

18 Ibid, 30.

256

humble life. Therefore, they concluded that he had always been
honest and sincere, but was deluded. However, this claim
cannot free itself from the question on the source of the
information in Qur’ān. For instance, Anderson called the
psychological situation of the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w) as “wishful
thinking”. Some others have actually said that he was suffering
from epileptic seizures and that the revelations were the result
of such seizures. These theories may have been convincing to
anyone without knowledge of the Qur’ān. The information and
structured belief system in the Qur’ān could not have been
produced by a normal human being, let alone an ill person’s
subconscious delusion. As Toshihiko Izutsu (1998) studied the
structure of the Qur’ānic world view, he enthusiastically asserts
that

Koran is capable of being approached from a number of
different points of view such as theological, philosophical,
sociological, grammatical, exegetical, etc., and the Koran
presents a number of divergent, but equally important
aspects.19

Therefore, if one were to extrapolate any sound goodness
coming forth from the accusations that claim that the Qur’ān

19 Toshihiko Izutsu, God and Man in The Koran: Semantics of The Koranic
Weltanschauung (North Stratford: Ayer Company Publishers, 1998), 9.

257

was a product of a sick person, one has to conclude that they
only serve to humiliate the accuser.20

9. PRESERVATION OF THE QUR’ĀN AND SUNNAH

The preservation of the Qur’ān and Sunnah carries a great deal
of responsibility in clarifying the authenticity of the two prime
sources of the Islamic tenets and sharī‘ah. As discussed earlier,
generations of Muslim scholars spent enormous effort and time
to study and safeguard the authenticity of the Qur’ān and
Sunnah; toiling over the process of their preservation at an
extremely delicate level that until today, no other written texts
or oral narratives have reached the level of appraisal such as
that of the two prime texts of Islam. Reciting and memorizing
the Qur’ān is an act of worship, thus it is practiced largely in
every Muslim community since the time of the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w).
The Ḥadīth literature, on the other hand, was studied in a more
careful manner to identify the authentic narrations apart from
the rest. This is not only done throughout the written process,
but also in the oral transmission. In-depth studies have proven
that Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w) used to ask his companions to
recite the Ḥadīth that he taught them. This happened in the
transmission of the Qur’ān as well. This is supported by
Muḥammad Hamidullah, the author of many valuable works on
the Qur’ān, on the unbroken chain of transmission from the

20 M. Mohar Ali, The Quran and The Orientalists…, 32.
258

time of the companions.21 This shows that the oral and written
transmissions are scrutinized in a way that nullifies any doubt
surrounding the issue.

9.1 On Ḥadīth

The Ḥadīth literature is discussed and attacked on the premise
of the personality of Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w)), which
explains the long list of the Prophet’s (ṣ.‘a.w) bibliographies
that exist today. However, other than the preservation of the
authenticity of the Aḥadīth and the accounts on the personality
of the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w)), there are discussions on the Ḥadīth
with regard to the narration content. Ignaz Goldziher is
considered the father of the Orientalist writers on Ḥadīth. In his
well-known book, Muslim Studies, he extensively argues that
the Ḥadīth literature did not exist in the time of Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w)
but was produced later in the golden age of the Islamic State
due to political and social changes. He argues that:

The hadis [sic.] will not serve as a document for the
history of the infancy of Islam, but rather as a reflection
of the tendencies which appeared in the community
during the mature stages of its development. It contains
invaluable evidence for the evolution of Islam during the
years when it was forming itself into an organized whole
from mutually, powerfully opposed forces. This makes

21 Muhammad Hamidullah, Introduction To Islam (Pakistan: Sh. Muhammad
Ashraf, Publishers, 1979), 5.

259

the proper appreciation and study of hadis [sic.] so
important for an understanding of Islam, in the evolution
of which the most notable phrases are accompanied by
successive stages in the creation of the hadis [sic.].22

It is a common confusion of the Orientalist writers on Ḥadīth on
the importance of Aḥadīth and whether they were there since
the Prophet’s time. Notwithstanding the significance of Ḥadīth
which can be seen very clearly from the life of the companions
who emulated the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w) in almost every matter of
living, this biased view fail even to draw a clear picture of the
companions with regard to their care towards the Prophet
(ṣ.‘a.w) for his person and his words. Without a clear
understanding on the nature of the companionship, it is
impossible to evaluate the transmission, which came through
them.

Another writer on Islam is Joseph Schacht, who studied
Islamic jurisprudence and came out with a similar conclusion
on the Ḥadīth as his master Goldziher. These arguments were
heavily touched by some Orientalists writers to the extent that
they interpreted the matn of the Ḥadīth and derived
conclusions, which are irrelevant for someone who is not
familiar with the entire study. Or else, their misinterpretation
was intentional and with vested purpose. For instance, the

22 Ignaz Goldziher, Muslim Studies (New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2008),
19.

260

Ḥadīth of the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w) that “whoever keeps a dog, which
does not serve him, in keeping watch over cultivated land or
goats, one qirā’at of his reward is diminished every day”. We
hear this Ḥadīth in different narrations and in one of the
narrations, ‘Umar (r.‘a.) reports that Abū Hurairah added that
the watch dogs for the cultivated land are also included. ‘Umar
makes the remark that, “Abū Hurairah owned a cultivated
land”. Guillaume argues that, the addition made by Abū
Hurairah is due to his own interest therefore he claims that
Abū Hurairah was in the habit of fabricating Ḥadīth.23 Such
ignorance on the part of Orientalists forms a vast literature on
the Ḥadīth. As such, Muslim scholars have expanded their area
of interests in order to fulfil the need of educating the masses
on these misguided writers.

10. CONCLUSION

The Qur’ān and Sunnah of the Prophet (ṣ.‘a.w) are the principal
sources of guidance in Islam. This fact is stated by God The
Creator many times. He clarifies the doubts surrounding the
Holy Book and the Holy Prophet of Islam repeatedly. The
attacks against the Qur’ān and Sunnah and the efforts to refute
the senseless allegations against them have always existed.
Since it is not a new phenomenon, the defending power of the

23 Muhammad Ali, “Collection and Preservation of Hadith” in Hadith and
Sunnah: Ideals and Realities, edited by P.K. Koya (Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Book
Trust, 1996), 41.

261

Muslims has also fortified over the ages. For a clear
understanding and assessment of the Qur’ān and Sunnah, it
requires an objective mind.

Muslims fulfil the responsibility of studying the Qur’ān
and Sunnah in every aspect possible. These are not only the
scope of study in academia, but it helps to derive guidelines to
an Islamic life in this world, and guidance towards Allāh’s
Mercy and Forgiveness for the Hereafter, which makes this
study an on-going inquiry. Muslims are aware of the Sacred
Treasure that is revealed to mankind from Allāh Ta‘āla. This
Treasure has been studied and will be studied in the future as
well. There are many more intellectual and spiritual
enhancements to be discovered in the due course of the
Qur’ānic study. The Sunnah, on the other hand, as a practical
explanation to and a living example of the Sacred Treasure,
cannot be separated from the understanding of the content and
narration of the Qur’ān.

As mentioned in the introduction, the Muslim scholars,
who studied Islamic knowledge for the sake of Allāh, do so with
the hope that their study will contribute as a guideline for
future studies by the younger generations. So too is my hope,
with this humble little paper, that it may contribute, however
little, towards the above endeavour. As for the Orientalists’
view, it is clear that they mounted attacks by selective analysis
of the Qur’ān and Sunnah. Though these attacks are as old as

262

history, answers and clarifications are always updated due to
the miraculous nature of the Qur’ān and the Prophet
Muḥammad (ṣ.‘a.w), who was the embodiment of the Qur’ān in
his Sunnah.

The Orientalists misinterpreted the reality of the Qur’ān
and Sunnah. The Qur’ān, as revealed to Prophet Muḥammad
(ṣ.‘a.w), is Kalām Allāh. It is miraculous and sacred in its nature.
Muslims who have enquired on the authenticity of this Sacred
Source have derived the unchallenged authenticity of the
Qur’ān as the conclusion, which can be proven in more than
one way. The Sunnah and Ḥadīth literature, on the other hand,
are respected and revered for their exemplary and explanatory
nature. Muslim scholars are well aware that the Sunnah, though
not Divine, is necessary for a clear understanding of the Qur’ān.

The Orientalists’ views, as have been discussed in this
paper, are biased and subject to their prejudices and intents. It
is the defeat of their arguments that prevented them from
having a clear view. Another defect is that their limited
knowledge on the history and language of Islam caused their
studies to be a copy of their predecessors. Consequently, it has
led to misunderstandings and misinterpretations of the
religious sources.

263

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