Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 44 | P a g e The Empire State Building in New York City, an international landmark, is an excellent example of the architectural style knows as Art Deco. It was designed by the architectural firm of Shreve, Lamb, and Harmon. William Lamb was the chief designer. ii. Horizontal Line– Represents calm, peace, and relaxation. A horizontal line can represent stability, the ground plane, the horizon, or a body at rest. Community Christian Church Kansas City, MO Architect: Frank Lloyd Wright, 1940 Frank Lloyd Wright was well known for using horizontal lines in many of his designs. iii. Diagonal Line–Represents action, activity, excitement, and movement, an oblique line is a deviation from the vertical or horizontal. It may be seen as a vertical line is falling or a horizontal line rising. It is dynamic and visually active in its unbalanced state.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 45 | P a g e Octavio Frias de Oliverira Bridge in Sao Paulo, Brazil. This is a cable-stayed suspension bridge which opened in May 2008. It is the only bridge in the world that has two curved approaches supported by a single concrete mast. iv. Curved Line – Represents freedom, the natural, having the appearance of softness, and creates a soothing feeling or mood. Curved lines often appear more natural than angular lines. Sydney Opera House Jorn Utzon
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 46 | P a g e Flowing, curved lines are used in the roof structure of the Sydney Opera House, and the Sydney Harbor Bridge in the background. The Sydney Opera House is a worldfamous work of architecture. 3.1.3 PLANE A line extended in a direction other than its intrinsic direction becomes a plane. Conceptually, a plane has length and width, but no depth. Shape is the primary identifying characteristic of a plane. It is determined by the contour of the line forming the edges of a plane. Because our perception of shape can be distorted by perspective foreshortening, we see the true shape of a plane only when view it frontally. The supplementary properties of a plane are its surface color, pattern, and texture affects its visual weight and stability. In the composition of a visual construction, a plane serves to define the limits or boundaries of a volume. In Architectural design, we manipulate three generic types of planes: i. Overhead plane The overhead plane can be either the roof plane that shelters the interior spaces of a building from the climatic elements, or the ceiling that forms the upper enclosing surface of the room.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 47 | P a g e ii. Wall plane The wall plane, because of its vertical orientation, is active in our normal field of vision and vital to the shaping and enclosure of architectural space. The wall planes isolate a portion of space to create a controlled interior environment. Their construction provides both privacy and protection from the climatic elements for the interior spaces of a building, while openings within or between their boundaries reestablish a connection with the exterior environment. iii. Base plane The base plane can either be ground plane that serves as the physical foundation, and visual base for building forms, or the floor plane that forms the lower enclosing surface of a room upon which we walk. The base plane ultimately supports all architectural construction.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 48 | P a g e 3.1.4 VOLUME A plane extended in a direction other than its intrinsic direction becomes a volume. Conceptually, a volume has three dimensions: length, width and depth. All volumes can be analyzed and understood to consist of: - points or vertices where several planes come together - lines or edges where two planes meet - planes or surfaces which define the limits or boundaries of a volume. Form is the primary identifying characteristic of a volume. It established by
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 49 | P a g e the shapes and interrelationships of the planes that describe the boundaries of the volume. As the three-dimensional element in the vocabulary of architectural design, a volume can be either a solid space displaced by mass or a void space contained or enclosed by planes. Le Corbusier's Ronchamp chapel is one of the 20th century's most important buildings 3.1.5 FORM Form is the mass, or grouping of materials, used to give a building its shape. Form (3D): The shape and structure of something as distinguished from its substance or material. Shape (2D): The two-dimensional contour that characterizes an object or area. Geometric shapes are very pleasing to the eye, and they help you to create bold and striking compositions. Circles, ovals, squares, rectangles, triangles and diamond shapes are all commonly found in architectural structures.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 50 | P a g e Marie-Elisabeth-Lüders-House Berlin, Germany The scientific service centre of the German Parliament is directly on the Spree. This building, inaugurated in 2003, owes its name to the social politician and women's rights campaigner Marie Elisabeth Lüders.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 51 | P a g e The Oriental Tower is a television tower in Shanghai and includes fifteen observatory levels and a revolving restaurant. Its design includes 11 spheres, large and small. Manchester Civil Justice Centre
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 52 | P a g e 3.1.6 COLOR Color is the important element in architectural design. Color has an immediate and profound effect on a design. Colorful hilltop buildings in Guanajuato Mexico Saint Basil’s Cathedral, Moscow
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 53 | P a g e Primarily colors are divided into three types: i. Primary colors ii. Secondary colors iii. Tertiary colors i. Primary Colors Red, blue and yellow are the primary colors. These colors cannot be mixed; they are used to mix all the rest of the colors on the color wheels. ii. Secondary Colors Orange, Green and Violet are the secondary colors. These colors are the result of mixing two primaries together. iii. Tertiary Colors Red-Orange, Yellow-Orange, Yellow-Green, Blue-Green, Blue-Violet and Red-Violet. These colors result when mixing a primary and a secondary together also known as ‘Intermediate’.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 54 | P a g e There are two categories of colors: 1.Cool Colors Blues, purples, greens 2.Warm Colors Reds, oranges, yellows Colors can affect how humans feel and act
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 55 | P a g e 3.2 PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURE The ordering principles form part of a larger order of architectural composition seen in most buildings throughout the world. The architect initially thinks about their designs in terms of the architecture principles, but they are primarily used as a tool to understand what the design achieves. The principles of architecture are given below: 3.2.1 AXIS A Line established by two points in space about which form and spaces can be arranged in symmetrical and balanced manner is called an axis. The axis is a linear condition; it has qualities of length and direction and induces movement and views along its path. The Axis is the most common organizing principle among all the architecture principles. It is an imaginary line that is used to arrange a group of elements in the design. It is usually represented by a dashed line in drawings & diagrams. This line initially helps to organize a design. Often the axis is at the centre of a building or over an entrance doorway.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 56 | P a g e When the architect use axis or focal point in their design it acts like a straight arrow on a sign, pointing you in the right direction. As for example, Taj Mahal at Agra is planned by following the axis as a focal point to an entrance doorway so that the building is focused on the central tomb chamber. Taj Mahal, Agra, India Here is the example of Courtyard house in China with a schematic sketch showing how spaces are arranged and planned through the axis.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 57 | P a g e A great example of this ordering principle is found in La Jolla, California at the Salk Institute, designed by architect Louis Kahn. This is a building used for research facilities and office space. You can see there is a balance of the buildings on either side of the axis of the waterway cutting through the courtyard. There are two types of axis: i. Vertical Axis ii. Horizontal Axis 3.2.2 SYMMETRY The balanced distribution and arrangement of equivalent forms and spaces on opposite sides of dividing plane or about a central axis is called symmetry.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 58 | P a g e Roman Basilica 3.2.3 HIERARCHY The articulation of importance and significance of form or space by its size shape and placement relative to other forms and spaces of organization is called hierarchy.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 59 | P a g e The architects Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (S.O.M.) designed the Beinecke Library for Yale University in New Haven, MA. Obvious throughout the interior and exterior is the principle of hierarchy as the massive block of the stacks are resting upon the lower level welcome center. The panels on the posterior are made of alabaster stone which the daylight shines through and illuminates each unique square. 3.2.4 RHYTHM A Unifying movement characterized by patterned repetition or alteration of formal elements or motifs in same or modified forms is called rhythm. It is also defined as repeated use of line, shape, color, texture or pattern.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 60 | P a g e Santiago Calatrava utilized knowledge of the human body as it twists in his design of the Turning Torso of Malmo, Sweden. Types of Rhythm i. Regular rhythm ii. Random rhythm iii. Gradated rhythm Regular Rhythm An element is repeated at the same repetition/interval each time. A regular rhythm is created in the floor by repeating the same pattern of bricks and tiles.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 61 | P a g e The undulating hotel balconies are repeated at each level, creating a regular rhythm. Random Rhythm The beats of the element are random or are at irregular intervals. The repeated use of the onion domes creates a random Rhythm in the design of Saint Basil’s Cathedral.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 62 | P a g e Gradated Rhythm The repeated element is identical with the exception of one detail increasing or decreasing gradually with each repition.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 63 | P a g e 3.2.5 DATUM A line plane or volume that, by its continuity and regularity, serves together, measure and organizes a pattern of form and spaces is called datum. Steven Holl designed the Chapel of St. Ignatious in Seattle, WA that uses the datum principle in its design. The pond in front of the building acts as an introduction, or a datum point of reference, to the colorful building. 3.2.6 TRANSFORMATION Transformation is the principle that an architectural concept, structure, or organization can be altered through a series of discrete manipulations and permutations in response to a specific context or set of conditions without a loss of identity or concept.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 64 | P a g e The AEGIS Hypo surface project by architect Mark Goulthorpe. The concept behind the wall is these tiles move with sound. A 3D wall that is transforming right before your eyes. 3.2.7 BALANCE When establishing balance we consider visual weight created by size, color, texture and number of objects. Balance is the concept of visual equilibrium and relates to our physical sense of balance. Balance provides stability and structure to a design by placing the elements in such a way that the visual weight, in terms of objects, colors, textures and space, is distributed. For example, a large shape positioned close to the centre can be balanced by a small shape close to the edge. Most successful compositions achieve balance in one of two ways.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 65 | P a g e Symmetrical Symmetrical Balance can be described as having equal weights on equal sides of a centrally placed fulcrum. PETRONAS twin towers, Malaysia Asymmetrical Asymmetrical balance, also called informal balance, is more complex and difficult to achieve. It involves placement of objects in a way that will allow objects of varying visual weight to balance one another around a central point. It just means that there are no mirror images in a composition.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 66 | P a g e Asymmetric holiday homes by Studio Koossino feature bright yellow walls 3.2.8 EMPHASIS Emphasis creates a focal point in a design composition. This is the part of the design that catches attention, usually achieved by contrasting areas in terms of size, color, direction, form, density, texture, shape, and so on. In architecture it is the feature that commands attention and makes a design visually interesting.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 67 | P a g e 3.2.9 UNITY This establishes an agreement between elements so that no individual element is viewed as more important than the design as a whole. Proximity is achieved, not necessarily by placing the elements together, but by connecting them visually. 3.2.10 CONTRAST Contrast is simply defined as difference, difference between elements or subjects within a work of art or composition. Contrast can be created through variety within the element of art (i.e value, color, texture). It can be used to create a focal point or area of interest in architectural design. Contrast is closely related with variety which is usually considered as principal of design.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 68 | P a g e 3.2.11 HARMONY Harmony is visual design means all parts of the visual image relate to and complement each other. Harmony pulls the pieces of a visual image together. Harmony can be achieved through repetition and rhythm. Architecture in harmony with nature 3.2.12 PROPORTION AND SCALE Proportion and scale are closely interrelated. Scale alludes to the size of something compared to a reference standard or to the size of something else. In architecture, it relates to the size of a design in relation to the height and width of the area in which it is placed.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 69 | P a g e Proportion refers to the proper or harmonious relation of one part to another or to the whole. A proportioning system establishes a consistent set of visual relationships between the parts of a building, as well as between the parts and the whole. In art the size relationship between an object and the human body is significant. A number of theories of “desirable” proportions have been developed in the course of history. They include; Golden Section (ratio), Classical Orders, Renaissance Theories, Modular, Ken, Anthropometry, and Scale. 3.2.13 SPACE Space encompasses the volume of a structure, the parts of a building we move through and experience. But space can only be created through the use of form. By incorporating the use of space in your design, you can enlarge or reduce the visual space. Another way to look at this is in terms of positive and negative space. Positive space has mass. It can be an enclosure or solid boundary with a specific shape. Types Open, uncluttered spaces Cramped, busy spaces Unused vs. good use of space
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 70 | P a g e 3.2.14 MOVEMENT Movement is the visual flow of any design. This is the path taken by the observer’s eye. It can be the motion in the design as you move from object to object by way of placement and position. It can be directed to focal areas by means of placement of dark and light areas, and positioning. Movement can be directed by the use of lines, edges, shapes and colors. The Beko Complex in Belgrade, Serbia 3.2.15 TEXTURE The surfaces look or feel of something. Smooth Surface – Reflects more light and therefore is a more intense in color. Rough Surface – Absorbs more light and therefore appears darker.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 71 | P a g e Examples of Smooth Texture Glass facade of a high rise office building Exterior metal facade of Disney Concert hall
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 72 | P a g e Examples of Rough Texture Park Guell – Barcelona, Spain Architect: Antonio Gaudí Park Gruell is a famous park and sculpture garden in Barcelona, Spain designed by Antonio Gaudi in the expressionist style. It was originally designed as a housing development but was commercially unsuccessful and was later turned into a park.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 73 | P a g e PART-I Sample Long Questions Q # 1 What are the elements of architecture? Explain in detail. Q # 2 What are the principles of architecture? Explain in detail Sample Short Questions 1. Write the names of the integral elements used in the creation of a design. 2. How many types of line orientation are? 3. Define overhead plane. 4. Define wall plane. 5. Define base plane. 6. What do mean by volume? 7. What is the difference between form and shape? 8. What are tertiary colors? 9. How many categories of colors are? Explain 10. Define axis as a principle of architecture. 11. Define Symmetry. 12. How many types of rhythm are? Explain the difference. 13. What do you mean by datum? 14. What do you mean by symmetrical and asymmetrical balance? 15. What is the role of emphasis in design? 16. How contrast is related with variety in architectural design? 17. Define harmony.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 74 | P a g e 18. What is the difference between proportion and scale? 19. How many types of spaces are? 20. Define smooth and rough texture. PART-II Sample MCQ’s 1. A point has no a) Width b) depth c) length d) all of these 2. A point extended becomes a a) plane b) line c) volume d) none of these 3. Columns, obelisks, and towers are: a)Vertical linear elements b) Horizontal elements c)diagonal elements d) none of these 4. An oblique line is a deviation from: a) Vertical line b) horizontal line c) both a and b d) none of these 5. Which form of line appears more natural? a) Vertical b) horizontal c) diagonal d)curved 6. Ceiling that forms the upper enclosing surface of the room is called: a) Base plane b) overhead plane c) wall plane d) all of these 7. Which plane isolates a portion of space to create a controlled interior environment? a) Overhead plane b) base plane
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 75 | P a g e c) wall plane d)none of these 8. Which plane supports all architectural construction? a) Overhead plane b) base plane c) wall plane d)none of these 9. Volume has: a) One dimension b) two dimensions c) three dimensions d) none of these 10. Tertiary colors are the result of mixing of: a) Two primary colors b) two secondary colors c) primary and secondary colors d) all of these 11. Taj Mahal is planned by following the…….. as a focal point to an entrance doorway so that the building is focused on the central tomb chamber. a) Axis b) plane c) hierarchy d) rhythm 12. The balanced distribution of equivalent forms on opposite sides of central axis is called? a) Equilibrium b) symmetry c) datum d)rhythm 13. Repeated use of line, shape and texture is called a) Rhythm b) datum c) transformation d)balance 14. The repeated element is identical with the exception of one detail increasing or decreasing gradually with each repetition is called a) Random rhythm b) gradated rhythm c) regular rhythm d) all of these
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 76 | P a g e 15. A series of discrete permutations in response to a specific context without a loss of identity is called: a) Emphasis b) balance c) symmetry d)transformation 16. ………. provides stability and structure to a design by placing the elements in such a way that the visual weight is distributed. a) Balance b) emphasis c) unity d) harmony 17. …………. creates a focal point in a design composition. a) Balance b) emphasis c) symmetry d) all of these 18. Contrast can be created through ………. within the element of art (i.e value, color, texture). a) Emphasis b) depth c) variety d) none of these 19. The size of a design in relation to the height and width of the area in which it is placed is called? a) Balance b) scale c) length d) all of these 20. A rough surface: a) Absorbs more light b) reflects more light c) both a and b d) none of these
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 77 | P a g e Answer Key: 1. ( d ) 2. ( b ) 3. ( a ) 4. ( c ) 5. ( d ) 6. ( b ) 7. ( c ) 8. ( b ) 9.( c ) 10. ( c ) 11. ( a ) 12. ( b ) 13.( a ) 14. ( b ) 15. ( d ) 16. ( a ) 17.( b ) 18. ( c ) 19. ( b ) 20. ( a )
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 78 | P a g e CHAPTER # 04 INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN G e n e r a l O b j e c t i v e : Understand architectural design process S p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e s : After studying this chapter students should be able to 1- State architectural design process. 2- Describe different stages of architectural design process. 3- Explain architectural drawings, sketches,scale, plan,elevation, section . 4- Know about detailed architectural drawings, drafting, perspective.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 79 | P a g e 4.1 DIFFERENT STAGES OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN PROCESS 4.1.1 DESIGN PROCESS: Design means to introduce students to ideas, principles, and methods of solving architectural problems in a studio setting through a graduated sequence of exercises. Culminating in a major semester project, students explore the architectural concepts of space, form, function, and technology. Instructions are given to the individual student through the assigned work, also discussed with department faculty members and guest critics. The grade is based on the overall performance in the studio with special emphasis on the quality of a major studio project. The creation and organization of formal elements in a work of art is termed as designing. Architects plan, design and review the construction of buildings and structures for the use of people. Architects also coordinate and integrate engineering design, which has as its primary objective the creative manipulation of materials and forms using mathematical and scientific principles. Architecture is both the process and product of planning, designing and constructing form, space and ambience that reflect functional, technical, social, and aesthetic considerations. It requires the creative manipulation and coordination of material, technology, light and shadow. Architecture also encompasses the pragmatic aspects of realizing buildings and structures, including scheduling, cost estimating and construction administration. As documentation produced by architects, typically drawings, plans and technical specifications, architecture defines the structure and/or behavior of a building or any other kind of system that is to be or has been constructed. Architectural works are often perceived as cultural and political symbols and as works of art.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 80 | P a g e 4.1.2 DESIGN SYSTEMS: There are systems which define the meaning of architecture. 1. Architectural systems and orders 2. Spatial systems 3. Structural systems 4. Enclosure system 5. Circulation system 6. Context context space form technics function
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 81 | P a g e 4.1.3 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING: The Concertgebouw (concert hall) in Amsterdam, by Adolf Leonard van Gendt, illustration published 1888. An architectural drawing or architect's drawing is a technical drawing of a building (or building project) that falls within the definition of architecture. Architectural drawings are used by architects and others for a number of purposes: to develop a design idea into a coherent proposal, to communicate ideas and concepts, to convince clients of the merits of a design, to enable a building contractor to construct it, as a record of the completed work, and to make a record of a building that already exists. Architectural drawings are drawn according to a set of convictions, which include particular views (floor plan, section etc.), sheet sizes, units of measurement and scales, annotation and cross referencing. Conventionally, drawings were made in ink on paper or a similar material, and any copies required had to be laboriously made by hand. The twentieth century saw a shift to drawing on tracing paper, so that mechanical copies could be run off efficiently.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 82 | P a g e The development of the computer had a major impact on the methods used to design and create technical drawings, making manual drafting almost obsolete and opening up new possibilities of form using organic shapes and complex geometry. Today the vast majority of drawings are created using CAD software. 4.1.4 SKETCHES AND DIAGRAMS: Sketch of a building Diagram of an arch A sketch is a rapidly executed freehand drawing, a quick way to record and develop an idea, not intended as a finished work. A diagram may also be drawn freehand but deals with symbols, to develop the logic of a design. Both may be worked up into a more presentable form and used to communicate the principles of a design.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 83 | P a g e In architecture, the finished work is expensive and time consuming, so it is important to resolve the design as fully as possible before construction work begins. Complex modern buildings involve a large team of different specialist disciplines, and communication at the early design stages is essential to keep the design moving towards a coordinated outcome. Architects (and other designers) start investigating a new design with sketches and diagrams, to develop a rough design that provides an adequate response to the particular design problems. 4.1.5 SIZE AND SCALE: Paper size, Engineer's scale, Architect's scale, and Metric scale The size of drawings reflects the materials available and the size that is convenient to transport – rolled up or folded, laid out on a table, or pinned up on a wall. The drafting process may impose limitations on the size that is realistically workable. Sizes are determined by a consistent paper size system, according to local usage. Architectural drawings are drawn to scale, so that relative sizes are correctly represented. The scale is chosen both to ensure the whole building will fit on the chosen sheet size, and to show the required amount of detail. At the scale of one eighth of an inch to one foot (1/96th) or the metric equivalent 1 to 100, walls are typically shown as simple outlines corresponding to the overall thickness. At a larger scale, half an inch to one foot (1/24th) or the nearest common metric equivalent 1 to 20, the layers of different materials that make up the wall construction are shown. Construction details are drawn to a larger scale, in some cases full size (1 to 1 scale). Scale drawings enable dimensions to be 'read' off the drawing, i.e. measured directly. Imperial scales (feet and inches), while lacking the simple logic of the metric system, are equally readable using an ordinary ruler. On a oneeights inch to one foot scale drawing, the one-eighth divisions on the ruler can be read off as feet. Architects normally use a scale ruler with different scales marked on each edge. A third method, used by builders in estimating, is to measure directly off the drawing and multiply by the scale factor.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 84 | P a g e Dimensions can be measured off drawings made on a stable medium such as vellum. All processes of reproduction introduce small errors, especially now that different copying methods mean that the same drawing may be re-copied or copies made in several different ways. Consequently dimensions need to be written ('figured') on the drawing. The disclaimer "Do not scale off dimensions" is commonly inscribed on architects drawings, to guard against errors arising in the copying process. 4.1.6 STANDARD VIEWS USED IN ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING: Standard views used in architects' drawings. Symbols used to define whether a projection is either Third Angle (right) or First Angle (left).
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 85 | P a g e This section deals with the conventional views used to represent a building or structure. See the Types of architectural drawing section below for drawings classified according to their purpose. 4.1.7 FLOOR PLAN: Principal floor plans of the Queen's House, Greenwich (UK). A floor plan is the most fundamental architectural diagram, a view from above showing the arrangement of spaces in building in the same way as a map, but showing the arrangement at a particular level of a building. Technically it is a horizontal section cut though a building (conventionally at three feet / one meter above floor level), showing walls, window and door openings and other features at that level. The plan view includes anything that could be seen below that level: the floor, stairs (but only up to the plan level), fittings and sometimes furniture. Objects above the plan level (e.g. beams overhead) can be indicated as dotted lines. Geometrically, plan view is defined as a vertical orthographic projection of an object on to a horizontal plane, with the horizontal plane cutting through the building.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 86 | P a g e 4.1.8 SITE PLAN: Site plan of the proposed Chicago Spire by Santiago Calatrava. A site plan is a specific type of plan, showing the whole context of a building or group of buildings. A site plan shows property boundaries and means of access to the site and nearby structures if they are relevant to the design. For a development on an urban site, the site plan may need to show adjoining streets to demonstrate how the design fits in to the urban fabric. Within the site boundary, the site plan gives an overview of the entire scope of work. It shows the buildings (if any) already existing and those that are proposed, usually as a building footprint; roads, parking lots, footpaths, hard landscaping, trees and planting. For a construction project, the site plan also needs to show all the services connections: drainage and sewer lines, water supply, electrical and communications cables, exterior lighting etc. Site plans are commonly used to be used by Jan represent a building proposal prior to detailed design: drawing up a site plan is a tool for deciding both the site layout and the size and orientation of proposed new buildings. A site plan is used to verify that a proposal complies with local development codes, including restrictions on historical sites. In this context the site plan forms part of a legal agreement, and there may be a requirement for it to be drawn up by
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 87 | P a g e a licensed professional: architect, engineer, landscape architect or land surveyor. 4.1.9 ELEVATION: Elevation of the principal façade of the Pantheon, Paris An elevation is a view of a building seen from one side, a flat representation of one façade. This is the most common view used to describe the external appearance of a building. Each elevation is labeled in relation to the compass direction it faces, e.g. the north elevation of a building is the side that most closely faces north. Buildings are rarely a simple rectangular shape in plan, so a typical elevation may show all the parts of the building that are seen from a particular direction. Geometrically, an elevation is a horizontal orthographic projection of a building on to a vertical plane, the vertical plane normally being parallel to one side of the building. Architects also use the word elevation as a synonym for façade, so the north elevation is literally the north wall of the building.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 88 | P a g e 4.1.10 CROSS SECTION: Section drawing of the Observatorium at Potsdam. A cross section, also simply called a section, represents a vertical plane cut through the object, in the same way as a floor plan is a horizontal section viewed from the top. In the section view, everything cut by the section plane is shown as a bold line, often with a solid fill to show objects that are cut through, and anything seen beyond generally shown in a thinner line. Sections are used to describe the relationship between different levels of a building. In the Observatorium drawing illustrated here, the section shows the dome seen from the outside, a second dome that can only be seen inside the building, and the way the space between the two accommodates a large astronomical telescope: relationships that would be difficult to understand from plans alone. A sectional elevation is a combination of a cross section, with elevations of other parts of the building seen beyond the section plane. Geometrically, a cross section is a horizontal orthographic projection of a building on to a vertical plane, with the vertical plane cutting through the building.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 89 | P a g e 4.1.11 ISOMETRIC AND AXONOMETRIC PROJECTIONS: Isometric and axonometric projections are a simple way of representing a three dimensional object, keeping the elements to scale and showing the relationship between several sides of the same object, so that the complexities of a shape can be clearly understood. 18th century axonometric plan, Port-Royal-des-Champs. There is some confusion about the terms isometric and axonometric. “Axonometric is a word that has been used by architects for hundreds of years. Engineers use the word axonometric as a generic term to include isometric, diametric and trimetric drawings.” This article uses the terms in the architecture-specific sense. Despite fairly complex geometrical explanations, for the purposes of practical drafting the difference between isometric and axonometric is simple (see diagram above). In both, the plan is drawn on a skewed or rotated grid, and
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 90 | P a g e the verticals are projected vertically on the page. All lines are drawn to scale so that relationships between elements are accurate. In many cases a different scale is required for different axes, and again this can be calculated but in practice was often simply estimated by eye. An isometric uses a plan grid at 30 degrees from the horizontal in both directions, which distorts the plan shape. Isometric graph paper can be used to construct this kind of drawing. This view is useful to explain construction details (e.g. three dimensional joints in joinery). The isometric was the standard view until the mid-twentieth century, remaining popular until the 1970s, especially for textbook diagrams and illustrations. Cabinet projection is similar, but only one axis is skewed, the others being horizontal and vertical. Originally used in cabinet making, the advantage is that a principal side (e.g. a cabinet front) is displayed without distortion, so only the less important sides are skewed. The lines leading away from the eye are drawn at a reduced scale to lessen the degree of distortion. The cabinet projection is seen in Victorian engraved advertisements and architectural textbooks, but has virtually disappeared from general use. An axonometric uses a 45 degree plan grid, which keeps the original orthogonal geometry of the plan. The great advantage of this view for architecture is that the draughtsman can work directly from a plan, without having to reconstruct it on a skewed grid. In theory the plan should be set at 45 degrees, but this introduces confusing coincidences where opposite corners align. Unwanted effects can be avoided by rotating the plan while still projecting vertically. This is sometimes called a Plano metric or plan oblique view, and allows freedom to choose any suitable angle to present the most useful view of an object. Traditional drafting techniques used 30-60 and 45 degree set squares, and that determined the angles used in these views. Once the adjustable square became common those limitations were lifted. The axonometric gained in popularity in the twentieth century, not just as a convenient diagram but as a formal presentation technique, adopted in
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 91 | P a g e particular by the Modern Movement Axonometric drawings feature prominently in the influential 1970's drawings of Michael Graves, James Sterling and others, using not only straightforward views but worms-eye view, unusually and exaggerated rotations of the plan, and exploded elements. The axonometric view is not readily generated by CAD programmer, which work best by generating a view from a three dimensional model. Consequently it is now little used except to illustrate relatively simple construction details. 4.1.12 DETAIL DRAWINGS: Detail drawings show a small part of the construction at a larger scale, to show how the component parts fit together. They are also used to show small surface details, for example decorative elements. Section drawings at large scale are a standard way of showing building construction details, typically showing complex junctions (such as floor to wall junction, window openings, eaves and roof apex) that cannot be clearly shown on a drawing that includes the full height of the building. A full set of construction details needs to show plan details as well as vertical section details. One detail is seldom produced in isolation: a set of details shows the information needed to understand the construction in three dimensions. Typical scales for details are 1/10, 1/5 and full size. In traditional construction, many details were so fully standardized, that few detail drawings were required to construct a building. For example, the construction of a sash window would be left to the carpenter, who would fully understand what was required, but unique decorative details of the facade would be drawn up in detail. In contrast, modern buildings need to be fully detailed because of the proliferation of different products, methods and possible solutions.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 92 | P a g e 4.1.13 ARCHITECTURAL PERSPECTIVE: Two point perspective, interior of Darcy House by Robert Adam, 1777. J M Gandy's aerial view of the Bank of England, as rebuilt by Sir John Saone, 1830. Perspective in drawing is an approximate representation on a flat surface of an image as it is perceived by the eye. The key concepts here are: Perspective is the view from a particular fixed viewpoint. Horizontal and vertical edges in the object are represented by horizontals and verticals in the drawing.
Text Book of ARCH-112 Introduction to Architecture DAE 1st Year Architecture Technology 93 | P a g e Lines leading away into the distance appear to converge at a vanishing point. All horizontals converge to a point on the horizon, which is a horizontal line at eye level. Verticals converge to a point either above or below the horizon. The basic categorization of artificial perspective is by the number of vanishing points: One-point perspective where objects facing the viewer are orthogonal, and receding lines converge to a single vanishing point. Two-point perspective reduces distortion by viewing objects at an angle, with all the horizontal lines receding to one of two vanishing points, both located on the horizon. Three-point perspective introduces additional realism by making the verticals recede to a third vanishing point, which is above or below depending upon whether the view is seen from above or below. The normal convention is architectural perspective is to use two-point perspective, with all the verticals drawn as verticals on the page. Three-point perspective gives a casual, photographic snapshot effect. In professional architectural photography, conversely, a view camera or a perspective control lens is used to eliminate the third vanishing point, so that all the verticals are vertical on the photograph, as with the perspective convention. This can also be done by digital manipulation of a photograph taken with a normal camera. Aerial perspective is a technique in painting, for indicating distance by approximating the effect of the atmosphere on distant objects. In daylight, as an ordinary object gets further from the eye, its contrast with the background is reduced, its colour saturation is reduced, and its colour becomes more blue. Not to be confused with aerial view or bird's eye view, which is the view as seen (or imagined) from a high vantage point. In J M Gandy's perspective (see illustration above) of the Bank of England, Gandy portrayed the building as a picturesque ruin in order to show the internal plan arrangement, a precursor of the cutaway view.