Oswaal NEET Mind Maps, Chemistry

Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry 1 To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 1 some basic concepts of chemistry Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry Importance of Chemistry Mass Percent Molarity • In meeting human needs for food, health care products and other products required for improving quality of life. • In diverse areas such as weather patterns, functioning of brain and operation of a computer. • In chemical industries. C al ssif ci at oi n ( ) Gay Lussac's Law of Gaseous Volume: i When gases combine or all produced in a chemical reaction they simple do so in ratio by volume provided all gases are at same temperature and pressure. Equal volumes of gases (ii)Avogadro Law: at the same temperature and pressure should contain equal number of molecules. : (iii)Dalton's Atomic Theory •Matter consists of indivisible atoms. •All the atoms of a given element have identical properties including identical mass. •Compounds are for m when atoms of ed different elements combine in a fixed rate. •Atoms are neither created or n destroyed in chemical reaction. Mole Fract oi n Mole Fraction of A= na n +n a b Mole Fraction of B= nb n +n a b Deals with the calculation of masses of the products and reactants involved in a reaction. How To Balance A Chemical Equation: Step 1: Write correct formulas of reactants and products. Step 2: Balance number of C atoms. Step 3: Balance number of H atoms. Step 4: Balance number of O atoms. Step 5: Verify the number of atoms of each element. Mass of solute Mass of solution×100 = No. of moles of solute Volume of solution in litres = No. of moles of solute Mass of solute in kg = Neither have definite volume nor definite shape. Particles are far apart and their movement is (iii)Gases: easy and fast. (ii) Liquids: Particles are close and can move around. Have definite volume but no definite shape. Have definite volume and shape. (i) Solid: Particles are held very close to each other in an orderly fashion with no freedom of movement. Properties of Matter: (i) Physical: Properties measured/observed without changing the identity or composition of substance. (Colour, odour) (ii) Chemical: Properties measured/observed when a chemical reaction occurs. (Acidity or Basicity, combustibility) Measurement of Matter: -International System of Units (SI): (Length-m) -Mass is the amount of matter present in a substance. -Weight is the force exerted by gravity on an object. -Uncertainty of measurement: Range of possible values within which the true value of the measurement lies. Significant figures: Meaningful digits known with certainty. -Precision: Closeness of various measurements for same quantity. -Accuracy: Agreement of a particular value to true value of result. present ni any ratio. (air,tea) Elements:Contains one type of particles i.e., atoms, molecules (N ,C ) a u Compounds:Two or more atoms of different elements (H O, NH ) 2 3 Law of onservation of Mass: c Matter can neither be created nor destroyed. It was given by Antoine Lavoisier. Law of Definite Proportions : A given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements. It was Law of Multiple Proportions : If two elements can combine to for m more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element given by Joseph P are in ratio of small whole numbers. It was given by Dalton. roust. Hetrogenous: Non-unifor m composition (Mixtures of salt and sugar.) Homogenous : Unifor m composition (Sugar solution, air) Step 1: Conversion of mass percent to grams. Step 2: Convert into number moles of each element. Step 3: Divide the mole value obtained above by the smallest number. Step 4: Write empirical formula by mentioning the number after writing the symbols of respective elements. Step 5: Writing molecular formula (a) Determine empirical formula mass. Add the atomic masses of various atoms present in the empirical formula. (b) Divide molar mass by empirical formula mass. (c) Multiply empirical formula by n obtained above. How To Determine Empirical and Molecular Formula: Atomic Mass Unit (amul): A mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one carbon-12 atom. Sum of atomic masses of the elements present in a molecule. Molecular Mass: Sum of the atomic weights of atoms in a molecule. One Mole is the amount of a Formula Mass: substance that contains as many particles/entities as there are atoms in exactly 12g (or 0.012 kg) of the C isotope. 12 Mass of one mole of a substance in grams. Molar Mass:

2 Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 2 structure of atom Structure of tom A Types: • Spectrum of radiation emitted by a substance Emission Spectra: that has absorbed energy. • It is like photographic negative of an Absorption Spectra: emission spectra. • Emission Spectra which do not show a Line / Atomic Spectra: continuous spread of wavelength from red to violet, rather they emit light only at specific wavelength with dark space between them. Bohr s' Model for Hydrogen Atom Atoms of same element having same atomic number but different mass number. (Isotopes of hydrogen Protium H , Deuterium D and 1 1 2 1 Tritium T ) 3 1 . Isobars: •Aufbau Principle: In the ground state of atoms, the orbital's are filled according to increasing energies. •P auli Exclusion Principle: No electrons in n atom two a can have same set of four quantum numbers . •Hund's rule: Pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to same subshell does not take place until each electron belonging to the subshell is singly occupied. By Ernest Rutherford Charge on proton = +1.6022 10 C × –19 Mass of Proton= 1.672 10 Kg × –27 Discovery of Neutron Thomson Model of Atom: (Watermelon Model) Rutherford s' Nuclear Model of Atom It is the phenomenon of ejection of electrons from the surface of a metal when light of suitable frequency strikes on it. n =1,2………….n =n +1, n +2……… 1 2 1 1 Series Spectral Region n n 1 2 Lyman Balmer Paschen Brackett Pfund Ultraviolet Visible Infrared Infrared Infrared 2,3......... 3,4......... 4,5......... 5,6......... 6,7......... 1 2 3 4 5 v = 109677 ( ) cm where –1 n1 2 1 1 n2 2 Postulates: •Electron in H atom can move around the nucleus in a circular path of fixed radius and energy called as orbits. These orbits are arranged concentrically around the nucleus. •Each of these orbits has a definite energy known as energy levels or stationary states. •When an electron jumps from a lower energy level to higher one, some energy is absorbed. • Bohr's frequency rule. : Angular momentum of electron Limitations: •Unable to account for finer details of H atom Spectrum observed . by sophisticated spectroscopic techniques. •Could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecules by chemical bonds. ΔE n = E -E2 1 n v= • Dual behaviour of atom i.e., particle and wavelike. De Broglie equation: • Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle: It is impossible to determine simultaneously, the exact position and momentum of an electron h mv= λ= h p n m v = e r h 2 n=1,2,3..... Number of protons in nucleus of an atom or Number of electrons in a neutral atom Number of protons (Z) + number of neutrons ( ) n Atoms of different elements with different atomic number but same mass number. (Ca and Ar) By James Rutherford Charge on neutron = 0 Mass of neutron= 1.675 10 Kg × –27 Atom possesses a spherical shape in which the positive charge is uniformly distributed. Electron Positive space Postulates: • Positive charge and most of the mass of atoms was densely concentrated in extremely small region i e. . nucleus. • Nucleus is surrounded by electrons that move around the nucleus with high speed in circular path called orbits. • Electrons and nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction. Drawbacks: • It cannot explain the stability of an atom. • It does not say anything about the electronic structure of atoms. Lower the value of ( +l) for an orbital, n lower is its energy. (i)s p d ......... a b c notation (ii)Orbital diagram p d s – Δ Δ x > . Px – = h 4 Δ Δ v. x = ⇒ h 4 Fundamental Equation was developed by Schrodinger as H = E= where H= Hamiltonian >ψ > (i) Principal quantum number (n) :n = 1,2,3,4………….. Shell = K, L, M, N....... (ii) Azimuthal Quantum number : For given value of n , (iii) Magnetic Quantum number (m) : for subshell with ' value m =2l+1 ‘l l (iv) Spin Quantum Number (m ): s + / ( ), – / ( ) 1 2 1 2 ↑ ↓ l = 0 to n-1 Dual nature ie wave like and particle like of the electromagnetic radiation. • Experimental results regarding atomic spectra. • Wave nature of electromagnetic radiation: It was given by James Maxwell. ( ): Number of waves that pass a Frequency ν given point in one second. Unit – Hertz (Hz), Velocity of light = Frequency × Wavelength ( ): Number of wavelengths per Wave number ν unit length. Unit – m-1 • Particle nature of electromagnetic radiation: Planck's quantum theory: E= hν Planck's constant (h) = 6.626 × 10 Js –34 – By J.J.Thomson Charge to mass ratio of electron Charge an electron = 1.6022 × 10 C –19 Mass of electron = 9.1094 × 10 Kg –31 = 1.758820 10 C kg × 11 -1 z x dyz Z s Orbitals: Spherically symmetric Size increases with increase in size in n, ie, 4s>3s>2s>1s – ‘’Clover leaf’’ distribution. d Orbitals – Two angular nodes. y z x y z x y z x y dx –y 2 2 dz2 x y z y x 2s z y x 1s p Orbitals: Each p Orbital consists of two sections called lobes on either side of plane passing through the nucleus. Z x y Z x y 2px Z x y 2pz Size.4p>3p>2p 2py dxy dxz dyz

Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry 3 To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 3 classification of elements and periodicity in properties Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties e G en s si of Per oi d ci C al ssif ci at oi n •Law of Triads: Johann Dobereiner (1829) •Law of Octaves: John Alexander Newlands (1865) •Periodic Law: Dimitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer. It states that the properties of the elements are periodic function of their atomic weights. •Modern Periodic Law: Henry Moseley (1913) It states that the physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers. ; Horizontal rows – Periods, Vertical columns – Groups re numbered from 1 to 18. – a UI PAC Nomenc al ut re of Elements wi ht A ot mic numbers > 100: Derived from the atomic number of element using numerical roots for 0 and numbers 1-9 and "ium" is added at the end. • Also called as Inner Transition Elements. • Contains Lanthanoids and Actinoids. • Outer configuration ie (n-2) f (n-1) d ns 1-14 1-10 0-2 • All are metals. • Actinoids are radioactive. • Group 3-12 • Outer configuration is (n-1) d ns np 1-10 2 6 • Forms coloured ions. • Exhibit variable valence, paramagnetism. • Also called as Transition elements. • Some are used as catalysts. p- Block elements • Group 13 to 18. • Also called as representatives or main group elements • Outermost configuration varies from ns np to ns np 2 1 2 6 • At the end of period are low reactive noble gases. •Halogens and Chalcogens have high negative electron gain enthalpies. •Metallic character increases down the group. s-Block Elements • Group 1 (alkali metals) and Group 2 (alkaline earth metals) • Outermost configuration is ns or ns 1 2 • Reactive with low IE. • Metallic character and reactivity increases down the group. To ease out difficulty in studying individually the chemistry of all the elements and their compounds. Properties (a) Atomic Radius : Distance from the centre of the nucleus to the outermost shell containing electrons. (e) Electron Affinity (f) Valency: Number of univalent atoms which combine with an atom of given element. (g) Metallic Character: (h) Non–Metallic Character: Group Period Increases Decreases Becomes less negative Becomes more negative Ionization Energy: The minimum amount of energy required to remove the electron from the outmost orbit of an isolated atom in gaseous state. (b) Electron Gain Enthalpy : Energy released when a neutral isolated gabelous atom accepts an electron from anion. Decreases Increases (d) Electronegativity : Tendency of an atom to attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself. No Change Increase from 1 to 4 and then decrease from 4 to 0. •In periods: Number of elements in each period is twice the number of atomic orbitals available in the energy level that is being filled. •Group wise: Elements in same group have similar valence shell electronic configurations. Same number of electrons in outer orbitals and similar properties. These are classified into four blocks i.e., s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block. •Electronic Configuration is the distribution of electrons into orbitals of an atom. Decreases Increases Decreases Increases Decreases Increases Decreases Increases

4 Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 4 chemicAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR structure Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure Postulates: • Shape of molecule depends upon the number of valence shell elect n pairs around central atom. ro • Pairs of electrons in the valence shell repel one another. • These pairs of electrons tend to occupy such positions in space that minimize repulsion. • The valence shell is taken as a sphere with electron pairs localising on spherical surface at maximum distance from one another. • A multiple bond is treated as if it is a single electron pair and the two or three electron pairs of a multiple bond are treated as a single super pair. • When one or more resonance structures can represent a molecule, VSEPR model is applicable. • Decreasing order of repulsive interaction: lp – lp > lp – bp > bp – bp Given by L Pauling. It explains that Valence Bond Theory: a covalent bond is formed between two atoms by overlap of their half-filled valance orbitals, each of which contains one unpaired electron. Orbital Overlap Concept: Formation of a covalent bond results by pairing of electrons in valence shell with opposite spins. (i) Sigma ( ) bond – end to end. Types of Overlapping: σ (ii) Pi ( ) bond – axis remain parallel to each other. π : Process of intermixing of orbitals of different energies Hybridisation resulting in formation of new set of orbitals of equivalent energies and shape. (I) sp (ii) sp (iii) sp Types of Hybridisation – 2 3 Addition of atomic orbitals. Bonding Molecular Orbitals: Substraction of atomic orbitals. Antibonding Molecular Orbitals: * Lewis pictured the atom as a positively charged 'kernel' and the outer shell accommodates a maximum of eight electrons. • Lewis postulated that atoms achieve the stable octet when linked by chemical bonds. • Kossel gave following facts: * In the periodic table, highly electronegative halogens and highly electropositive alkali separated by noble gases. * Formation of a negative ion from a halogen atom and a positive ion from an alkali metal atom is associated with gain and loss of electron by respective atoms. * Negative and positive ions formed attain noble gas electronic s configuration. • Negative and positive ions are stabilized by electrostatic attraction. Atoms can combine either by transfer of valence Octet Rule: electrons from one atom to another or by sharing of valence electrons to complete octet in their valence shells. Lewis Dot Structure provides a picture of bonding in molecules and ions in terms of the shared pairs of electrons and the octet rule. How To Write A Lewis Dot Structure: Step 1: Add the valence electrons of the combining atoms to obtain total number of electrons. Step 2: For anions, each negative charge means addition of one electron. For cations, each positive charge means subtraction of one electron from total number of valence electrons. Step 3: Write chemical symbols of combining atoms. Step 4: Least electronegative atom occupies central position. Step 5: After accounting for shared pairs of electrons remaining are , either utilized for multiple bonding or remain as lone pairs. Formal Charge= ( otal number of valence electrons in free atom) – T (Total number of non-bonding electrons) – 1/2(Total number of bonding electrons) Limitations Of Octet Rule: • Shows three types of exceptions i e incomplete octet of central . . atom, odd-electron molecules and expanded octet. • Does not account for the shape of molecules. • Fails to explain stability of molecules. Formed when the negative end of one molecule Hydrogen Bond: attracts the positive end of other. Types: (i) Intermolecular: Between two different molecules of same or different . substances (ii) Intramolecular : H atom is between two highly electronegative atom. • Electrons in a molecule are present in various molecular orbitals as electrons are present in atomic orbitals. • Atomic orbitals of comparable energies and proper symmetry combine. •Atomic orbitals is monocentric while a molecular orbital is polycentric. • Number of molecular orbital formed is equal to number of combining molecular orbitals. • Bonding molecular orbitals has low energy and high stability Types of MO: (Sigma), (Pi), (Delta) σ δ Postulates: Types: A chemical bond formed between two (i) Covalent Bond: atoms by mutual sharing of electrons between them to complete their octet. A chemical bond formed by complete (ii) Ionic Bond: transfer of electrons from one atom to another acquire the stable nearest noble gas configuration. Energy required to completely separate one mole of a solid ionic compound into gaseous constituent ions. (I) Bond Length: Equilibrium distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms in molecule. Angle between the orbitals containing bonding (ii) Bond Angle: electron pairs around central atom in a molecule complex ion. : Amount of energy required to break one (iii) Bond Enthalpy mole of bonds of particular type between 2 atoms. Number of bonds between the two atoms of a (iv) Bond Order: molecule. : set of two or more Lewis tructures (v) Resonance Structures A s that collectively describe the electronic bonding a single polyatomic species. Product of the magnitude of the charge (vi) Dipole Moment: and distance between centres of positive and negative charge. = Q x r µ A B B B B B E Square yramid P al (Octahedral) A B B B B E E AB E4 2 Square planar (Octahedral) .. AB E5 .. .. A B B :E B B See saw (Trigonalbi-pyramidal) AB E4 AB E2 2 Bent (Tetrahedral) AB E2 A B B E Bent .. SO ,O2 3 Trigonal pyramidal (Tetrahedral) AB E3 A B B .. E B NH3 A B :E .. E Shape B H O2 SF4 A E: E: B B B T–shape(Trigonalbi-pyramidal) AB E4 CIF3 BrF5 XeF4 A 120° .B .B . B . Trigonal planar AB3 AB2 :B A 180° :B BeCl ,HgCl 2 2 BF3 109°5' A . B . B B B AB4 CH ,NH 4 4+ Tetrahedral B . . 90° A 120° :B :B .B. B: AB5 PCl5 . B . . B . 90° :B B . . B . B: . 90° A AB6 SF6 Trigonal Bipyramidal Octahedral Kossel Lewis approach to chemical bonding:

Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry 5 To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 5 STATES OF MATTER : GASES and LIQUIDs States f Matter o : Gases and Liquids M=dRT •Volume of one mole of gas at critical temperature is called critical volume (V ) and pressure at this temperature c is called critical pressure (P ) c Viscosity London dispersion forces are the weakest intermolecular forces present among • non-polar atoms and molecules. Dipole – dipole forces act between the molecules possessing permanent dipole. • Dipole – induced dipole forces are the attractive forces operate between polar • molecules having permanent dipole. Hydrogen bond is found in the molecules in which highly polar N–H, H–O and H–F • bonds are present. nI et mr o el cu al r of rces vs ht e mr al ni teract oi n Gas Liquid Solid Predominance of intermolecular interactions Gaseous State Physical Properties: • Gases are highly compressible. • Gases exert pressure equally in all directions. • Gases have much lower density than solids and liquids. • Volume and shape of gases are not fixed. • They mix evenly and completely in all proportions. Gas Laws Total pressure exerted by the mixture of nonreactive gases is equal to sum of the partial pressures of individual gases. P = p +p +p total 123 ......... (At constant T,V) • If a molecule has variable speed, then it must have a variable kinetic energy. •There is no force of attraction between the particles ofagas at ordinary temperature and pressure. • A gas contains a large number of small particles called molecules. Size and mass of all molecules of each gas are identical. • Particles of a gas are always in constant and random motion. • Particles of a gas move in all possible directions in straight lines. • At any particular time, different particles in the gas have different speeds and hence different kinetic energies. • Collisions of gas molecules are perfectly elastic. • Real gases show deviations from ideal gas law because molecules interact with each other. •Pressure exerted by the gas is lower than the pressure exerted by the ideal gas P = P + ideal real Observed pressure Correction ter m V2 an2 • Compressibility factor Z =nRT PV • Boiling is the condition of free vapourisation throughout the liquid. • Normal b.p. is boiling point at 1 atm. •Standard b.p.is boiling point at 1 bar. Intermolecular forces are stronger than gaseous state. - Viscosity coefficient ( ) is the force when velocity gradient is unity and the area of contact is unit area. - SI unit of viscosity coefficient is Newton second per square metre (N s m ) Pa s (Pascal second) -2 = R = R is gas constant / universal gas constant pVnT R= 8.314 JK mol -1 -1 Boyle's Law (Pressure – Volume relationship): At constant temperature, • the pressure of a fixed amount of gas varies inversely with its volume. Gay Lussac's Law (Pressure – Temperature relationship): At constant • volume, pressure of a fixed amount of a gas varies directly with temperature. •Avogadro Law :(Volume – Amount relationship): Equal volume of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules. P1 2 P V1 2 V = P V = P V = Constant 1 1 2 2 •Charle's Law (Temperature – Volume relationship) : At constant pressure, the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature V2 2 T V T =Constant V1 1 T = P T = constant Mass of gas Molar Mass V = kn; n= Predominance of thermal energy Gas Liquid Solid F= A dx – dz Denoted by Gamma ( ) Unit: Nm-1 is the force acting per unit length perpendicular to the line drawn on the surface of liquid.

6 Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 6 THERMODYNAMICS Thermodynamics In calorimetry, the process is carried out in a vessel called calorimeter, immersed in a known volume of a liquid. (a) U measurements: The energy changes are measured ∆ a t constant volume. N o work i s done . (b) H measurements: In exothermic reaction, heat is ∆ evolved, so q and H will be negative. In endothermic p ∆r reaction, heat is absorbed, so q and H will be positive. p ∆r ∆ is the enthalpy change when one mole of a substance dissolves in a specified amount of solvent. is the enthalpy change when one mole of an ionic compound dissociates into i t s i o n s i n gaseous state. Entropy Te ms: r •Systems and surroundings: A system refers to that part of universe in which observations are made and remaining universe constitutes the surroundings. •Types of System: There is exchange of energy and matter between 1. Open System: system and surroundings. There is no exchange of matter but exchange of 2. Closed System: energy is possible. There is no exchange of energy or matter between 3. Isolated System: the system and surroundings. : is described by its measurable or macroscopic properties. 4. State of system : as a state function: It is the sum of chemical, electrical, 5. Internal Energy mechanical or any other type of energy. : 6. (a) Work Adiabatic process is in which there is no transfer of heat between system and surroundings. – U = W ∆U = U2 1 ad Heat is change in internal energy of a system by transfer of heat (b) from the surroundings to the system or vice-versa without expenditure of work. q is positive: Heat is transferred from surroundings to system. q is negative: Heat is transferred from system to surroundings. (c)General Case First law of Thermodynamics: U = q+w the energy of an isolated system ∆ is constant. Applications ∆H is negative: Exothermic reactions. H is ositive: Endothermic reactions. ∆ p q = C x m x T = C T ∆ ∆ ∆ Ha is the enthalpy change on breaking one mole of bonds completely to obtain atoms in gas phase. ∆ o Hr ∆ ∆ ∆ G = H – T S is ∆G < , process 0 is spontaneous. ∆G is >0, process is non-spontaneous C - C = R p v (a) Standard Enthalpy of reactions is the enthalpy change for a reaction when all the participating substances are in their standard states. (b) Enthalpy changes during phase transformations: Standard enthalpy of fusion / molar enthalpy of fusion, H is the enthalpy ∆fus change that accompanies melting of one mole of a solid substance in standard state. Standard enthalpy of vaporization or molar enthalpy of vaporization. H is the amount of heat required to vaporize one mole ∆vap of a liquid at constant temperature and under standard pressure. (c) Standard molar enthalpy of formation H∆r is the standard enthalpy change for the formation of one mole of a compound from its elements in their most stable state of aggregation. ∆ H r = a Hi products – i b Hi reactants If a reaction takes place in several steps then its standard reaction enthalpy is the sum of standard enthalpl s of international reactions into which the overall reactions may be ie divided at the same temperature. ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ r rrr H= H + H + H 1 2 3............ ∆ Hr 1 A B ∆ Hr 2 C D ∆ Hr 1 ∆ Hr 3 ∆ ∆ ∆ S S S Total systems surroundings + = ∆= qrev T Work= P dV ex Vi Vf ∫ Pex V =–Pex (Vf –V )i = The process which can be reversed Reversible Process: at any moment by an infinitesimal change. Processes other than reversible process. Irreversible Process: At constant temperature W = 2.303 nRT log rev For adiabatic change, q=0, U = W ∆ ad Vt Vi bond enthalpies reactants – bond enthalpies products ∆ Hc is the enthalpy change per mole of a substance when it undergoes combustion and all reactants and products are in standard state. Property whose value depends in the quantity or size of matter present. (Temperature density: Pressure). Property which does not depend on the quantity or size of matter present in the system. Temperature density, pressure. sol Hfi

Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry 7 To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 7 EQUILIBRIUM Equilibrium • K < 10 reaction proceeds rarely. c -3 • K > 10 reaction proceeds nearly to completion c 3 • K 10 to 10 , reaction is at equilibrium c 3 → –3 • If Q < K , net reaction goes from left to right. c c • If Q > K , net reaction goes from right to left. c c • If Q = K , no net reaction occurs c c Reactants and products are in same phase. Reactants and products are present in two or more phases. Chemical if a chemical reaction is carried out in a closed container, a constancy in some observable properties like colour, pressure is observed. Such a state is referred as equilibrium state. Equil bi r ui m In Chemical Processes Dynamic Equilibrium: Chemical reactions reach a state of dynamic equilibrium in which the rate of forward and reverse reactions are equal and there is no net change in composition. Equilibrium Law or Law of At a given temperature, the product of concentrations of the reaction products raised to the respective stoichiometric coefficient in the balanced chemical equation divided by the product of concentration of the reactions raised to their individual stoichiometric coefficients has a constant value: Step 1: Write the balanced equation for the reaction. Make a table that lists for each substance Step 2: involved in reaction; Initial concentration, change in concentration, equilibrium concentration. Substitute the equilibrium concentrations Step 3: into the equilibrium equation for the reaction and solve. Calculate equilibrium concentrations from Step 4: the calculated value of concentration of substances. Check results by substituting them into the Step 5: Buffer Solutions are the solutions which reside change in pH on dilution or addition of acid or alkali. equilibrium equation. Solubility Product ( ): Ksp For a salt, it is the product of molar sparingly soluble concentration of ions raised to power equal to numbers of times each ion. , ΔG is negative reaction is spontaneous and proceeds in forward reaction. G is positive reaction Δ , is non-spontaneous and proceeds in reserve reaction. ΔG is 0, reaction has achieved equilibrium. Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases: Arrhenius theory states that acids are substances that dissociates in water give hydrogen ions and bases are substances that p roduce hydr o x y l ions . Bronsted Lowry Theory states that acid is a substance that is capable of donating hydrogen ion and bases are substances capable of accepting a hydrogen ion. •Weak acids have very strong conjugate K = bases. e– G /RT ° Equilibrium set up in physical processes like evaporation of water, etc. • Solid • Liquid • Solid Characteristics: • Possible only in a closed system at a given temperature. • Both the reactions occur at same rate. • All measurable property remains constant. • When equilibrium is attained one of its parameter remains constant at given temperature. • Magnitude of such quantities at any stage indicates the extent to which process has proceeded before reaching equilibrium. Liquid Gas Gas Speed of forward reaction equals that of backward reaction. Characteristics: • Can be achieved from either side. • Dynamic in nature. • There is no change in concentration of various species. • Observable physical properties become constant. • Equilibrium is attained rapidly by the presence of catalyst. Acids turn blue litmus into red and liberate dihydrogen on reacting with some metals. Bases turn red litmus into blue, taste bitter and feel soapy. Salts are formed when acids and bases are mixed in right proportion. Lewis Acid accepts an electron pair. Lewis Base donates an electron pair. Acidic: [H O ] > [OH ] 3 + – Neutral [H O ] = [OH ] 3 + – Basic [H O ] < [OH ] 3 + – • Effect of Temperature change: • A change in any of the factors that determine the Le Chatelier's principle: equilibrium conditions of a system will cause the system to change in ch su a manner so as to counteract the effect of the change. and vice-versa. • If volume is constant, ie addition does not Effect of Inert Gas Addition: change partial pressure or molar concentrations, equilibrium is not affected. • If concentration of is Effect of Concentration Change: reactants increased, equilibrium will shift in forward direction and vice-versa. • No effect if moles of reactants and products Effect of Pressure Change: are same. If there is change in number of moles , equilibrium will shift in the direction having smaller number of moles when the pressure is increased For exothermic, low temperature favours for high temperature favours formation formation of reactants; endothermic, of products. aA + bB cC + dD Kc= [C] + [D] c d [A] + [B] a b Equilibrium for the reverse reaction is the inverse of the equilibrium constant for reaction in the forward direction. Applications of Equilibrium Constants: • Applicable only when concentrations of the reactants and products have attained constant value at equilibrium state. • Value of K is independent of initial concentrations of the reactants c and products. • Equilibrium constant is temperature dependent. • Equilibrium constant for a reacting is related to equilibrium constant of corresponding reaction. p of a solution is negative logarithm to H base 10 of the activity of hydrogen ion Size increases HR<<HCl<<HB<<HI Size increases Acidic strength increases

8 Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 8 REDOX REACTIONS Redox Reactions Write the correct formula Step 1: for each reactant and product. Identify atoms undergoing Step 2: change in O.N. Calculate increase / decrease Step 3: in O.N per atom and for entire ion or molecule. If unequal, multiply by suitable number to make equal. Add H /OH ion to make Step 4: + – total ionic charges of reactants and product equal. Equalize H on two sides Step 5: + by adding water. uR el s of Or N. . Loss of electrons Reduct oi n: Removal of oxygen from a substance or addition of hydrogen to a substance Zn(s) + Cu (aq) Zn (aq) + Cu(s) 2+ 2+ Release of 2e– Gain of 2e– or r me oval of hydrogen from a substance Lowers O.N. Reducing agent: Donor of electron(s) Ga ni of electrons Increases O.N. Oxidising agent: Acceptor of electron(s) 1. Combination reactions: A+ B C; Either A and B or both A and B must be in elemental form. 2. Decomposition reactions: Leads to the breakdown of a compound into two or more components at least one of which must be in the elemental state 3. Displacement reactions: An ion/ atom in a compound, is replaced by an ion/atom of another element, X + YZ XZ +Y (a) Metal displacement: CuSO (aq) + Zn(s) Cu(s) + ZnSO (aq) 4 4 (b) Non-Metal displacement: Includes hydrogen displacement. 4. Disproportionation reaction: An element in one oxidation state is simultaneously oxidised and reduced. CaCO (s) 3 Δ CaO(s)+CO (g) 2 Study of electrode processes and cells. • Having together oxidised and reduced forms Redox Couple: of a substance involved in oxidation/reduction half reaction. • Potential associated with each electrode. Electrode Potential: • Electrode potential of concentration Standard Electrode Potential: of each species i s unity and carried out at 298K. Stronger reducing agent than H /H couple. Negative E : + 2 Weaker reducing agent than H /H couple. Positive E : + 2 Two Methods Produce, unbalanced equation Step 1: for the reaction in ionic form. Separate equation into two Step 2: half-reactions. Individually balance atoms Step 3: other than O and H. For reactions occurring in Step 4: acidic medium, add H O to balance O 2 atoms and H to balance H atoms. + Balance charges by adding Step 5: electrons to one side of the half reaction. Add two half reactions and Step 6: cancel the electrons on each side. Verify if equation has same Step 7: type and number of atoms and same charges on both sides of the equation. Oxidation state of an element in a compound ascertained according to a set of rules formulated on the basis that pair in a covalent bond belongs to electronegative element. 1. In elements, each atom bears an oxidation number of zero. 2. For ions with only one atom, O.N. is equal to the charge on ion. 3. O.N. of oxygen in most compounds is -2. 4. O.N. of hydrogen is +1, except when it is bonded to metals in binary compound. 5. Halogens have on O.N. of -1, when they occur as halide ions in their compound. 6. Algebraic sum of O.N. of all the atoms in a compound must be zero.

Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry 9 To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 9 HYDROGEN Hydrogen By exhaustive electrolysis of water- Preparation: Uses: • As a moderator in nuclear reactors. • In exchange reactions for the study of reaction mechanisms. Protium: Predominant form. 1H1 Deuterium: ( H) 2 1 Tritium : Radioactive Properties ( ) Stoichiometric compounds of dihydrogen i Ionic/saline/saltlike: formed with s-block elements. (ii) Formation of molecular compounds from Covalent/molecular: dihydrogen and p-block elements. (iii) Formed by d-block Metallic/non-stoichiometric/interstitial: and f-block elements. Water • Resembles alkali metals (lose one e- to form unipositive ions). • Resembles halogens (gain one e- to form uninegative ion). • Forms oxides, halides and sulphides. • Very high ionization enthalpy. • Does not possess metallic characters under normal conditions. • Forms diatomic molecules. Uses • As hair bleach, disinfectant. • Manufacture chemicals used in detergents. • In industries as bleaching agent. • In environmental chemistry. Physical Properties: • Colourless and tasteless •Presence of extensive H bonding. • High freezing point, high B.P., high heat of vaporization, high heat of fusion Structure: Difference: Hard water does not give lather with soap whereas soft water gives lather easily. Temporary hardness: Removed by boiling, Clark's method. (Due to resence of magnesium and calcium hydrogen p carbonates) Permanent hardness: Removed by treatment with washing soda, Calgon's method, Ion exchange method, synthetic resins methods. (Due to presence of soluble salts of Mg and Ca in the form of chlorides and sulphate) 104.5° 95.7pm H H Chemical Properties: H O +NH OH– +NH 2 (l) 3(aq) (aq) 4 + (aq) 2H O +2Na 2 (l) (s) 2NaOH + H (aq) 2(g) 6CO +12H O 2(g) 2 (l) C H O 6 12 6(aq)+6H O +6O 2 ( ) 2(g) l P O +6H O 4 10(s) 2 (l) 4H PO 3 4(aq) Types: (Human body: 65%, Plants: 95%) • Colourless, miscible with water. Non-Planar Structure: Chemical Properties: Decomposes on exposure P +4H O PbSO +4H O bS 2 2(aq) 4(s) 2 ( )l HOCl+H O H O +C + O 2 2 3 + 2 l Mn +H O Mn + 2OH 2+ 2 2 4+ – I +H O +2OH 2I +2H O+O 2 2 2 – – 2 2 BaO .8H O H SO BaSO H O 8H O 2 2 (s) 2 4(aq) 4( ) 2 2(aq) 2 ( ) s l 2HS O4(aq) – HO SOOSO H 3 3 (aq) 2HS O4(aq) – 2H H O +(aq) 2 2(aq) H O + Oxidised Product 2 2 2– ethylanthraquinol O (air) 2 H /Pd 2 Electrolysis Occurrence: Most abundant in universe. Preparation: – Laboratory Method: •Zn+2H Zn ++H + 2 2 •Zn+2NaOH Na ZnO +H 2 2 2 –Commercial Method: •2 H2O(l) Uses: • Synthesis of ammonia. • In manufacture of vanaspati fat. • In manufacture of bulk organic chemicals. • For manufacture of metal hydrides • Preparation of HCl. • In metallurgical processes. • As a rocket fuel • In fuel cells Electrolysis Traces of acid/base 2H2(g)+O2(g) •By electrolysing warm aqueous barium hydroxide solution between N electrodes. i •CnH +nH O 2n+2 2 Ni 1270 K nCO+(2n+1)H2 –CO+ H2 is called water gas 1270 K – C +H O Cool Gasification : (s) 2 (g) CO +H (g) 2(g) Physical Properties: Colourlers, odourless, tasteless and combustible. • Lighter than air, insoluble in water. • Chemical Properties: H + X 2(g) 2(g) 2HX (X=F, Cl,Br,I) (g) 2H +O 2(g) 2(g) 2H O(l) = –285.9 2 KJmol–1 Catalyst or Heating 3H +N 2(g) 2(g) 2NH = –9 3(g) 2.6 KJmol–1 673 , 200 atm Fe H +2M 2(g) (g) 2M H3(s)Where M= alkali metal H +Pd 2(g) 2+(aq) Pd +2 H (s) +(aq) H +CO+RCH=CH 2 2 RCH C H CHO 2 2 H +RCH C H CHO 2 2 2 RCH CH CH O H 222 – +H O CO +H Water-gas shift reaction : CO(g) 2 (g) 2(g) 2(g) 673 K Catalyst O H H H O O O H H H H O H H H O O H H H H O O H H Vacant Spaces ( ( ( (3 Electronic Configuration 1S1

10 Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 10 s - BLOCK ELEMENTS (alkali and alkaline earth metals) s- Block Elements •Atomic and Ionic R dii: Smaller than corresponding alkali in a group,increases with increase in atomic number. •I.E IE higher than corresponding Group 1 metals. : 1 IE smaller than corresponding alkali metals. 2 • Hydration Enthalpies: Decreases with increase in ionic size down the group. Physical properties: •Slivery white, lustrous and relatively soft but harder than alkali metals. •M. . and b. . higher than corresponding alkali metals. p p •Electropositive character increases down the group. Chemical properties: •Be and Mg are kinetically inert to O and H O2 •Mg is more electropositive and burns in air. •Ca, Sr and Ba with air forms oxide and nitride. 2 2 , , , M X MX X F Cl Br I 2 4 2 3 2BeCl LiAlH 2BeH LiCl AlCl 2 2 M 2HCl MCl H 2 3 3 3 x Y M x y NH M NH 2 e NH Uses: •Be is used in the manufacture of alloys. •Metallic Be is used for making windows of X rays tubes – . •Mg-Al lloys are used in air craft construction. a •Ca in extraction of metals. •Ra is used in radiotherapy. Characteristics of Compounds of Alkaline Earth Metals: •Oxides and Hydroxides •Alkaline earth metals burn oxygen to form MO. •All oxides except BeO are basic in nature 2 2 ) ( MO H O M O H Be(OH) is amphoteric in nature 2 Halides: •Except for Be halides, all other halides are ionic. •Tendency to form halide hydrates decreases gradually. • alts of oxoacids: Forms carbonates, sulphates and nitrates. S •Anomalous behavior of Be: mall atomic and ionic sizes, does not S exhibit C.N. more than four, its oxide and hydroxide are amphoteric. •Be shows diagonal relationship with Al. Biological Importance Of Mg And Ca: • ll enzymes that utilise ATP in PO transfer requires Mg as A 4 cofactor. Chlorophyll contains Mg. Ca is present in bones and teeth. Important in neuromuscular function, intraneuronal transmission and blood coagulation. • Increases with increase in atomic number. Atomic and Ionic Radii: • Decreases down the group. I.E.: • Decreases with increase in ionic sizes Hydration Enthalpy: . • : Physical properties •Silvery white, soft and light metals. •Low m.p. and b.p. •Alkali metals and their salts impart colour to f an oxidizing lame. Chemical Properties: 4Li + O 2Li O; 2Na+O Na O ; M+O MO (M=K, Rb, Cs) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 → → → 2M + 2H O 2M + 2 H + H 2 2 → + O – 2 2M + H 2M H → - + React vigorously with halogens to form ionic halides M + ( + )NH [M(NH ) ] + [e(NH ) ] x y 3 3 x 3 y → + – Uses: •Li is used to make useful alloys. •Li is used in thermonuclear reactions and making electrochemical cells. •Na is used to make Na/Pb alloy. •Liquid Na metal is used as coolant in nuclear reactors. •KCl is used as fertilizer. •Cs is used in devising photoelectric cells. Characteristics Of Compounds Of Alkali Metals: Oxide and Hydroxides – – Halides •Alkali metal halides (MX) have high melting, colourless crystalline solids. •Preparation: Reaction of oxide, hydroxide or carbonate with aq . HX •High negative enthalpies of formation. •Melting and boiling points: F >Cl> Br > I •Soluble in water. Salts of Oxo-Acids: •Alkali metals form salts with all oxo-acids. •Soluble in water and thermally stable. •Stability of carbonates and hydrogencarbonates increases : Due to Anomalies properties of Li (i) exceptionally small size of its atom and ion. (ii) High polari ing power. s Biological Importance of Na nd K: a N ions participate in nuclear signals transmission, regulator of flow of a water across cell membranes. K ions activate many enzymes and oxidation of glucose to produce ATP. Combustion in excess of air +Li Li O2 Na O2 2 MO2 +Na +K/Rb/Cs ns : Alkaline metals ns : Alkaline earth metals 1 2 ; Important Compounds of Sodium: (i)Sodium Carbonate (Washing Soda) Preparation: By Solva : y process 2NH + H O + CO (NH ) CO 3 2 2 4 2 3 → 4 2 3 2 2 4 3 (NH ) CO + H O + CO 2NH HCO → NH HCO + Na l N H Cl + NaHCO 4 3 4 3 C → 3 2 3 2 2 2N HCO Na CO + CO + H O a → 2NH Cl + Ca(OH) 2NH + CaCl + H O 4 2 3 2 2 → ( )White, crystalline solid. ( )Readily soluble in water Properties: a b 375 2 3 2 373 2 3 2 10 K K Na CO H O Na CO H O 2 3 2 2 2 3 2 Na CO ×H O+9H O Na CO +H O Uses: Water softening, laundering, cleaning, manufacture, as aboratory reagent. l ( )Sodium Chloride NaCl i ( ) Crude Na l by crystallization of brine solution. Preparation: C -Pure Na l is obtained by dissolving crude salt in minimum water C and filtered to remove insoluble impurities olution is saturated . S with HCl gas. Uses: As common salt. i( i)Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) By electrolysis of Na l in Castner-Kellner cell Preparation: C . Uses: In manufacture of soap, paper, petroleum refining. (iii)Sodium Hydrogencarb nate (NaHCO ) o 3 Na CO + H O + CO 2NaHCO Preparation: 2 3 2 2 3 of → Calcium (i) CaO, Quick Lime Properties :Whi e amorphous solid with m p 2870 K t . . (ii)Ca(OH) Calcium hydroxide 2 : Preparations: Addition of water to CaO. CaCO3 heat CaO+CO2 CaO+H O Ca(OH) 2 2, CaO+CO CaCO 2 3 CaO+H O Ca(OH) 2 2 CaSO . ½H O(Plaster of aris) 4 2 P Ca(OH )+CO CaCO +H O 2 2 3 2 (iii) 2(CaSO .2H O 2(CaSO ).H O+3H O 4 2 4 2 2 ) Preparations: Properties:whi e amorphous powder . t ( lkali and lkaline A A Earth Metals)

Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry 11 To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 11 p - BLOCK ELEMENTS Some - Block p Elements r G uo p 13 E el ments [B, Al, Ga, In, Tl] ns np Electronic configuration: 2 1 Atomic Radii: Atomic radius of Ga is less than Al. Decrease from B to Al is ssociated with increase in size. I.E.: a Down the group, decreases from B to Al and then increases marginally. Electronegativity: Physical Properties: •Non-metallic, hard and black coloured solid. •Exists in many allotropic forms. •B has high m.p. while others have low m.p. •Density increases down the group. Chemical Properties: ·Oxidation State: +1, +3 ∆ < ∆ < ∆ 1 2 3 i i i H H H ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) + − ( ) + → + → + → + + +  ∆ → = ∆ 2 2 3 s g s 2 s g s 3 (aq ) (aq ) 2(g ) s aq 2(g ) 3(s) s 2E 3O 2E O 2E N 2EN 2Al 6HCl 2Al 6Cl 3 H 2E 3X 2EX X F,Cl, Br,I Trends and Anomalous Properties of Boron: •Except in boron, [M(OH) ] and [M(H ) ] exist in aqueous medium. 4 2 6 - 3+ O •Boron trifluoride reacts with Lewis bases. •Maximum ovalence of B is 4. c Important Compounds of Boron: (i) Borax( ) 2 4 7 2 Na B O . 10H O White crystalline solid ∆ ∆ + → + → → + 2 4 7 2 3 3 2 4 7 2 2 4 7 2 2 3 Na B O 7H O 2NaOH 4H BO Na B O .10H O Na B O 2NaBO B O Borax bead test is used for identification. (ii) Orthoboric acid (H BO ): White crystalline solid, soapy touch 3 3 Preparation Properties: ( ) + + → + 2 4 7 2 3 Na B O 2HCl 5H O 2NaCl 4B OH ( ) ( ) − +   + → +   → → ∆ ∆ 3 3 4 3 3 2 2 3 B OH 2HOH B OH H O H BO HBO B O (iii)Diborane (B H ) 2 6 Preparation: → + + + 4 2 6 3 3 2B H 3LiF 4BF 3LiAl 3AlF H → + + + → + + 2 6 2 450 K 4 2 3 2 6 B H 2NaI H 2BF 6NaH B 2NaB H H I 6NaF Properties Colourless, toxic, b.p.: 180K, catches fire : ( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) [ ] − + − θ + → + ∆ = − + → + + → + →   + → → +   ∆ 1 2 6 2 2 3 2 2 6 2 2(g) 3 aq 2 6 3 3 3 2 6 3 2 6 3 2 3 4 336 2 2 C B H 3O B O 3H O H 1976K Jmol B H g 6H O l 2B OH 6 H B H 2NMe 2BH .NMe B H 2CO 2BH CO 3B H 6NH 3 BH NH BH 2B N H 12H Uses of Boron and Aluminium and their Compounds: • oron fibers are used in making bullet-proof vest and light material for aircraft. B • orax is used in manufacturing heat resistant glasses. B • l is used in packing, utensil making, construction and transportation industry. A ns np (except He) 2 1-6 Mixture of C + O N2 Or : Synthesis Gas Mixture f C + o O H2 2C+O2 2CO HCOOH Conc.H SO 2 4 H O+CO 2 → → ∆ Limited air 373K + → + → + ∆ 2 2 4 2 2 2 C O CO CH 2O CO 2H O I C S mportant ompounds of C and i [C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb] ns np Electronic configuration: 2 2 Covalent Radius: Increase from C to Si and from Si to Pb a small increase is observed. Decreases down the group. I.E.: More than group 13 elements. From Si to Pb same. Electro negativity: Physical Properties: •Solid. •C and Si are non- metals, Ge metalloid, Sn and Pb are soft metals. •M. and b.p. higher than group 13 elements. p. Chemical Properties: •Oxidation State: +4, +2 •Forms oxides on heating in oxygen. •C, Si, Ge, and Pb are not affected by water. + → + ∆ 2 2 2 Sn 2H O SnO 2H •Form halides of formula MX and MX 2 4 Important Trends and Anomalous Behavior of Carbon: •C differs from rest due to smaller size, higher electronegativity, high ionisation enthalpy and unavailability of d orbitals. •C forms multiple bonds p –p π π •Shows Catenation Allotropes of Carbon: •Diamond Carbon • Fullerenes • Uses of Carbon: •Graphite composites are used in tennis rackets, fishing rods, aircrafts and canoes. •Graphite is used for electrodes in batteries and industrial electrolysis. •C black is used in black ink and as filter in automobile tyres. •Diamond is used in jewel ery. l

12 Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 12 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY-SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES Organic Chemistry- Some Basic Principles nd A Techniques Substitution Addition Elimination Rearrangement (i) Sublimation: On heating, some solid substances change from Principle: solid to vapour directly. Used to separate sublimable compounds from nonsublimable impurities. (ii) Crystallisation: Based on the difference in solubilities of the Principle: compound and impurities in a suitable so ent. lv (iii) Distillation: Liquids having different boiling points vaporise Principle: at different temperatures. Used to separate (a) Volatile liquids from non volatile impurities. - (b) iquids having sufficient difference in their boiling points. L Fractional distillation and steam distillation Types: (iv) Differential Extraction Organic compound is shaken with an organic solvent Principle: in which it is more soluble than water. Organic solvent and aqueous solution should be immiscible with each other forms two distinct layers which can be separated by separatory funnel. (v) Chromatography (a)Adsorption Chromatography. Different compounds are adsorbed on an adsorbent to different degrees. Column Chromatography: Separation of a mixture over a column of adsorbent packed in a glass tube. Thin Layer Chromatography: Separation of substances of a mixture over a thin layer of an adsorbent coated on a glass tube. (b)Partition Chromatography: Based on continuous differential partitioning of Principle: components of a mixture between stationary and mobile phases. Metamerism: different alkyl chain on either side of functional group Position: different position of substituent atom /functional group Functional group : different functional groups Chain: same molecular formula, different skeleton Optical Geometrical Structural: same molecular formula but different structures Stereoisomerism: similar constitution, different in relative position of atoms /groups (i) and : y heating with copper (II) oxide C H B . (ii) itrogen: odium fusion extract is boiled N S with iron (II) sulphate, then acidified with conc. . H SO2 4 (iii) ulphur: odium fusion extract is acidified S S with acetic acid and lead acetate is added. (iv) alogens: odium fusion extract is acidified H S with silver nitrate. (v) hosphorus: ompound is heated with an P C oxidising agent. Electron charge cloud is located above and below plane of bonding atoms. Provide most reactive centres. Acyclic/ pen O Chain Consist : of straight or branched chain Cyclic/ losed C Chain/ring: Carbon atoms in a ring Homocyclic/ carbocyclic: Only C atoms are present Heterocyclic: Atoms other than C are also present Alicyclic: Both aliphatic and cyclic Aromatic: Contains conjugated planar ring system Benezeno di Example: Benzene, Aniline, Naphthalene Non-benzeno di Example: Tropolene Organic Reaction Mechani ms Identify longest carbon chain in the molecule. Numbering is done so that branched C atoms get the lowest possible numbers. Name of alkyl, group is prefixed to parent followed by position of substituent. Lowest number is given to one coming first alphabetically. C atom attached to root is numbered first. Functional Group : as atom/ group of atoms responsible for chemical properties of organic compounds. Homologous Series : as group/series containing a characteristic functional group. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) 3 epresentation: using solid( ) and dashed( ) D R . (i) omplete ethene C (ii) ondensed H C= ethene C C H 2 2 (iii) ond-line 2-brome butane B C=C H H H H Hybr di isation Het rolytic e Cleavage Homolytic Cleavage Nucleophile (Nucleus seeking) Electrophile (Electron seeking) Inductive Effect ) (σ – Polarisation of - bond caused by polarisation of adjacent - bond. Resonance Structure • Same Positions of nuclei. • Same number of unpaired electrons. Example: Benzene Hyperconjugation Delocalisation of electrons of C-H bond of an alkyl group directly attached an atom of unsaturated system. Electromeric Effect Complete transfer of a shared pair of electrons to one of atoms joined by a multiple bond on the demand of an attacking agent Resonance Effect Polarity produced in the molecule by interaction of bonds or between a bond and lo e pair n of electrons of adjacent atom. Fission Of Covalent Bond [Intermediate] Product (s) → Organic molecule Byproducts Attacking reagent Influences bond length and bond enthalpy Electron movement shown by curved-arrow notation C& H: H O CO formed on oxidation are absorbed in 2 2 and anhydrous CaCl and KOH solutions respectively containing 2 in U tubes. Nitrogen: Dumas method and jeldahl's method K Halogen: Carius method Sulphur: Carius method Phosphorus: Known mass is heated with fu ing HNO and m 3 oxidised to phosphoric acid. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Quantitative Analysis

Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry 13 To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 13 HYDROCARBONS Hydrocarbons (i) Generation of Electrophile (ii) Formation of carbo ation intermediate c i v (ii ) Remo al of proton Non-polar, usually colourless liquids or solids with characteristic aroma. Immiscible with water but miscible with organic solvents. Burns with sooty flame. Chemical Properties: +conc. HNO +conc. H SO 3 2 4 323-333K NO2+ H O2 +Cl2 Cl + HCl ; Anhyd AlCl . 3 + H SO2 4 Cl SO H3 + H O2 + CH Cl 3 Anhyd AlCl . 3 CH3 + HCl + CH COCl 3 Anhyd AlCl . 3 COCH3 + HCl 6 5 6 6 2 3 Ca O C H COONa NaOH C H Na C O 6 5 6 6 C H OH Zn C H Zn O Types: Benzenoids – contain benzene ring, Non-benzenoids – does not contain benzene ring. Isomerism: rtho ( -), Meta (m-), Para (p-) O o Structure: Aromaticity: , complete delocalisation of the electro in Planarity – s π the ring, presence of (4n + 2) electrons in the ring where n is an integer (n = 0,1,2,......) (Hucke rule) l Cyclic polymerisation of ethyne Me hc an si m of E el ctrophilic IUPAC name: replacing 'ane' by the suffix 'yne'. hows position and chain isomerism S Preparation: 3 2 CaCO CaO C O 2 3 CaO C CaC C O 2 2 2 2 2 2 CaC H O Ca OH C H 2 2 3 2 2 2 NaNH alcohol KBr NaBr H O NH CH Br CH Br KOH H C CHBr CH C H Physical Properties: First three members are gases, next eight are liquids and higher ones are solids. Colourless, thy e has characteristic odour and other are odourless. e n Lighter than water, immiscible with water but soluble in organic solvents. M.p, b.p. and density increase with increase in molar mass. Chemical Properties: 2 1 2 HC CH Na HC CNa H 2 2 2 2 3 3 H Pt Pd Ni HC CH H H C CH CH C H Saturated: Contain C-C and C-H single bonds. (alkanes) Contain C-C multiple bonds (alkenes, alkynes) Unsaturated: : Contain yclic ompounds Aromatic c c 2 2 3 2 CH CH HBr CH CH Br 4 2 2 2 2 2 CCl CH CH Br BrCH CH Br CH -CH=CH +HBr 3 2 Markovnikov rule CH -CH -CH -Br 322 CH -CH-CH 3 3 Br H C–C=CH +H O 3 2 2 CH3 C H+ CH3 CH5 CH3 OH Shows structural and geometrical isomerism Preparation: RC CR'+H2 . 3 2 2 2 Alc KOH H C CH X H C C H 2 2 2 2 2 CH Br CH Br Zn CH CH ZnBr 2 4 . 3 2 2 2 2 conc H SO H CCH OH CH CH H O Ethene is a colourless gas with faint sweet smell. All other are colourless and odourless, insoluble in water but fairly soluble in non-pol r solvents. a Increase in b.p. with increase in molecular size. Chemical Properties: Pd/C C=C R H R' H cis-Alkene RC CR'+H2 Na/Liquid NH3 C=C R H H R' trans-Alkene Physical Properties : H H H H H H C C C C C or Resonance or H-C-H bond angles – 190 5, C-C and C-H bond . lengths are 154 pm and 112 pm respectively. Shows structural and chain isomerism. Wurtz reaction : 3 3 3 3 2 2 Dryether CH Br Na BrCH CH CH NaBr 3 4 2 3 CaO CH COO Na NaOH CH Na C O 3 2 2 6 2 2 2 2 2 2 CH COONa H O C H CO H NaOH Physical Properties: Non-polar, weak van der Waals forces, colourless, odourless. B.P. increases with increases in molecular size. Chemical Properties: 2 2 2 2 2 3 1 1 2 n n n C H O nCO n H O 523 100 4 2 3 2 2 Cu K atm CH O CH O H 2 3 4 2 2 Mn O CH O HCHO H O 4 2 2 3 Ni CH H O CO H C CH + H H =2 2 2 CH – C H 3 3 pt/pd/Ni CH + HC 4 l zn,H+ Preparation : H C H H H CH4 +Cl2 hv/- HCl CH Cl+ 3 +Cl2 hv/- HCl CH Cl 2 2 +Cl2 hv/- HCl CHCl3 +Cl2 hv/- HCl H H H H H H H H H H H H Eclipsed Staggered H H H H H H Eclipsed Newman Projections H H H H H H Staggered Seahorse Projections Preparation: / Pressure 2 2 2 2 ( ) ( – ) HighTemp Catalyst n CH CH CH C H n 4 / 3 3 3 – – 2 KMnO H CH CH CH CH CH COOH / Pressure 3 2 3 2 2 ( – ) ( – – ) HighTemp Catalyst n CH CH CH CH CH C H n CH4(CH2)CH3 Anhyd.AlCl3 /HCl CH3–CH–(CH2) 2–CH3+CH3–CH2–CH–CH2–CH3 – CH3 – CH3 C6H14 C6H12+H2 C H8+C2H6 4 C3H6+C2H4+CH4 733 K C=C H H H H 121.7 116.6 134 pm 110 pm H– –H C C H H 106 pm 120 pm or 873 K Red hot iron tube Benzene CH CH CH CH CH CH Polymerisation 2 3 2 3 – C Br CH CH Br CH CBr CHBr CH –C–CH 3 Br Br Br Br – – – – – 2 – – HC C H HBr CH C CH Br CHBr2 CH2 2 / 2 2 3 – – H Hg Isomersation HC CH H O CH C H CH C H 333 K – OH –– O

14 Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 14 ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY Environmental Chemistry Causes of water pollution: (i) which cause diseases. Pathogens (Escherichia coli, Streptococcus faecalis) (ii) (Leaves, grass, trash) Organic Wastes: (iii) Heavy metals, acids Chemical Pollutants: from mine drainage, salts from different sources, petroleum products, fertilizers and industrial chemicals. Process in which nutrient enriched Eutrophication: water bodies support a dense plant population which kills animals life and loss of biodiversity. ·International stand for Drinking water ards (i)Fluoride: Excess fluoride (over 10 ppm) causes harmful effects to bones and teeths. (ii)Lead: Prescribed upper limit in drinking water is about 50ppm. (iii)Sulphate: 500ppm causes laxative effect. > (iv)Nitrate: Maximum limit in water is 50ppm. (v)Other metals: Fe, Mn, Al, Cu, Zn, Cd. Pesticides (DDT) : Chemicals used for killing insects, fungi and weeds Herbicidies : Chemicals used to kill weeds. (Sodium chlorate, NaClO3 ) Industrial Waste: (i)Biodegradable wastes are generated by cotton mills, food processing units, paper mills and textile factories. (ii)Non-biodegradable wastes are generated by thermal power plants, integrated iron and st l plants, fertilizer ee industries, etc. (iii)Control: (i)Use of manures (ii)Use of bio fertilizers – (iii)Proper sewage system and recycling (iv) Salvage In Daily life: (i)Dry cleaning of clothes. (ii)Bleaching of paper (iii) Synthesis of chemicals It is a way of thinking and utilizing the existing knowledge and princip of les chemistry and other sciences to reduce the adverse impact in environment. Amount of oxygen required by bacteria to break down the organic matter present in a certain volume of a sample of water. It is n o a aturally ccurring phenomenon and responsible for heating of earth's surface atmosphere due to presence of certain gases in the atmosphere. Environmental Pollution Atmospheric Pollution . 2 2 . . 4 ( ) 3 2 ( ) 3 2 ( ) 2( ) 3 2 . . ( ) ( ) ( ) . 2( ) ( ) 2 g g g g g g g g g g g g g g g hv g g g hv g g Cl O NO ClONO C l CH C H HCl ClONO H O HOCl HNO ClONO HCl Cl HNO HOCl O H C l Cl C l Ozone present in upper stratosphere protects us from cancer causing harmful uv radiations. Depletion of Ozone layer: Occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the air. Pollutants presents in Troposphere: Gaseous air pollutants (1) (a)Oxides of sulphur produced when sulphur containing fossil fuel is burnt. It causes respiratory diseases. (b)Oxides of Nitrogen: At high altitudes when lightning strikes, and dinitrogen dioxygen combine to form oxides of hydrogen. In an automobile engine, when fossil fuel is burnt, dinitrogen and dioxygen combine to form N and NO O 2 (c)Hydrocarbons: Formed by incomplete combustion of fuel used in utomobiles. a o. They are carcinogenic and harm plants als (d)Oxides of Carbon: CO, CO2 (2) Particulate pollutants: (Minute solid particles or liquid droplets in air present in vehicle emissions, smoke particles from fires, dust particles and ash from industries .) (a) Smog: moke + Fog S Types of smog: 1) occurs in cool humid climate. It is a mixture of smoke, fog and ( Classical smog sulphur dioxide. (2) occurs in warm, dry and sunny climate. It has high concentration Photochemical smog of oxidising agents. It contains ozone, nitric oxide, acrolein, formaldehyde and PAN. It causes serious health problems. Troposphere 10 K from sea level m Between 10 and 50 km above sea level Effect of undesirable changes in our surroundings that have harmful effects on plants, animals and human beings) Acid Rain (when of pH the ain ater r w rops elow 5.6.) d b Global war ming is the gradual and continuous increase i n averag e temperature of surface of the earth due to increase in concentrations of greenhouse gases (CO ,C C ,CH ) 2 4 F s (i) aste anagement W M (ii) ollection and isposal C D

Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry 15 To know about more useful books for NEET click here Solid State Semiconductors Magnetic Properties Point defects : At a point n-type (negative charge) disturb Stoichiometry Vacancy : Lattice sites vacant (non-ionic solids) Interstitial : Particles occupy interstitial site (non -ionic solids) Impurity foreign atoms are M t l E s : e a xce s ue t D o anionic vacancies (LiCl) and presence of extra cations (Zn ) O Metal eficiency D : etal shows variable M vacancy (Fe , Fe ) 2 3+ + Overlapping very between / small gap conduction and valence band → (Cu, Al) Small energy gap between ( olyethylene, clay) P →conduction and valence band f o ms all c yr s at wl i ht def ni ite shape Three spheres in contact → 0.155 – 0.225 Four spheres at the vertices of tetrahedron 0.225 – 0.414 → Six spheres at vertices of octahedron → 0.414 – 0.732 • scp → AAA…. ype t → 52.4% → (Po) • hcp → ABABAB…..type → 74% → (Mg Zn) , • ccp/ jcc f → ABCABC…. ype t → 74% → (Cu, Ag) • bcc → square close → 68% → (Li, Na) Rhombohedral or Trigonal : (CaCO , HgS) 3 = = 90°;primitive a=b=c; αβγ≠ Monoclinic : (Monoclinic sulphur, Na SO .10H O) = = 90° 90°; 2 2 4 α γ β ≠ primitive, ec Triclinic : (K Cr O , H BO ) b c α ≠ ≠ 2 2 7 3 3 90°; primitive α ≠ β ≠ γ C : ubic (NaCl, Cu) ; primitive, a=b=c bc fc , = = = 90° ; αβγ Tetragonal : (SnO , T O 2 2 i ) a=b c ≠ ; αβγ = = = 90°; primitive, bc Orthorhombic : (KNO , BaSO ) → 3 4 a b c bc, fc ≠ ≠ αβγ ; = = = 90°; primitive, , Hexagonal : (ZnO, CdS) → ≠ a=b c; α β = = 90° =120°; primitive y Frenkel :Smaller ion dislocated to interstitial site (ZnS, AgCl) Schot ky t : Equal number of ions m ssing (NaCl, KCl) Fe i rr magnetic o : domains unequal (Fe O , MgFe O ) → 3 4 4 2 Paramagnetic: weakly attracted Unpaired electrons O Cu → → ( , ) 2 2+ Diamagnetic: weakly repelled Paired electrons (H O, NaCl) → → 2 Ferromagnetic: strongly attracted → → omains in same direction (Fe, Co) d Antiferromagnetic: domain opposite and equal (MnO) → Body centred: One particle at its body centre n and at its cor . Face centred: One particle at centre of each face and at its corner. End centred: One particle at centre of any two opposite faces and at its corner. Ions held by strong co mbic ulo forces → (NaCl, Mg ) O Non-metals held by covalent bond (SiC, C) → Metal atoms held by metallic bond → (Fe, Cu) p-type (positive charge) Very large gap between conduction and valence band → (Si, Ge) Trigonal Density = zM 3 a NA A / toms molecules held by weak dispersion forces London forces (Ar, He) / → Metallic solids Covalent solids Ionic solids Polar Hydrogen bonded Molecules held by intermolecular forces Molecules held by hydrogen bonding → (H O(ice) 2 Molecules held by dipole-dipole interactions (HCl, SO ) → 2 packing O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O As O O O O O O O O O O CHAPTER : 15 SOLID STATE

16 Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 16 solutions Volume percentage v/v Volume of component 100 Total volume of solution Mass percentage w/w Mass of component in solution 100 Total mass of solutio Pa n rts per million : For trace quantities 6 No. of parts of components×10 Total o. of parts of components of solution n Mole fraction No. of moles of component Total no.of moles of all components No. of gram equivalentof solute×100 Volume of solution Gram Equivalents of solute = Mass of solute Equivalent weight Equivalent weight = Molecular mass Valency No. of moles of solute×100 Mass of solvent Solutions Mass of solute 100 Volume of solution Mass by volume ercentage (w/v) p Normality: Number of gram equivalents so of the lute dissolved re in one lit of solution Molality: Number of moles of solute per kilogram of the solvent No. of moles of solute×100 Volume of solution Molarity : Number of moles of solute in 1L solution ni sa G qi L i u d Increases with decrease in temperature Not significant Endothermic sol H > O, Solubility Increases Exothermic sol H < O, Solubility Decreases Gaseous Gas Gas Mixture of O and N 2 2 Liquid Gas Chloroform with N2 Solid Gas Camphor in N2 Solid Liquid Gas Liquid O dissolved in water 2 Liquid Liquid Ethanol dissolved in water Glucose dissolved in water Gas Solid O in Pd 2 Liquid Solid Amalgam of Hg with Na Solid Solid Cu dissolved in gold Normal molar mass Abnormal molar mass = Osmotic pressure = CRT Depression in freezing point T =f f 2 2 1 K ×W ×1000 M × W Elevation of boiling point T =b b 2 2 1 K ×1000×W M × W Relative lowering of vapour pressure ° 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 W ×M P - P M ×W P Ideal solution (n-hexane and n-heptane) (Mixture of chloroform and acetone) Non-ideal solution For any solution, the partial vapour pressure of each volatile component is directly proportional to its mole fraction. Partial pressure of gas in vapour phase is proportional to the mole fraction of gas in the solution. I n c r e a s e s w i th increase in pressure V = positive mix H = positive mix Minimum boiling azeotrope Maximum boiling azeotrope p =K xH V = mix negative H = mix negative

Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry 17 To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 17 electrochemistry Electrochemistry • 1st La w → Amount of chemical reactions which occurs at any electrode of during electrolysis by a current is proportional to the quantity electricity passed through electrolyte W = Zit → • 2nd La w → → …… 1 2 3 1 2 3 W W W E E E = = Amount of different subst ances liberated by same quantity of electricity passing through electrolytic solution are proportional to their chemical equivalent weights once and cannot be reused) Leclanche cell (Dry cell) (Lead storage battery, Ni-Cd cell) Galvanic cell that converts energy of combustion of fuels like H , CH directly into 2 4 electrical energy Electrochemical phenomenon in which metal oxide of metal forms . coating on metal surface Painting, barrier protection, rust solutions Rusting of iron, tarnishing of silver Electrode : Pt coated with , Pt black electrolyte : acidic solution pressure 1 bar Pt(s) |H (g)| H (aq) 2 + Potential difference between electrode and electrolyte. A chemical compound that dissociates into ions and conducts electric cur Half–cell rent → two portions of cell U shaped inverted tube connecting two electrolytic solution Cathode → Reduction takes place Anode → Oxidation takes place Negative E°→Stronger reducing agent than H+/H2 Positive E°→ Weaker reducing agent than H+/H2 A series of half–cells arranged in increasing standard oxidation potentials. Ecell = E° n+ 2.303RT [M] log n [M ] T Ecell = E°cell – n+ 0.059 1 log n [M ] Mercury cell Resistance R =V I Unit : Ohm (Ω) ∧m =κA l ∧m; = Vκ Limiting molar conductivity f molar conductivity :I reaches a limiting value when concentration approaches zero. C → O, ∧m = ∧°m Weak electrolyte α = m m Ù Ù° (acetic acid) Strong electrolyte ∧m = ∧°m – Ac½ (KCl) Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions ∧°m = v+λ°++v–λ°– Limiting molar conductivity of an electrolyte can be represented as sum of individual contribution of anions and cations of the electrolyte Daniell ell C : cathode Copper Anode : Z inc Salt : , ; ; bridge : Agar agar electrolyte : KCN/KNO3 Zn2++2e– ;Zn|Zn2+(C ) || Cu 1 2+(C2)|Cu Calculate ∧°m for any electrolyte from λ° of individual ions Determine value of dissociation constant for weak electrolytes 1. 2. K = Antilog C cell nE° 0.0591       E°cell = C 2.303RT log K nF R = L ρ A ρ = Resistivity Unit : Ohm – Meter Two copper strips dipped in an aqueous solution of CuSO4 → → Anode : Cu Cu2+ + 2e– Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu Uni Siemens (s) t : or ohm Increases on dilution C = 1 R = A ρl =κ A l metals Electronic conductance: Depends on:- Nature and structure of metal, -N of valence electrons per atom, umber -Temperature (Decreases with increase in temperature) Electrolytic (Ionic) Conductance: depends on:- Nature of electrolyte added, • Size of ions solvation • t Nature of solvent and i s viscosity, • Concentration of electrolyte, • Temperature (increases with increase in • Temperature) cell ∆ G° = r –n FE°cell ∆ G° r = –RT InK Electrode potential when concentration of all species in half cell is unity. Conductivity Cell Mn+( ) + aq ne–→ M(s) cathode : → Zn(s) Reduction : Cu + 2e Cu; 2+ − → →Oxidation :

18 Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 18 chemical kinetics Chemical Kinetics Ra et of Ch me ci al Reaction Number of reacting species taking part in an elementary reaction colliding to bring out a reaction. Sum of powers of concentration of the reactants in the rate law. Average a R et : Rate of change in concentration of reactant/product at a particular time Rate of disappearance of R Decease in concentration of R Time taken [R] = = t Rate of appearance of P Increase in concentration of P Time taken + [P] = = t Expression in which reaction rate in given in terms of molar concentration of reactants with each term raised to power which may or may not be same as stoichiometric coefficient of reactants in a balanced chemical d R[ ] dt aA + bB — cC + dD Rate = [A] [B] = k x y Change in concentration of reactants or products in unit time; Unit : mol L s or atm s -1 -1 -1 Concentration : Higher the concentration of reactants, faster is the rate of reaction. Increases with increase in Temperature : temperature. ecomes almost double with B 10°C rise. Increases with a catalyst. Presence of Catalyst : Greater is the surface area, faster Surface Area : is the rate of reaction. Lower the activation energy, Activation Energy : faster is the reaction. Collis oi n Frequency Appearance of products or disappearance of reactants over a long time interval. r = [ ] = slope av d Pdt r = [ ] = –slope av –d Rdt rinst=–d[ ] R = dt +d[ ] Pdt Effect vi e Collision equation. Order Unit 0 1 2 molL s-1 -1 s -1 -1 mol L s Time in which the concentration of a reactant is reduced to one half of its initial concentration. 1st Order 0 Order t1/2 0.693 k = t1/2 [R]0 2k = Pseudo First Order React oi n Rate = PZ e AB – /RT Ea P is Steric or Probability factor E and proper orientation of the molecules a determine the criteria for an effective collision. Collision in which molecules collide with sufficient kinetic energy and proper orientation for breaking of bonds and formation of new bonds. K = Ae–E /RT a logk = log A – Ea 2.303RT log= EaRT 2.303 k2 k1 T T2 – 1 T T1 2 = [ [ Activation Energy, Ea : Energy required to form an intermediate called activated complex ( ) C E = Threshold energy - Average Kinetic energy of reacting molecules a Integration of differential rate equation to give a relation between concentrations at different times and rate constant. kt =[R] -[R] 0 [R] vs t mol L s -1 -1 0 kt =In {[R] /[R]} -0 1 In[R] vs t s-1 Order Integrated Rate Law Straight Plot Units (K) Are not truly of first order but under certain conditions behave as first order reaction. Acid hydrolysis of ethyl acetate • Inversion of sugar • – Rate = Z e AB –Ea/RT Number of collisions per unit volume of reaction mixture

Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry 19 To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 19 surface chemistry Surface Chemistry Shape Selective Catalytic reaction that depends upon pore structure of catalyst and size of reactant and product molecules. (Zeolites) Enzymes that catalyse many life processes in bodies of plants and animals are termed as Biochemical catalysts and phenomen is known as Biochemical catalysis (Inversion of sugar, Conversion of milk into curd) Absorption •Bulk Phenomenon. •Concentration is same throughout the material. o H mog ne eous Ca at yl sis Reactants and catalyst are in different phases. (Oxidation of SO to SO by Pt as catalyst) 2 3 s dA r o ba et Molecular species which concentrates at the surface. Material on the surface of which the adsorption takes place. Production of high vacuum, gas masks, control of humidity, separation of gases, chromatography, indicators. Sorption Both absorption and absorption takes place simultaneously •Adsorption when accumulation of gas on the surface of solid occurs due to weak van der Waals’forces. •Non-specific •Depends on nature of adsorbate •Reversible •Increases with increases in surface area. •Low enthalpy of adsorption. •Adsorption when gas molecules or atoms are held to surface by chemical bonds. •High specific ly •Irreversible •Increases with increase surface area in . •High enthalpy of adsorption. Types o desaB n n ut a er Purification • Bredig’s Arc method • Peptization • Chemical methods Step 1 : Binding of enzyme to substrate to form an activated complex. E+S → ES* Mechani ms o desaB n phys ci al state Sol : solids in liquids (Paints) Liquids in solids (cheese) Gel : Liquid in liquids Emulsion : Liquid in gas Aerosol : Based on type of particles of dispersed phase Large number of atoms/molecules Multimolecular : aggregate (size 1-1000 nm) Formed by molecules of large size. Macromolecular : Low concentration behave as normal Associated: range electrolytes at high concentration as colloids. Lyophilic : Liquid loving Liquid-hating Lyophobic : •Purification of drinking water •Medicines •Tanning •Cleansing action of soaps detergents •Rubber industry •Industrial Products. • Dialysis • Electro-dialysis • Ultrafiltration Oil dispersed in water (O/W type) Milk : Water dispersed in oil (W/O type) Butter : Colligative Properties: Values of colligative properties are of small order in comparison to values shown by true solutions. When a beam of light is passed and Tyndall Effect: viewed perpendicular to the path of incident light, the path of beam is illuminated by a bluish light. This process is Tyndall effect. Movement of colloidal particles Electrophoresis : toward electrode in an electric field. Depends on wavelength of light scattered Colour : by colloidal particles. Zig -zag movement of particles Brownian Movement : Heterogeneous system where one substance is dispersed (dispersed phase) in another substance called dispersio n m e dium. ES* E +P → Step 2 : Decomposition of activated complex to form product. Mechanism Reactants and catalyst are in same phase. (oxidation of SO to SO by NO as catalyst) 2 3 •Diffusion of reactants to surface of catalyst Adsorption of reactants molecules on the surface • of catalyst. Chemical reaction on the surface of catalyst through • formation of intermediate. Desorption of products creating surface for further • reaction. Diffusion of products away from catalyst surface. • Accumulation of molecular species at the surface rather than in the bulk of a solid or liquid. Surface phenomenon. Concentration on the surface of adsorbent different from that in bulk. (i) (ii) (iii) When H = T S, G = O, equilibrium is attained. G, H and S are negative. Extent of adsorption increase with surface area. • • • Freundlich Adsorption Isotherm: Empirical relationship between the quantity of gas adsorbed by unit mass of solid adsorbent and pressure at a particular temperature. kp n 1 / n ( >1) x m = x m = log log k+ 1 n log p Manufacture of nitric acid ostwald’s process (platinised asbestos, 573 K) Manufacture of ammonia Haber’s process (Fe + Mo, 200 bar, 723–773 K) Uses ni Industry Substances which accelerate the rate of reaction and remain chemically and quantitatively unchanged after the reaction are known as catalysts and phenomenon is known as catalysis.

20 Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 20 general principles and processes of isolation of elements General rinciples P P and rocesses I of solation of Elements • As wrappers for chocolates • Fine dust in paints and lacquers • Extraction of Cr and Mn • Wires • Wires • Water and steam pipes • Alloys •Galvanising iron •In batteries •Dust is used as reducing agent • • Cast iron for casting stoves, railway slippers, gutter pipes, toys etc. Manufacture of wrought iron and steel. •Concentration of ore • Isolation of metal •Purification of metal G = ∆ H∆ T– S∆ G° ∆ = –RT In K •Plots of ∆ G° f vs T for reaction. •Straight line except with some change in phase •Point in a curve below which ∆G is negative Bauxite AlOx (OH)3–2x where 0 < x < 1 Kaolinite [Al2(OH)4 Si O2 5] Haematite Fe O2 3 Magnetite Fe O3 4 • Siderite FeCO3 • Copper pyrites CuFeS2 • Malachite CuCO3.Cu(OH) 2 • Cuprite Cu O2 • Copper glance Cu2S • Zinc blende ZnS • Calamine ZnCO3 • Zincite ZnO • • • • Ores :Minerals from which metal can be extracted chiefly, profitably and easily. •If ∆G is negative, reaction proceeds. •If reactions and products of two reactions are put together in a system and net G of the two possible reactions is negative, the ∆ overall reaction will occur. ↑ + CO2 3Fe + 4CO ↑2 2FeO + CO ↑2 Fe + CO2 C S O a i 3 → In blast furnace FeO(s) + C(s)→Fe(s/l) + CO(g) → Reduction (a) At 500 –883 K 2Fe O2 3 + 3CO 573 673K − → 2Fe O3 4 Fe O3 4 + 4CO 773 883K − → Fe O2 3 + CO 773 873K − → (b) At 900 – 1500K CO2 + C → 2CO(g); FeO + CO → C CO a 3 C O + a → CO2; C O + S O a i 2 → (c) At 1500 – 2100 K C + O2 → CO2 F O + C e → F + CO e Roasting/smelting 2Cu2S + 3O2 → 2Cu O + 2 2SO2 Cu O 2 + C → 2Cu + CO FeO + SiO2 → FeSiO3 2FeS + 3O → 2 2FeO + 2SO2 2Cu O + 2 Cu2S → 6Cu + SO2 (Blister copper) Electrolysis (Hall–Heroult process) 2Al O2 3 + 3C → 4Al + 3CO2 Cathode : Al3+(melt) +3e– → Al(l) Anode : C(s) + O2– (melt) → CO(g) + 2e– C(s) + 2O2–(melt) → CO2(g) + 4e– Ox di at oi n reduction Electrolysis ifference of two E° values equals :D Positive E° and Negative G°, less reactive ∆ metal will come out of solution and more reactive to the solution. Fused matrix is electrolysed Purified Al O mixed with 2 3 Na AlF / CaF 3 6 2 (extract oi n of Cl from brine) ZnO + C Coke 1673K → Zn + CO Metallurgy of aluminum Hydraulic washing : Based on difference in Upward stream of running water is used to wash the powdered ore. Lighter gangue particles are washed away and heavier are left behind. Finely ground ore is carried on conveyor belt which passes over a magnetic roller. Magnetic particles fall nearer to roller and vice versa. Powdered ore is mixed with pine oil and water and agitated with air froth formed carries minerals is skimmed off and dried. Bayer’s process : Al O2 3. 2 H O 2 + 2N OH+ H a O2 → 2N [AL(OH) a 4] → Al O2 3.xH O + 2 2N HCO a 3 →Al O2 3 + xH O2 1470K +CO2 Distillation : Impure metal is evaporated to obtain . pure metal as distillate Liquation : Low melting metals is made to flow on a . sloping surface Electrolytic refining : Impure metal anode, strip of same metal in pur form–cathode dipped in soluble . salt of same metal Zone refining : Based on principle that impurities are . more soluble in melt than in solid state of metal Vapour phase refining : Metal is converted into its . volatile compound and collected elsewhere Chromatography : Based on principle that different components of a mixture are differentially adsorbed on an adsorbent. Heating metal oxide with substances acting as a reducing agent which combines with the oxygen to get reduced easily. Ore is heated in a limited supply of air in a furnace at a temperature below the melting point of the metal. Heating when the volatile matter escapes leaving behind the metal oxide. Interchange the + and → symbol.

Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry 21 To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 21 p– block elements p- Block Elements Occurrence F and Cl are fairly abundant while Br and I less so. ns2 5 np Electronic configuration Atomic Ionic radii Smallest in periods but increases from F to I IE Decreases down the group Less –ve down the group High, decreases down the group F and Cl are gases, Br is liquid and I solid Increases with atomic number 1 oxidation state Cl, Br and I exhibit + 1, + 3, + 5 and + 7.O. N Reactivity towards hydrogen :H–F> H – Cl > H – Br > H – I Reactivity towards oxygen :F form OF (stable) and O F 2 2 2 Reactivity towards metals : MF > MCl > MBr > MI Reactivity towards other halogens : Forms XX’, ' 3 XX , ' 5 XX and XX’7. All exhibit – Occurrence :All except radon occur in atmosphere Electronic configuration :ns 2 6 np except He IE :High Atomic radii :Increases down group Electron gain enthalpy :Largely positive M.P. and B.P. : Lo w Chemical properties :Least reactive ; Xenon fluoride compounds : 2,XeF4 and XeF6. Xenone oxygen compounds :Xe O 3, XeOF2, XeOF4 Physical properties :Monoatmic, colourless, odorless and tasteless. Sparingly soluble in water. Preparation :Mn O 2 + 4HCl MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2 H O2 Deacon’s process :4HCl + O 2 CuCl2 2Cl2 + 2 H O2 2Al + 3Cl2 2AlCl3 H2 + Cl2 2HCl H2S + Cl2 2HCl + S 8N H3 + 3Cl2 6N H Cl 4 + N2 2NaOH + Cl2 NaCl + NaOCl + H O2 (cold and dilute) 2Ca(OH)2 + 2Cl2 Ca(OCl)2 + CaCl2 + 2H O2 CH4 + Cl2 uv CH Cl 3 + HCl C H2 4 + Cl2 RT C H2 Cl 4 2 2FeS O4 + H2SO4 + Cl2 Fe2(S O4)3 + 2HCl SO2 + 2 H O + 2 Cl2 H2SO4 + 2HCl Cl2 + H O 2 2 HCl + O XX’– sp3(linear), XX’3-sp3d(T–shaped), 5 XX' -sp3 d2 (square pyramidal), 7 XX' -sp3 d3(Pentagonal bipyramidal) Properties :Greenish yellow gas with pungent and suffocating odour. Heavier than air Interhalogen compounds: Electronic configuration : ns 2np4 Atomic and ionic radii : Increases down the group IE : Decreases down the group Electron gain enthalpy : O has less negative than S. Electro-negativity : Decreases with increase in atomic number Physical properties : O and S are non-metals, Se and Te metalloids whereas Po is a metal. All exhibit allotropy. M.P. and B.P. : Increases down the group Chemical properties : variable fi Reactivity with hydrogen : stable hydrides fi Reactivity with halogens : F–> Cl– > Br– > I – Dioxygen (O ) : 2 Preparation : 2KClO3 MnO2 D 2KCl + 3O2 Properties : Colourless and odourless gas 2Ca + O2 2CaO 4Al + 3O ; 2 2Al O2 3 2SO2 + O2 V O5 2 2SO3 4HCl + O ; 2 CuCl 2Cl + 2H 2 2 O Oxoacids of S : S O OH OH H SO2 3 S O OH OH H SO2 4 O S O O O OH H SO2 8 S O O O HO = = = = = = = XeF

22 Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 22 d– and f–Block elements – nd A – Block Elements d– Block transition elements groups 3–12 Helps in production of iron and steels. TiO in pigment industry. Mn O2 in dry battery cells. As catalysts in industry. AgBr in photographic industry. Ni complexes useful in the polymerization of alkynes and other organic compounds such as benzene. Position : etween s- and p–blocks. B Electronic configuration : (n –1)d ns 1–10 1–2 Ionisation enthalpies : Increases from left to right. Oxidation states : ariable higher ON stable. V ; Trends in M /M E° : Variable. 3+ 2+ Formation of coloured ions : Form coloured compounds due to d-d transitions. Formation of complex compounds : Form a large number of complex compounds. Catalytic properties : Due to variable oxidation states and ability to form complexes. Forms interstitial compounds : Non - stoichiometric and are neither ionic nor covalent. Alloy formation : Due to similar atomic sizes. Magnetic properties : Diamagnetism and paramagnetism. Magnetic moment increases with increasing atomic number. Chemical reactivity and E° values : ariable Ti , V and Cr are strong reducing agents. V ; 2+ 2+ 2+ Decrease in radius with increasing atomic number. Lanthanoid contraction is due to imperfect shielding of one e by another in same set of orbitals. – Physical properties : Show typical metallic properties, melting and boiling point are high High enthalpies of atomization. ; Trends in M /M E° : E° for Mn, Ni and Zn are more negative than expected. 2+ Electronic : configuration [Rn]5f 6d 7s 1–14 –2 2 0 Ionic sizes : radual decrease along the series. G Oxidation states : ost common is + M 3. They show ON of +4, +5, +6 and +7. General characteristics : –Silvery in appearance. –Display variety of structures. –Highly reactive metals. –Irregularities in metallic radii greater than in lanthanoids. –Magnetic properties more complex than lanthanoids. , burns in O2 heated with S heated with N with C, 2773 K with H O2 with acid with halgens s Ln H2 LnX3 Ln(OH) +H 3 2 LnC2 LnN Ln S2 3 Ln O2 3 Potassium permanganate KMnO4 Preparation : 2MnO2 + 4KOH + O2 2KMnO4 + 2H O2 3 2 4 Mn O + 4H+ 2 4 Mn O + Mn O2 + 2H O2 2Mn2+ + 5S O2 8 + 8 H O 2 2 4 Mn O + 10 2 4 SO + 16H+ Properties : Intense colour, weak temperature dependent paramagnetism 4 Mn O + 8H + 5e + – Mn2+ + 4H O2 Oxidizes I – to I2, Fe2+ to Fe3+, C2 2 4 O to CO2, S2– to S, 2 3 SO to 2 4 SO , 2 NO to 3 NO Mn O O O O Electronic configuration : 4f1–14 5d0–1 6s2 Atomic and ionic sizes : Decreases fro m La to Lu Oxidation states : Most common is +3. Some elements exhibit +2 and +4. General characteristics : Silvery white soft metals and tarnish rapidly in air. Hardness increases with increasing atomic number. Metallic structure and good conductors of heat and electricity. Variable density. Trivalent lanthanoid ions are coloured. Ionisation Enthalpies : . Low third ionisation enthalpies Potassium dichromate K Cr O 2 2 7 Preparation : 4FeCr O2 4 + 8Na CO 2 3 + 7 O2 8Na Cr 2 O4 + 2Fe O2 3 +8C O2 2Na Cr 2 O4 + 2 H+ Na Cr 2 O2 7 + 2Na+ + H O2 Na Cr 2 O2 7 + 2KCl K Cr 2 O2 7 + 2NaCl Properties : Cr2 2 7 O + 14 H+ + 6e– 2Cr3+ + 7H O2 Oxidises iodides to iodine, H2S to S, 2 3 SO to 2 4 SO , 2 NO to 3 NO O O O Cr O Cr O O O 12 ° 6 179 pm 163 pm 2– Good reducing agents. 2 d f

Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry 23 To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 23 Coordination compounds [Co(en)3] 3+ Coordination Compounds fiIn coordination compounds metals show primary and secondary linkages (valances) Primary valences are ionisable and are satisfied by fi negative ions. Secondary valences are non-ionisable and are satisfied fi by neutral molecules or negative ions. Ions/groups bound by secondary linkages to metal fi have characteristic spatial arrangements corresponding to different coordination numbers. fiIn qualitative and quantitative chemical analysis. fiEstimation of hardnessof water. fiIn extraction of metals. fiIn purification of metals. fiIn biological systems. fiAs catalysts for industrial processes. fiIn black and white photography. fiIn medicinal chemistry. Optical: Images which cannot be superimposed attached to metal a ot m/ oi n. Caused by d-d transition; The colour is complementary to wavelength absorbed. [CO(N H3)6] [Cr(CN)6] [Cr(NH3)6] [CO(CN)6] [CO(NO2)(NH3)5]Cl [CO(ONO)(NH3)5]Cl [Co(N H3)5SO4]Br [CO(NH3) Br]SO 5 4 [Cr(H O) 2 6]Cl3 [Cr(H O) 2 Cl]Cl 5 2.H O2 and can displace a l gi and So vl ate-Differ ni number of water mo el cu el s Ligands are point charges and there is electrostatic force of attraction between ligands and metal atom/ion. Degeneracy of d orbitals is lifted causing splitting of d orbitals. fi0 depends upon the field produced by the ligand and charge on metal ion. Metal–carbon bond possess bothff and ffl character n(n+2) BM ffi Cation is named first. ffi Naming of ligands in alphabetical order. ffiAnionic ligands end in -o, neutral and cationic are same. ffi Prefixes mono, di, tri etc. are used. ffi Followed by Roman numeral in parentheses. ffi Central atom is listed first. ffi Ligands in alphabetical order. ffi Formula is enclosed in square bracket. ffi Polyatomic ligands in parenthesis. ffi No space bet ween ligand and metal. ffi Charge is indicated outside brackets. ffi Charge of cation(s) balanced by charge of anion(s). p mo C nuo i s d wn ci h a h ec t n ar ml t e l a t a mo or oi n si l ni k de ot a fixed Pt cis Pt trans NH3 NH3 NH3 NH3 Cl Cl Cl Cl ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi Coordination entity : A central metal atom/ion bonded to fixed number of ions or molecules. [Ni(CO) ] 4 Ligands : ons or molecules bound to central atom/ion types : I Unidentate – single donor, Didentate –two donors, Polydentate – several donors, Chelating – Di-or polydentate which forms more than one coordinate bonds. Ambidentate : Can ligate through two different atoms. Coordination number : o. of ligand donor atoms to which N metal is directly bonded. Coordination polyhedron : Spatial arrangement of ligand Central atom/ion atoms with central atom/ion. : tom/ion to which a fixed number of A ions/groups are bound in a definite geometrical arrangement. Coordination sphere : entral atom/ion and the ligands C attached to it and enclosed in square bracket. Oxidation number : harge of central atom if all ligands are C removed along with e– pairs shared with central atom. Homoleptic complex : etal is bound to one type of donor M groups. [Co(NH ) ] 3 6 3× Heteroleptic complex : etal is bound to more than one type M of donor groups [Co(NH ) Cl ] 3 4 2 + at S i b il yt E: px er s es d by equil bi r ui m Metal atom/ion under the influence of ligands can use its (n–1)d, ns, np or ns, np, nd orbitals for hybridisation sp (Tetrahedral), dsp (Square ; 3 2 planar) sp d (Trigonal pyramidal), sp d and d sp (Octahedral) 3 3 2 2 3 ; agnetic moment = M Co Co en en en en en en Mirror 3+ 3+ Dissociate completely into simple ions when dissolved in water. (Mohr’s salt FeSO .4 (NH ) SO .6H O) 4 2 4 2 Double salt Do not dissociate into simple ions when dissolved in water. ( K [Fe(CN) ] ) 4 6

24 Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 24 haloalkanes and haloarenes Haloalkanes and aloarenes H Chiral : Objects which are non-superimposable. Achiral : Objects which are superimposable. fi fi DDT Ha ol arenes No. of halogen atoms CHX 2 5 CH X2 CH X2 Monohaloalkane Dihaloalkane X X X X X X Monohaloarene Dihaloarene Trihaloarene Compounds containing sp C–X bond 3 (a) Alkyl halides (b) Allylic halides (c) Benzylic halides Compounds containing sp C–X bond 2 (a) Vinylic halides (b) Aryl halides Nomenclature Common name : Alkyl group followed by halides ihalogen derivatives, prefixes o–, . D m–, p– are used. IUPAC name : Numerals are used. Nature of C –X bond : arbon –halogen bond is polarized. C H C H X R R C H X R R C X R R X CH X2 CH X2 X X C fi+ X fi– ff ff ff ff ff (a) Dextro (+/d) (b) Laevo (–/l) Solvent for fats, alkaloids, I etc. Production of freon. ff ff Antiseptic For aerosol propellants, refrigeration and air conditioning purposes. As insecticide Reaction : s (a) Nucleophilic substitution (i) Resonance effect (ii) Hybridization of C – X bond in : Haloalkane –sp ; Haloarence –sp 3 2 (iii) Phenyl cation unstabilised by resonance (b) Electrophilic substitution (c) Reaction with metals Wurtz – Fitting reaction Fittig reaction Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl NO2 (I) NaOH, 623K, 300atm (ii) H+ fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffi (I) NaOH, 443K fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffi OH OH NO2 Cl Cl Cl HNO3 fflfflfflfflfflffi conc. H SO2 4 conc. fflfflfflfflfflffi H SO2 4 +Cl2 Anhyd FeCl . 3 fflfflfflfflfflffi Cl Cl NO2 SO H3 Cl NO2 Cl SO H3 X R + Na + RX Ether + NaX fflfflffi X + 2Na Ether + 2NaX fflfflffi Cl 2 + CH Cl 3 Anhyd. AlCl3 Anhyd. AlCl3 +H C–C–Cl 3 O Cl Cl CH3 CH3 O + Cl CH3 + Cl CH3 O Friedel – Crafts reaction ff Manufacture of refrigerants and propellants. Cleaning fluid. ff ff Paint remover. Propellant in aerosols. Metal cleaning and finishing solvent. ff ff ff Preparation From alcohol : R–OH + HCl R–Cl + H O fflfflffi 2 3R–OH + PX 3R–X + H PO 3 3 3 fflfflffi ROH + PCl R–Cl + POCl + HCl 5 3 fflfflffi From hydrocarbons : (a) By free radical halogenation CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH Cl + CH CH CHClCH 3223 3222 3 2 3 fflfflfflffi (b) By electrophilic substitution (c) Sandmeyer’s reaction (d) From alkenes Halogen exchange : R–X + NaI R – I + NaX ffi Properties Physical : olourless, volatile, sweet sm ll. C e B.P : RI > RBr > RCl > RF. M.P : Para isomers have high m.p. than ortho and meta – isomers. Density : Increases with increase in number of C/X atoms and atomic masses of the X atoms. Solubility : Very slightly soluble in water. Chemical : (a) Nucleophilic substitution (b) Elimination reaction (c) Reaction with metals CH CH Br + Mg CH CH MgBr 2 2 3 2 fflfflffi Wurtz reaction : 2RX + 2Na RR + 2NaX fflfflfflfflfflfflfflffi ZnCl2 Cl /UV 2 CH3 + X2 Fe fflfflffi Dark CH3 X + CH3 X NH2 NaNO HX 2+ 273-278K fflfflfflfflfflfflffi N X2 X Cu X2 2 fflfflfflffi + N2 C=C + HX ffi C C H H H C=CH +Br BrCH –CH Br 2 2 2 2 2 CCl fflfflffi4 Nu + C fi+ X fi– fflffi C – Nu + X– For S reaction N2 Tertiary, Secondary, Primary For S reaction N1 fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffi fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffi fl fl ff ff ff ff ff H C C C=C + B–H + X fflffi X B B = Base; X = Leaving group + + Dry ether Lower members are gases at room temperature while higher are solids. Cl Cl Cl Cl +

Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry 25 To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 25 alcohols, phenols and ethers Alcohols, Phenols And Ethers (i) OH bond Containing C – sp3 CH OH 2 CHOH COH (1°) (2°) (3°) (ii)Containing C OH bond sp2 – Vinylic alcohol : CH = CH – OH Phenols: 2 OH (i) A Simple/symmetrical : lkyl or aryl attached to O are same. 2 (ii) Mixed/unsymmetrical : wo groups T are different. 1. By dehydration of alcohols CH CH 3 OH 2 H SO 2 4 413 K fifififififf C H2 OC 5 H2 5 2. Williamson synthesis RX + R’ONa fiff R–O–R’ + NaX (i) Physical : fflBoiling point increases with increase in the number of C atoms. fflSolubility decreases with increase in size of alky/aryl groups. C H2 OH 5 H SO 2 4 443 K fifififififf CH2 = C H2 + H O; 2 RC H2 OH Oxidation fififififififf (ii) Chemical : 2–R–O–H + 2Na 2R–O–Na + H fiff 2 ;Acidity – primary > secondary > tertiary Ar/RO – H + R’ –COO H +H Ar/ROCOR’ + H O R 2 OH + HX R –X + H O ; fiff 2 R-C=O R-C=O fiff H OH Dil. HNO3 Conc. HNO3 Br in CS 2 2 3Br2 Zn Na Cr O 2 2 7 H SO2 4 OH OH NO2 + NO2 OH OH NO2 O N2 NO2 273K OH Br + OH Br OH Br Br Br + O Zn O O Kolbe’s reaction : OH NaOH ONa (i) CO2 (ii) H+ OH COOH Reimer Tiemann reaction : OH CHCl3 aqNaOH ONa CHCl2 NaOH ONa CHO H+ OH CHO (i)Physical : (ii)Chemical : R–O–R + HX fiff RX + R–OH Friedel-Crafts reaction : ffl C–O bonds are polar. ffl Boiling points comparable to those of alkanes. ffl Solubility in water as alcohols. OCH3 Br in 2 Ethanoic acid H SO2 4 OCH3 OCH3 Br + Br OCH3 NO2 + OCH3 NO2 OCH3 + CH Cl 3 Anhyd.AlCl3 CS2 OCH3 CH3 + OCH3 CH3 ffl Methanol (Wood spirit) : Used as solvent in paint, varnishes and making formaldehyde. ffl Ethanol : Used as solvent in paint industry and preparation of a number of carbon compounds. OH + NaOHfiff ONa fiff OR R-X 3CH3–CH2–CH2–OH+B(OH)3 H O2 2. From carbonyl compounds : (i)By reduction of aldehydes and ketones RCHO + H2 Pd RCH H RCOR’ 2O , NaBH4 (ii)By reduction of carboxylic acids and esters RCOOH R'OH +H RCOOR’ catalyst RCH OH 2 + R’OH 3. From Grignard reagent 1. From alkenes :- (i) By acid catalysed hydration C=C +H2O H+ (ii) By hydroboration – oxidation CH3–CH =CH2+(H–BH2)2 CH –CH–CH 3 2 H BH2 CH CH=CH –3 2 Common name : Alkyl group + ol; IUPAC name : substituting ‘e’ of alkane with suffix ‘ol’ Common name : erms ortho, meta and para T are used. lUPAC name : Dihydroxy derivatives as 1,2–, 1,3– and 1,4 –benzenediol Common name : Alkyl/aryl groups in alphabetical order followed by ether. IUPAC name : In alkyl /aryl group ’e’ replaced by oxy followed by parent hydrocarbon. R–CH–R' – OH groups ffl ffi Oxygen of –OH group is attached to C by a bond formed by the overlap of sp orbital of C with a sp orbital of oxygen. 3 3 fflIn ethers, tetrahedral arrangement for four electron pairs. – – – – C – C – – – – – – H OH – –( HC 3–CH2–CH2 2) BH 3H O ,OH 2 2 CH –CH –CH ) B CH –CH CH 322 3 3 2 H ( = ) H2 C – OMg–X – –– R C=O+R MgX – – [ [ H O2 C – OH+Mg(OH)X – –– R 1. From haloarenes 2. From benzene sulphonic acid Cl +NaOHfiff623K 300atm ONa fiffHCl OH Oleum fiff SO H3 (i) NaOH fiff OH (ii) H+ 4. From Cumene CH –CH 3 fiffO2 CH –C–O–OH 3 fiff H+ +CH COCH 3 3 H O2 3. From diazonium salts NH2 NaNO fiff2 N Cl 2 fiff OH Warm HCl H O2 +N +HCl 2 OH – CH3 –CH3 OCH3 + CH COCl 3 Anhyd.AlCl3 OCH3 COCH3 + OCH3 COCH3 HNO3

26 Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 26 aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids Aldehydes, Ketones nd a Carboxylic cids A 1. Aldehydes and Ketones Common names : Replace corresponding carboxylic acids with aldehyde. Alkyl phenyl ketones by adding acyl group as prefix to phenone. IUPAC names : Replacing –e with –al and –one as required. Structure of Carbonyl group fi bond C O sp2 sp2 C O 120° 120° O C 2. Carboxylic Acids Common names : end with –ic IUPAC names : replace –e in the corresponding alkane with –oic acid. Structure of Carboxyl Group –C O O–H –C O O–H –C O O–H + 3. USES (a) Carboxylic acids Methanoic acid in rubber, textile, dyeing, leather industries. Ethanoic acid as solvent Higher fatty acids in manufacture of soaps and detergents. (b) Aldehydes of ketones As solvents. Starting materials and reagents for synthesis of products. ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ALDEHYDES: 1. From acyl chloride 2. From nitriles and esters : Stephen reaction RCN + SnCl + HCl RCH = NH R CHO 2 fflffi fflfflfflffi 3. From hydrocarbons : Etard reaction Gratterman – Koch reaction C Cl H2 Pd-BaSO4 CHO CH3 CS2 CH(OCrOHCl )2 2 + CrO Cl 2 2 H O3 + CHO CH3 Cl /hv 2 CHCl2 H O2 373K CHO CO.HCl Anhyd.AlCl3 CHO KETONES: 1.From acyl chloride 2R–Mg– + CdCl R Cd + 2Mg(X)Cl X fflffi 2 2 2R -C-Cl ’ = O 2R -C-R +C Cl ’ ’ d 2 = O -C -C = = 2.From nitriles CH CH CN + C H Mg Br 3 2 6 5 Ether CH CH 3 2 C H2 5 C H6 5 C H6 5 NMgBr O H O3 + C = = Ar/R O O Anhyd.A Cl l 3 +Ar/R-C-Cl 3.From benzene or substituted benzenes Carboxylic Acids: 1.From primary alcohols and aldehydes RCH OH RCOOH 2 2.From alkylbenzine 3.From nitriles and amides R–CN 4.From Grignard reagents 5.From acyl halides and anhydrides 6.From esters alk. KMnO4 H O3 + CH3 KMnO -KOH 4 H O+ 3 COOK COOH COOC2H5 H O3 + = R-C-NH2 O H+or OH H+or OH– H O2 RCOOH =O R–Mg –X + CO2 R-O =O g M X H O+ 3 RCOOH ROCl OH- /H O2 RCOO + Cl – – H O+ 3 RCOOH C H COOCOCH 6 5 3 H O2 C H COOH + CH COOH 6 5 3 COOH + CHO H 2 5 H O+ 3 CH CH CH COOC H 322 2 5 CH CH CH COONa+C H O H 322 2 5 NaOH CH CH CH COOH 322 P er parat oi n ff O 120° ALDEHYDES AND KETONES: (i) Physical: Boiling points are higher than hydrocarbons and ethers of comparable molecular masses. (ii)Chemical :Nucleophilic addition reactions : Aldehydes are more reactive than ketones due to steric and electronic reasons. Reduction : (a) To alcohols – aldehydes and ketones reduce to primary and secondary alcohols respectively by NaBH or LiAlH . 4 4 (b) To hydrocarbons – Oxidation: RCHO R–COOH RCHO + 2[Ag(NH )] + 3OH RCOO + 2Ag + 2H O + 4NH Tollen’s test : 3 + – – 2 3 2 Fehling’s test : RCHO + 2Cu + 5OH RCOO + Cu O + 3H O 2+ – 2 2 [O] Red brown ppt Haloform reaction: Reactions due to - hydrogen fl : 2CH CHO CH –CH=CH–CHO 3 3 2CH COCH 3 3 Cannizzaro reaction : 2HCHO + conc KOH CH OH + HCOOK 3 Electrophilic substitution reaction: diNaOH Ba(OH)2 HCN+OH– :CN +H O; – 2 C=O+ C + + :CN O– CN C CN CH C=O+ C=O C=O C=NNH2 CH +N (Wolf-Kishner) 2 2 R R CH OH 2 CH OH 2 HCl gas Dil. HCl C O-CH2 O-CH2 R R +H O2 Zn-Hg NH NH 2 2 KOH/Ethylene glycol HCl -H O2 Heat CH + H O (Clemmensen Reduction) 2 2  CHO HNO /H SO 3 2 4 273-283 K CHO (i) Physical: Higher boiling points than aldehydes, ketones or alcohols. Solubility decreases with increasing number of C atoms (ii)Chemical : 2RCOOH + 2Na 2RCOONa + H fflffi 2 Forms corresponding anhydride on heating with mineral acids RCOOH + R’OH RCOOR’ + H O2 RCOOH + PCl RCOCl + POCl + HCl 5 3 CH COOH + NH CH COONH CH CONH 3 3 3 4 3 2 RCOOH RCH OH 2 RCOONa R–H+Na CO 2 3 RCH COOH R–CH–COOH (HVZ reaction) 2 H+ -H O2 B H2 6 H O3 + Heat NaOH & CaO X /Red P H O2 Carboxylic acids: =O RCC ––H3 NaOX =OR C– –ONa+CHX3  CH C C H 3– H= –CHO –H O2 – OH CH CH 3 3 –C=CH–CO– – CH3  –H O2 CH3 3 –C=CH COCH 2 – CH3 – OH CH3CHO  NaOH CH CH CH H 3 3 –CH=CH–CHO+ – –C =C–CHO 2 CH3 –  – – X H O3 + NO2

Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry 27 To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 27 Organic compounds containing nitrogen Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen Structure –CH3 CH3 CH3 108fi Classification NH3 RNH2 N– H R R’ N–R” R R’ Nomenclature: Common name : Aliphatic amine is named by prefixing alkyl group to amine. In secondary and tertiary amines prefix di or tri is put before name of alkyl group. IUPAC name : replacement of ‘e’ of alkane by the word amine. Suffix ’e’ of arene is replaced by amine. Preparation : CHNH + NaNO + 2HCl CHN Cl + NaCl + 2H O 6 5 2 2 6 5 2 2 273-278K Physical properties : olourless crystalline solid, soluble in water, C stable in cold but reacts with water on warming. Chemical properties : Sandmeyer reaction: ArCl + N2 (i) ArN X2 ArBr + N2 Cu Cl /HCl 2 2 Gattermann reaction : (ii) ArN Cl + KI ArI + KCl + N 2 2 (iii) ArN Cl + HBF ArN BF ArF + BF + N 2 4 2 4 3 2 (iv) ArN Cl + H PO + H O ArH + N + H PO + HCl 2 3 2 2 2 3 3 (v) ArN Cl + H O ArOH + N + HCl 2 2 2 (iv) Coupling reaction : N Cl 2 +H OH N=N OH +Cl +H O2 NH2 N Cl 2 +H H+ N=N NH +Cl +H O 2 2 (Yellow dye) (Orange dye) (i) Basic character of amines Reacts with acids to form salts R – NH + HX R – NH X (salt) 2 3 Reacts with base to regenerate parent amines RNH + H O + X 2 2 Order of stability of ions : 1° > 2° > 3° (ii) C H NH+CH C Cl 2 5 3 fi fi fi= O C H2 5 Base C H N C C H +HCl 2 5 3 fi fi fi= O C H2 5 (iii) Carbylamine reaction : R–NH + CHCl + 3KOH 2 3 R–NC + 3KCl + 3H O2 With nitrous acid (iv) RNH + HNO 2 2 [R – N Cl] ROH + N + HCl 2 2 H O2 NaNO +HCl 2 CHN H CHN Cl + NaCl + 2H O 6 5 2 6 5 2 2 NaNO +HCl 2 273-278K (vi) Electrophilic substitution NH2 +3Br2 Br /H O 2 2 NH2 Br Br Br +3HBr NH2 H SO2 4 NH HSO 3 4 453-473K NH2 SO H3 NH3 SO3 (v) -S-Cl+H N-C H 2 2 5 =O = O –S–H–C H +HCl 2 5 =O = O r P pe arat oi n : Physical properties In preparation of substituted aromatic compounds which cannot be prepared by direct substitution in benzene/ substituted benzene. aromatic compounds : Importance of diazonium salts in synthesis of Lower aliphatic amines are gases. Primary amines with three or more C atoms are liquid and higher ones are solid. Arylamines are colourless but get coloured on storage. Lower aliphatic amines are soluble in water, while higher are insoluble. Primary and secondary amines form intermolecular association. Boiling point : primary > secondary > tertiary 1.Reduction of nitro compounds NO2 ; H /Pd 2 Ethanol NH2 NO2 Sn+HCl or Fe+HCl NH2 2. Ammonolysis of alkyl halides NH3 + R – X R–N X– + H3 3.Reduction of nitriles H /Ni 2 Na(Hg)/C H2 5 R–C N R – CH NH 2 2 4.Reduction of amides R – CH – N H 2 2 H O2 LiAlH4 R – C– NH2 =O 5.Gabriel phthalimide synthesis C C N– H KO H C C NK RX N–R NaOH( ) aq C C ONa C C =O =O =O =O ONa +RNH2 6.Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction R–C–NH +Br +4NaOH 2 2 R – NH + Na CO +2NaBr+2H O 2 2 3 2 =O OH O O Cu Br /HBr 2 2 CuCN/KCN ArCN+N2 ArCl + N +CuX 2 ArN X2 ArBr + N +CuX 2 Cu/HCl Cu/HBr =O =O HNO H SO , 2 4 288K NH2 NO + 2 NH2 NO2 + NH2 NO2 (51%) (47%) (2%) NH2 RNH X + OH 3

28 Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 28 biomolecules Biomolecules Chromosomes : Particles in nucleus responsible for heredity. Chromosomes are made up of proteins and nucleic acid. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA) Two types : In DNA, sugar is –D–2–deoxyribose whereas in RNA is –D–ribose. Composition : fi fi DNA contains A,G,C,T whereas RNA has A,G,C,U. Structure : – Formed by attachment of a base to 1’ of sugar’ Nucleoside : Formed by link to phosphoric acid at 5’ of sugar. Nucleotide : –Sugar–Phosphate– Sugar–Phosphate –Sugar– Types of RNA : m–RNA, r–RNA, t–RNA – Base ff ff – Base Biological Functions : ffl Chemical basis of heredity. Responsible for identity of different species of organisms. ffl Nucleic acids are responsible for protein synthesis in cell. ffl Organic compounds required in diet in small amounts to perform specific biological functions for maintenance and growth. Classification: (i) Fat soluble : Soluble in fats and oils but insoluble in water. ( itamins A,D,E and K) V (ii) Water soluble : B group and vitamin C are soluble in water. -(Polymers of –amino acids) ffi Classification: On the basis of relative number of –NH and –COOH group 2 : ( ) Neutral qual number of –NH and –COOH group. i : E 2 (ii) Basic ore number of –NH than –COOH group. : M 2 (iii) Acidic ore number of –COOH than –NH group. : M 2 On the basis of place of synthesis: (i) Essential – cannot be synthesized in the body. (ii) Non-essential – synthesized in the body. On the basis of shape : (I) Fibrous ibre like structure : F - (ii) Globular pherical : S Structure : H N – CH – 2 2 CO–NH – C H –COOH – CH3 Peptide linkage When a protein in its native form is subjected to physical change, globules unfold, helix get uncoiled and protein loses its biological activity. Denaturation of proteins : Enzymes Globular proteins specific for particular reaction and for particular substrate. Mechanism : Reduces the magnitude of activation energy a C br ho dy ar et s Optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compounds which produce such units on hydrolysis. Classification: (I) Monosaccharides : (Aldehyde group – aldose, keto group –ketose) Glucose : Preparation : (a) From sucrose : C H O + H O C H O + C H O 12 22 11 2 6 12 6 6 12 6 6 10 5 2 6 12 (b) From starch : (C H O )n + nH O nC H O6 Structure: H+ Sucrose Glucose Fructose H+ 393K; 2-3 atm (ii) Disaccharides : Linkage between 2 monosaccharides– Glycosidic linkage (Sucrose, maltose) (iii) Polysaccharides : Large number of monosaccharides units joined by glycosidic linkages. (a) Starch : Polymer of –glucose with two components amylase and amylopectin ffi (b) Cellulose (c) Glycogen Importance: fflForm a major portion of food. As storage molecules. ffl Cellulose forms cell wall of bacteria and plants. ffl Raw materials for industries like textiles, paper, lacquers and breweries. ffl CHO (CHOH)4 CH OH 2 CH CH CH CH CH 32223 HI, NH OH 2 HCN Br Water 2 COOH (CHOH)4 (CH OH) 2 Acetic Anhydride CHO (CH–O–C–CH )3 4 CH –O–C–CH 2 3 Oxidation COOH (CHOH)4 COOH CH CNOH (CHOH)4 CH OH 2 (CHOH)4 CH OH 2 CH=N–OH =O =O CHO (CHOH)4 CH OH 2 Structure of Fructose Furan HOH2C H OH H H HOH2C H OH H OH fructofuranose fi–D–(–)– fructofuranose ffi–D–(–)– O O Cylcic Structure CH OH 2 Pyran OH H OH H H OH H OH Glucopyranose ffi–D–( ) + – Glucopyranose fi–D–(+)– O CH OH 2 OH OH H H O H OH OH H -Amino acids contain –NH and –COOH group. 2 – Base H OH CH2OH OH CH OH 2OH O H H O

Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry 29 To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 29 polymers Polymers Rubber fiExpressed as an average. fiDetermined by chemical and physical methods. Contain functional groups similar to biopolymers (PHBV, Nylon 2– nylon 6) fi Polythene Low density : olymerization of eth ne under 1000–2000 atm at 350–570 K + catalyst Higher density : P e Addition polymerization of eth ne in a hydrocarbon solvent at 333–343 K and 6–7 atm + catalyst. e fi Teflon nCF : 2 = CF2 Catalyst High pressure ffffffffffffffffffl fi Polyacrylonitrile nC H : =C 2 HCN Polymerisation Peroxide ffffffffffffffffffl (i) Natural polymers : ound in plants and animals. ( roteins, rubber) F P (ii) Semi–synthetic polymers : ( ellulose derivatives) C (iii) Synthetic polymers : Man-made. (Polythene, Buna –S) (i) Natural rubber : Natural and manufactured from rubber latex. It is a liner polymer of isoprene. (ii) Synthe rubber : tic Any vulcanisable rubber. These are homopolymers of 1,3 butadiene derivatives. Types : CF [ 2–CF2]n fi Nylon 6 6 nHOOC(C H , : 2)4 COOH + n H2(C H2) NH 6 2 533K High pressure ffffffffffffffffl N –C –(CH (CH 2 2 ) –N ) 6 4 n –C– O H O O ffffl ffffl CH–C–O–O–C–C H 6 5 6 5 O O O 2C H –C– O 6 5 2C H6 5 . . 533 - 543 K H O2 ffffffffffffffffffl fi Nylon 6: N H C2 H C2 CH2 CH2 C= O H C2 C–(C H2 5) – N O n H Caprolact ma – – – – H –– – – CH2–CH]n CN – N CH =C CH=CH – l– 2 2 [ – – ] CH C=CH CH 2 2 n Polymerisation – Cl – C – – Neoprene nC H =C 2 H–CH=C H +2 ffffl[CH –CH=CH–CH –CH–CH ] n 2 2 2 Butadiene Styrene Butadiene – styrene copolymer CH=CH O2 The polymers made by addition polymerisation from two different monomers are known as copolymers. Those polymers which do not degrade in environment and accumulate in the for m of waste, e.g., polythene, polystyrene, etc. They consists of long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms joined by strong interatomic bonding making it hard for microbes to break the bonds and digest them. (2-Chloro-1, 3-butadiene) Po yl esters Examples Terylene (dacron) Terephthalic acid nHOCH — — +nHO+C— —C—OH —O——— 2 H O 2 2 2 2 CH OH CH CH O—C— —C—+ n 2 Ethylene glycol —— O 423-475 K ( Glyptal Terephthalic acid nHCO— — —OH+nHO— —OH —O— — — CH CH CH CH O—C C—+2nH O 2 2 2 2 2 Ethylene glycol — — C C—— —— O O Heat —— —— O — — O ( ( —— O —— O —— O Polymers having large number of ester linkages fi Phenol-formaldehyde resin (Bakelite) : It is heat resistant thermosetting plastic OH— + HCHO OH– or H+ OH— —CH OH 2 + OH— —CH OH 2 CH OH 2 — + OH— —CH OH 2 CH OH 2 — — HOH C2 OH— —CH2 CH2 — — OH— —CH2 CH2 — — OH— — CH2 — — — —CH2 — OH — — — — OH OH — — — — CH2 — OH– Condensation Polymerisation + ( n Bakelite

30 Oswaal 32 Years NEET Mind Maps, chemistry To know about more useful books for NEET click here CHAPTER : 30 chemistry in everyday life Chemistry ni Everyday Life Antacids : ubstances that neutralize the excess HCl and raise S pH in stomach (Ranitidine, Cimetidine). Antihistamines : Interfere with natural action of histamine by competing with histamine for binding sites of receptor where histamine exerts its effect. Neurologically Active Drugs Tranquilizers : Class of chemical compounds used for the treatment of stress and mild or even severe mental diseases. (Iproniazid, Phenelzine) Analgesics : Reduce/abolish pain without causing impairment of consciousness, mental confusion, incoordination or paralysis or other disturbances of nervous system. These are classified as: (i) Non-narcotic (non-addictive) : (Aspirin, Paracetamol) (ii) Narcotic : (Morphine) Antimicrobials Antibiotics : Drugs to treat infections because of their low toxicity for humans and animals. (Prontosil) Antiseptics and Disinfectants : Chemicals which either kill or prevent the growth of microorganisms. Antiseptics are applied to living tissues whereas disinfectants are applied to inanimate objects. Antifertility Drugs : Birth control pills. (Norethindrone, ethynylestradiol) (a) (b) (a) (b) fi fi fi fi fi Purpose: For their preservation. Enhancing their appeal. Adding nutritive value. Artificial Sweetening Agents : Natural sweeteners (sucrose), artificial sweeteners (Aspartame, Saccharin) Food Preservatives : Prevent spoilage of food due to microbial growth. (Table salt, sugar) (a) (b) fi fi fi Synthetic Detergents : Anionic detergents : Sodium salts of sulphonated long chain alcohols or hydrocarbons. (Sodium salts of alkyl benzene sulphonates) Cationic detergents : Quaternary ammonium salts of amines with acetates, chlorides or bromides as anions. (Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide) Non-ionic Detergents : Non-ionic type. (ii) Soap (Saponification) Glycer fi fi fi yl ester + Sodium Sodium + Glycerol ffffl f stearic acid ( at) hydroxide stearate o f (i) Drugs are chemicals of low molecular masses. Interact with macromolecular targets to produce a biological response. Classification of drugs: On the basis of pharmalogical effect : Provides range of drugs available for a particular type of problem. (Analgesics, Antiseptics). On the basis of drug action : (Antihistamines inhibit action of histamine responsible for causing inflammation in the body. On the basis of chemical structure : Common structural features. (Sulphonamides) On the basis of molecular targets : Most useful. Drugs-Target Interaction: Enzymes as Drug Targets Catalytic action of enzymes (a) (c) (i) (a) (b) (d) Enzyme Substrate Enzyme holding sub ts rate Drug–enzyme interaction Receptors as Drug Targets: Receptors are proteins crucial for body’s communication and are embedded in cell membrane. (ii) (b) fi fi fi Active site Active site Drug Substrate Enzyme Drug and substrate competing for active site of enzyme Drug Substrate Enzyme Active site Active site Enzyme Allosteric site Inhibitor occupying allosteric site Drug blocks the active site of enzyme