Anthropology

Unit- 2: Basics of Social Cultural Anthropology 51 outsider about same are equally important. Local statements, perceptions, categories and opinions help the ethnographers to understand how culture works within. At the same time, an etic view could look to other explanations in an objective way without being coloured by the emic view. Furthermore, the emic view might represent the hidden rationality of a particular belief which the insiders might not be conscious of. To be holistic in one's study, the researcher should utilise both these views. Collect the local beliefs and practices known to you and find out the emic and etic meaning of those beliefs and practices. You have studied about material and nonmaterial culture. You must now be able to list out the material and non-material cultural elements of your classroom. How far can these elements be divided further in a meaningful way? By taking your classroom as a whole, try to list out all its elements. These would include bench, desk, table, chair, chalk, window, teaching, learning, friendship, respect, feelings, etc. Can you divide these elements into further meaningful units? For example if the desk is divided further, it might lose its use-value and meaning. Cultural elements can be divided into the smallest meaningful units, as minute aspects of culture. So, the study of smallest and indivisible unit of a culture is indispensable for a holistic understanding of culture. Culture Trait and Culture Complex The smallest and indivisible unit of a culture is called 'culture trait'. It is the smallest functional unit of a culture. If it is divided further, there will be no meaning or function. Cultural trait can be material or non-material. Material traits include house, radio, mobile phone, watch, television, furniture, dress and ornaments and non-material traits include beliefs, Emic and Etic views of the concept of sacred cow A group of people in India, do not kill or eat cows because they believe that cow is sacred. They do not kill or sell their cattle even in extreme needs. We can see large population of cows, wandering freely through both rural areas and streets, undisturbed by the millions of hungry and malnourished people. The concept of sacred cow actually plays an adaptive role in the ecosystem. Cattle are very essential in Indian economic set up where ploughs and carts are pulled by the cattle, cattle manure is used as fertilisers and fuel. For all these, the cows need to be protected. The doctrine of ahimsa towards cows puts full command of unorganized religion, not to destroy the valuable resource even in extreme needs. (Adapted from Marvin Harris, 1974. Cows, Pigs, Wars and Witches: The Riddles of Culture)

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 52 values, knowledge, concepts, symbols, gestures, world views, customs, traditions, handshake, greetings, touching of feet, blessing, kissing, sprinkling of water on idols, saluting flag, walking barefoot etc. Large number of cultural traits that combine to form a meaningful segment of culture is called a culture complex. A cultural trait will be meaningless, if it is separated from the culture complex. For example, a chalk, as a cultural trait, is important only if it is a part of classroom education. When it is separated from classroom and put in an agricultural situation, it will be meaningless. School, Family, religion, factory, agriculture, etc. are examples of culture complexes. If kitchen is considered as a culture complex, then the items like stove, utensil, mixer grinder, cooker, fridge, knife, glass, plate, the knowledge of making and preserving food are all culture traits. List out the cultural traits taking family, religion, marriage etc. as cultural complexes, and present the same in the form of a chart. You must have seen the children involved in family role-play, taking up different roles such as that of father, mother or sibling. From where did these children learn this game? It is a type of role imitation. They have seen their mother, father or other members in the family, in different roles. The children imitate their elders. Similarly, we have imbibed unconsciously many things from our family. w How did you learn the way of praying and performing rituals? w How did you learn to behave with other members in the society? w From where did you learn the way of addressing your relatives? w Observing and imitating parents w .......................... w .......................... Family is the basic social unit for the process of enculturation

Unit- 2: Basics of Social Cultural Anthropology 53 Enculturation Enculturation refers to the process by which one learns the way of life and behaviour of one's own culture. It will help the person to become an active participant of that culture. An individual can participate in the society, only if he/ she learns the norms and values that exist in the society. A child learns toilet training, the way of addressing relatives (kinship terms), the way to behave with elders in the family, the beliefs and practices of his/ her culture by imitating and observing. Thus by imitating the elders in the society children acquire the knowledge of role which each person had to perform, the role of father, mother, grandmothers etc... How to face problems, how to co-operate with others, way of welcoming others, (hospitality), manners and how to look after the aged people are to be imparted through family itself. The process of enculturation starts from birth and ends only at death. After learning the basic behaviour from family, the person enters into society. When the individual encounters new situations each time in his/her life, one has to learn further lessons of behaviour based on his/her basic learning. Even a grown-up person has to understand how to tackle with one's occupation, how to interact with the spouse, in-laws etc. So enculturation is a continuous process. The major agencies of enculturation include parents, family members, elders, peer groups and society. Sometimes a person learns other cultures willingly or unwillingly. For example, the tribal children, though they have their own language or dialect to transact, learn the language of other cultures while in contact. Likewise, a person is compelled to learn another language while interacting with people in a new situation. In both these cases, original culture might Fig. 2.2 Enculturation Fig. 2.3 Enculturation

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 54 undergo change due to the influence of other culture. Anthropologists take interest in the study of this process of culture change. Acculturation Acculturation refers to the changes that occur in one's culture due to continuous contact with other culture. It occurs when one culture dominates over other culture(s). It may happen intentionally or accidentally. For instance, Indian culture has undergone changes due to continuous contact with western culture. Similarly tribal cultures in India and elsewhere also witness widespread changes due to the contact with non - tribal cultures. Due to the political and technological changes in the past decades, isolated indigenous populations all over the world are losing their identities. There are various forms of acculturation like deculturation and transculturation. Deculturation is the process by which a culture loses its cultural identity due to contact with other cultures. Many tribal cultures are losing their identity under domination of external cultures. Transculturation is the process of exchange of cultural traits among different cultures. Indian culture adopting English language and the European culture adopting Ayurveda are examples of transculturation. Find out instances of acculturation, deculturation, and transculturation from the situations known to you. List out those instances of acculturation and present it in your class. Culture Shock Imagine a situation when you encounter an entirely different culture, with a strange language, food pattern, housing pattern and belief system. The problem may sometimes be simple or hazardous. List out the problems which you are likely to face in such a situation: w Problem of communication w Problem of food w ……………………… w ………………………

Unit- 2: Basics of Social Cultural Anthropology 55 Such a situation may include strangeness in the material culture, food ways, dress pattern, ideas, concepts, beliefs, practices etc. The whole set of feeling towards an unfamiliar situation can be called as culture shock. Culture shock is the psychological or social maladjustment, experienced when people encounter a strange cultural situation for the first time. It is a frightening feeling of alienation. It may result in adjustment problems. When a person is compelled to live in another culture where snake meat is delivered as regular food item, it will be a culture shock as far as that particular individual is concerned. Individuals differ in their ability to adapt with new situations. Ethnocentric people are more exposed to culture shocks. On the other hand, cultural relativists may find it easy to adapt to new situations, and overcome from culture shock. Anthropologists who were trying to explore the different cultures, with their approach of cultural relativism also experience culture shock. Did you ever come across the situation of culture shock in your life? Write an account. There is widespread technological advancement in all spheres of life especially, during the last decade. You might have seen that even the older generation could not escape from adapting to these latest technologies. Mobile phones, internet, transport, and other modern amenities have made life more 'convenient' to a section of people. Even then, some people are not ready to change their traditional beliefs and way of life. For instance, there are people who are reluctant to change their beliefs regarding supernatural causes of disease. Why is this so? Anthropologists are of the opinion that the non-material aspect of culture changes very slowly as compared to the material aspects of culture. Culture Lag W.F. Ogburn in his book 'Social Change' introduced the concept 'culture lag'. According to him, compared to non-material aspects of culture including beliefs, values, Do Anthropologists get culture shock in the field? My first impression of Bahia community was of smells. Alien odors of ripe and decaying mangoes, bananas and passion fruits and swatting of the fruit flies which I had never seen before. …… There were strange mixture of rice, black beans and unidentifiable meat and floating pieces of skin. …. I remember one oatmeal soup and a slimy stew of beef tongue in tomatoes. At one meal a disintegrating fish head, eyes still attached, but barely stared up at me……………. Gradually the smells, sounds, sensations and taste grew familiar to me. Adapted from: Conrad Phillip Kottak: ëAssaul on Paradise: Social Change in a Brazilian Villageí,1999

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 56 morals, etc. material culture changes more rapidly. In other words, the non-material part always lags behind the material part. The gap between the rate of changes in the material and the non-material culture is referred to as 'culture lag'. Due to the rapid development of science and technology, our material culture had undergone radical changes. We have constructed roads, railways, airports, dams, big houses, etc. Now, we are more exposed to the latest electronic devices. During the last 200 years in India, much of the material culture has been borrowed from the west and many cities in India have been competing with western towns in the adoption of the latest aspects of material culture. Culture is changing very rapidly in areas like fashion, dress, artifacts, beautification, art and recreation. However, the pace of change has been very slow in the sphere of religious beliefs and cultural values. We have always experienced a gap between the changes in these two aspects of culture. This is called culture lag. Check your progress: 1. Match the following A B Visible aspects of culture Culture trait Smallest functional unit of culture Cultural relativism Beliefs, values and morals in a culture Enculturation Considering one's own culture superior Deculturation A child learn the kinship terms Ethnocentrism Even though economy is developed the status of women does not change Non-material culture Each culture has its' own values Material culture Tribal people lost their original culture due to culture contact Culture lag 2. Find the odd one and justify. Family, trade union, political party, student association 3. Make pairs by using the following culture trait and culture complexes. (Father, Agriculture, Prayer, Blackboard, School, Sickle, Religion, Family)

Unit- 2: Basics of Social Cultural Anthropology 57 We have examined different aspects of culture, which is one of the central themes of Social Cultural Anthropology. Another important theme of Social Cultural Anthropology is Society. The concept of society has different connotations in different contexts. You might have already learned what a society is in your previous classes. You have already heard about different types of societies like Girijan Co-operative Society, Milk society, Tribal society, Kerala society, Urban society etc. Do humans alone have society? No, ants, wolves and bees have societies. Then, what are the differences between human society and the societies found among other organisms? We often use the term society in our daily life without knowing the exact meaning of the concept. In this part of the unit, we will examine the various aspects related to the concept of society. IV. Concept of Society: Meaning and Definition A society is composed of individuals. They interact with each other on the basis of some shared behaviour. It is a network of relationship between individuals. So the essence of society is social relationship and social behaviour. This social behaviour shared by the members, known as culture. Thus, society is composed of people who are interacting on the basis of shared beliefs, values and activities. In a limited sense, the grouping of bees and ants can also be called as societies as it is composed of members who are interacting on the basis of certain shared behaviour. But society among animals is instinctual in nature, formed to meet the basic requirements of physical needs, and reproduction. In human society, members are recruited by means of reproduction within the group. On rare occasions, members are recruited through enslavement, immigration, adoption or conquest. On the other hand, the members in occupational or service societies like labour cooperative society, milk co-operative society, etc. are not recruited by means of reproduction. They are made up of some individuals with limited goals. Fig. 2.4 Society of bees and ants

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 58 In short, the basic characteristics of human society can be summed up as the following: w It has a definite territory w It has a culture w It is a permanent, independent, and integrated group w Members are recruited by means of reproduction l According to Maclver and Page, society is 'the web of social relationships'. l According to Ralph Linton society is an organised group of individuals. A culture is an organised group of learned responses, characteristics of a particular society. l In the words of S F Nadal, culture is the way of life of people while a society is an organised, interacting aggregate of individuals who follow given way of life. Every society is governed by a set of standardised way of behaviour. These standardised behaviour controls the activities of the members in the society. Culture and Society The terms culture and society are frequently used interchangeably. In simple terms, society is always made up of people and the way they behave is culture. A society is not a culture but it has culture. Culture, on the other hand, is a product of society. It refers to the material aspects as well as ideas, meaning and knowledge that people share. Culture belongs to a body of people who share a common tradition. Society and culture are the two sides of the same coin. The emphasis on one over the other has been the hallmark of the two traditions in Anthropology, namely, Social Anthropology of British Tradition and the Cultural Anthropology of the American tradition which you had learned earlier. Prepare a chart distinguishing the characteristics of society and culture and present the same in the class. Society and community are often used synonymously. For instance, Indian society/ community, Chinese society/community, Tribal society/community, etc. However, though both the terms are related, they are different and have distinct meaning. The term society has a broader implication while the term community is a restricted implication. For instance, we talk of the Indian community settled in the United States; but use the term Indian

Unit- 2: Basics of Social Cultural Anthropology 59 society while referring to the collective entity of all the people in India. In Malayalam language, the term community is translated as 'samudayam', and the term society as 'samooham', and the term culture as 'samskaram'. All these three terms in Malayalam have a common character implying collectivity. Community According to Maclver and Page, community refers to a group, small or large, whose members live together in such a way that they share the basic condition of common life. It is a small cultural system and its members derive their personal identity from their community membership. Caste and tribe are some of the examples of community. Some communities like the tribes, live in a common geographical boundary and share common economic resources. All people possess the feeling of community sentiments in thinking, thought, ideologies and common cause of activities. Activity: Prepare a chart, distinguishing the characteristics of society and community. You have to behave in schools as per the norms and rules. Similarly, as a member of a society you are guided by the norms and values. The society executes these norms and values through family, marriage, religion and many other social institutions. Institution The aspect of culture that is governed by a standardised way of behaviour existing in a society is called institution. According to Radcliffe Brown, institutions involve socially approved pattern of behaviour of members. It is guided by the norms and values existing in the society. Family is a social institution. There exist different norms of behaviour between the members in a family. Deviation from the rule is not permitted or accepted. The status and role of each individual in a society are also controlled by this institutionalised behaviour. Marriage, economic organisation, political organisation, kinship etc. are other social institutions. Anthropologists study social institutions like family, marriage, kinship etc. as cultural universals. In order to understand the culture of a given society, different institutions and its inter-relationship must be studied. All the institutions are interrelated and integrated. Family is an institution

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 60 Besides these social institutions, there exist different groups in each society, which are known as associations. Association w Have you heard the name of any Association? w Are you a member of any of the Associations such as Students' Association, Alumni Association, Residents association ............ etc. There are some other associations like police associations, teachers associations, etc. All these are formed with a specific objective. Association refers to a group of persons formed with a specific objective or a set of objectives. They are relatively small and localised. The members of an association try to satisfy their needs which do not come under the purview of the social institutions like family. Each association has its own specific guidelines of behaviour for its members. Important features of Association include the following: w Associations are formed for specific purpose w Membership is optional w It is a temporary group (once the target is achieved, it may get dispersed) w It is not restricted to a particular area w It provides a code of behaviour for all its members. w In modern times, associations are adaptive devices to fight for the rights of individuals and groups. Prepare a digital presentation distinguishing the characteristics of society, community, institution and association. Association is a group Malayalee association in Mysore try to help the malayalees in Mysore when they are in need. They take initiative to celebrate the Kerala festivals to maintain their native culture. KALA (Kerala Art Lovers Association) in Arab countries try to unite the Malayalees and popularise the Kerala art and culture

Unit- 2: Basics of Social Cultural Anthropology 61 Group Like associations, individuals with common interest join together to form different groups. Associations are different from Groups. List out the names of the groups in which you are members. w Play group (Cricket, Football, Tennis etc.) w Family w ---------------- w ---------------- w ---------------- Individuals having common interests may join together to form a group. S F Nadel (1951) defines group 'as a collection of individuals who stand in a regular and relatively permanent relationship'. In some groups, all the members have face to face relation and interact with each other. This type of group is known as primary group. For example, family, local club, plays group, tribal settlement, or a village community. Sometimes, large scale social organisations are formed in a society based on profession, political affiliation, occupation etc. They are secondary groups.All members in a secondary group may not know each other. But they become its members with view of common goal. Trade unions, professional associations, political groups and religious groups, are some examples of secondary groups. Group can also be based on relationships. If the members of a group are related through blood or by marriage, it is known as kin group. Family, lineage and clan are kin groups. Among different groups, family is regarded as universal and permanent. A person who is a

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 62 member of one group could be a member of many other groups like family, lineage, clan, caste and religion. It is this inter-connection that maintains the society. Working or functioning of a society means working or functioning of different institutions, associations and groups within it. Analyse the above chart and make inferences and present in the class. Check your progress 1 Differentiate between institution and association. 2 Fill the table with the features of society and culture. Society Culture ......................................... ......................................... ......................................... ......................................... V. Status and Role An individual, being a member of an association or group or institution, has a position in that group. Corresponding to one's position, one has to perform some duties also. The positions and duties of an individual have to be examined to understand the social relationships. At home you have some duties to perform. What are they? But when at school your duties may change according to the situation? What does it show? The duties or roles change according to the situations and positions. The position, which an individual occupies in the society, is called status. The duty, which a person has to perform according to one's status, is role. The position of an individual determines the duties one has to perform. A person could be a father, son, husband or brother at home. He may be an officer, workman, or a labourer outside his home. He is expected to perform certain duties that are associated with his different positions.

Unit- 2: Basics of Social Cultural Anthropology 63 Status also implies ranking. It refers to one's ranking in relationship to other positions. For instance, the ranking of a leader is always at the top of the group. Social status is to be recognised by prestige. For example in school or college, the status of Principal and students are different. There is no status without role, and there is no role without status. Each status consists of a related role. A set of duties associated with a single status is called role. Status: Ascribed and Achieved Generally there are two types of statuses: one occupied by a person by birth and the second occupied through one's own effort. The status which an individual occupies by birth is called ascribed status and the status which an individual acquires through one's own effort is known as achieved status. The status of women in Kerala is relatively high in comparison with many other states in India. There could be various reasons for this. Discuss in groups how the change in the status of women reflects in their roles. Based on the discussion, prepare a note for presentation. Check your progress 1. Prepare a chart showing different status and roles of a teacher, who is head of a school, family and an arts club. 2. Prepare a chart showing two types of status with examples.

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 64 VI. Social Structure and Social Organisation You know the term structure, which means, the arrangement of parts in relationship to each other. What is the structure of an automobile engine? It is the arrangements of parts. The structure of our body means the arrangement of organs. Likewise, institutions are arranged in a society as parts in a machine or organs in a body. That means, institutions are the parts in a society. Individuals are arranged in different social institutions. That means individuals are the parts in a social institution. The arrangement of activities in an automobile engine is its organisation. Similarly, the arrangements of activities of individuals and institutions in a society form social organisation. The study of social structure and social organisation is inevitable in understanding the functioning of society. Social Structure: Structure is the ordered arrangement of parts. A structure of a classroom consists of the arrangement of windows, doors, walls, black board, benches, desks and so on. The basic elements of a society are individuals. They are arranged in different institutions and groups in relationship to each other. The basic institutions of a society consist of family, marriage, kinship, economic organisation, political organisation, etc. In short, social structure is arrangement of individuals in these social institutions in relationship to each other. These arrangements help for the smooth functioning of the society. Social Organisation: How does a class room function? How are the duties of the teachers and students organised? A class room through the collective organisation of students, teachers, and the principal functions on the basis of syllabus, time table, rules and regulations of the institutions. Social organisation is the way by which the activities of different parts of the society are organised. The arrangement of the activities of the individuals and groups in the society is social organisation. Thus, social structure is the arrangement of persons in different social institutions while social organisation is the arrangement of the activities of these institutions. "Components of social structure are human beings. The structure itself being an arrangement of persons in relationship institutionally defined and regulated" Radcliffe Brown(1952) : Structure and Function in Primitive Society

Unit- 2: Basics of Social Cultural Anthropology 65 Find out the structure and organisation of the following and make a presentation of the same in the class: (a) A family (b) A factory (c) A political organization VII. Ethnography and Ethnology The concept of society and culture, and its various components like culture trait, culture complex, status, roles, association, community, group, etc. have been discussed above. You know that the central theme of social cultural anthropology is the study of society and culture. To understand society and culture in its comprehensive sense, anthropologists depended on simple societies. They studied the way of life of these societies and compared them with other societies to understand cultural similarities and cultural diversities. Most of the studies in anthropology earlier were categorised under ethnography and ethnology. Ethnography Ethnography is a simple and holistic description of a particular culture, at a particular period of time. An ethnographer collects data through direct interaction with the people. The settlement pattern, dressing, food habits, economic activities, political organization, family, marriage, kinship, beliefs, practices, rituals, customs, etc. are studied in detail in ethnographic studies. Ethnographic studies had been a primary concern of Social Anthropology from its very beginning. For an ethnographic study, two types of data are required, quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative data consists of data pertaining to population, male-female ratio, size of houses, number and size of different types of house hold equipment, quantity of crops produced, income, quantity of material used and so on. Qualitative data include data pertaining to beliefs, sentiments, knowledge, social network of family, marriage, kinship, religious beliefs, practices and life cycle rituals, etc. Data collection in ethnography is primarily based on field work. Ethnographic field work involves living in close contact with the people under study. As all aspects of culture are related, the ethnographer must study the whole of social life, in relationship to each other. In ethnographic research, the researcher usually selects small-scale societies. Brief History of Ethnographic Studies Beginning of ethnographic studies can be traced back to the period of Herodotus in

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 66 the 3rd century BC. Herodotus travelled to different places and met more than 50 different groups of people and described their culture. He was considered as the father of Greek Ethnographic studies. The travelogues produced by the explorers including Marco Polo, Columbus, Vasco-de-Gama and others during the era of exploration in the 15th and 16th centuries brought out wonderful and exotic accounts of the people living in remote corners of the non-European regions of the world. The Christian missionaries, in the process of their work of conversion carried out studies of different cultures of the people in different parts of the world. Scientific ethnographic studies were started during end of 19th century. E.B. Tylor started field work to understand the culture. He stayed one year in United States and six months among the Mexicans to collect first hand information. Though he was not a real field worker, he verified the data collected by his students to ensure the accuracy. L.H. Morgan of America published the book 'League of Iroquois' (1951) based on the field work among the Iroquois tribes of America. He interviewed many Iroquois people and collected data on their dance forms, religious beliefs, customs and traditions, language, material culture, form of government , family organisation etc. As he was ignorant of the native language, he utilised the help of an interpreter called Ely Parker throughout his study. Meanwhile, European administrators also tried to study the people of their colonies in their attempt to "civilise and rule" the colonies. In this context, the contribution of Edgar Thurston, 'The Castes and Tribes of South India' is worth mentioning. Many Anthropologists Why Social Cultural Anthropologists have shown special interest in the study of pre-literate societies? Most of the early Anthropologists were engaged in the study of 'primitive' or preliterate societies. It was mainly to understand the way of development of modern societies through the study of living people with simple technologies. Pre-literate societies are different from nonliterate societies. Non-literates are the contemporaries of historical people with access to writing. On the other hand, the pre-literates are those who lived prior to or away from the historical people or the mainstream population. Pre-literate or the so-called primitive people were relatively simple in their technologies and material possessions as compared to the historical societies. They were small in number, homogeneous, lived in relatively isolated places and had little contact with the outside world. However at present anthropologists study all types of societies irrespective of pre-literate or literate, simple or complex, rural or urban societies. Do you know? Herodotus is the father of Greek ethnography

Unit- 2: Basics of Social Cultural Anthropology 67 were appointed by the British, to study the native culture of their colonies. By the beginning of 20th century, W.H.R. Rivers, a British Social Anthropologist, came to India to Study the Toda tribe of Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu. His Monograph The Toda, was published in 1906. During 1906-1908, RadcliffeBrown, the student of W.H.R. Rivers conducted field work among the tribes of Andaman Nicobar Island, and his book 'The Andaman Islanders' was published in 1922. In 1912, ethnography on the tribe Munda, titled 'Munda and Their Country', was published by S.C. Roy. He was the first Indian Scholar who conducted an Ethnographic study of an Indian tribe. Hence, S.C. Roy was considered as the father of Indian Ethnography. However, significant change in the approach of Ethnographic study was brought in By Bronislaw Kasper Malinowski. He conducted three years of intensive field work (1914- 1918) among the tribes of Trobriand Island. He used the method of total Participant observation, and followed the native language throughout his study. It was a turning point in the field approach of Anthropology and hence, he was known as the father of field work tradition in Anthropology. His book, based on the field work among the Trobriand Islanders was published as 'The Argonauts of Western Pacific ' in 1922. It made a new beginning in Ethnographic studies. Since then, following the method of Malinowski, a large number of ethnographic studies were published by different scholars throughout the world. Practice of early anthropologists in documenting endangered cultures was called Salvage ethnography or urgent ethnography Ethnographic studies were conducted in Kerala on different castes and tribes by different scholars. The earliest of such studies was the 'Castes and Tribes of Cochin' by L.K Anandakrishna Iyer, published in 1911. Later, he was invited to head the First Department of Anthropology in the University of Calcutta in 1920. He is widely considered as the father of Indian Ethnology. His son, L.K. Krishna Iyer produced the work Travancore Tribes and Castes and his grandson Bala Ratnam became the third in the line to continue Fig. 2.5 Malinowski doing fieldwork among the Trobriand islanders

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 68 this tradition of Anthropology. Some of the recent examples of ethnographic studies in Kerala include Rajalakshmi's study of 'Mullukkurumbas of Kppala'. A. Ayyappan's study 'Iravas and Culture Change', P.R.G. Mathur's study of the 'Mappila Fisherfolks of Kerala' and Ananda Bhanu's study of 'Cholanaickan, the Cave Men of Kerala'. Check your progress: 1. Fill the blanks areas suitably. Name of Scholar Community studied Book Published W.H.R Rivers ................................... The Toda Radcliffe Brown Tribes of Andaman island ................................... ................................... Trobriand Islanders ................................... S.C.Roy ................................... Munda and their Country A. Ayyappan ................................... Iravas and Culture change Prepare an ethnography of your own Caste/Community. You can utilise the following hints and refer the brief sketches of ethnographic reports given in appendix. Ethnographic Profile of a Community I. Name and area of the community for study (1) Name of the community, its synonym and etymology (2) Present day distribution (3) Mother tongue (4) Other languages spoken II Entering the community (1) Permission of the local government officers (2) Co-operation of community elders

Unit- 2: Basics of Social Cultural Anthropology 69 (3) General persons: Key informants III Ethnographic Details (1) Food habits: Staple food, drinks, smoking etc. (2) Social: What are the major social divisions/ groupings and their hierarchical order, if any in the community? What are the chief functions of these sub-divisions? (3) Institution of marriage: What are the marriage rules? Age of marriage, bride price/ dowry. Rule of residence after marriage. Rules regarding divorce (4) Family pattern: Types/forms of family, rules of inheritance in family, succession pattern; Inter-family linkages in and outside the community. (5) Life cycle rituals: what are the major rituals observed on the occasion/state of (a) birth (and how names are given) (b) adolescence (c) marriage (d) death and (e) any other function. Any significant changes reported lately in the ritual performance. (6) Economic activities: what are the major resources? Occupation of the community: (a) traditional (b) primary and (c) subsidiary. The marker system, forms of trade, barter exchange etc. Patron client relationship (jajmani system) or any other form of socio-economic interdependence changes that have come about after independence in various economic pursuits. (7) Mechanism of social control: What are the traditional and statutory councils and the regional associations (sabha) in the community? Composition and function of such councils / regional associations. Forms of punishment and reward. (8) Religious attributes: Mention religion the community professes. What are the main family, clan, village and regional deities? What are the major sacred centres / shrines / pilgrimages. Role of ritual specialists. What are the major festivals and significance associated with them? Changes in religious organisation of the community. (9) Intercommunity linkages: Traditional linkages and Modern linkages. (10) Impact of development programmes: Literacy and education, health, drinking water, employment and self employment, communication, electricity, and any other parameters. IV Any other observations of importance concerning life and culture of the community. V Writing Report The following points should be taken up appropriately, in a report w Title and subtitle w Statement of the problem w Objectives of the study w Description of the studies related to the problem w Methodology: area of group selection, sampling, specific hypothesis, techniques used for study w Organisation of data: description and analysis and presentation of quantitative data in table, graphs, photographs etc.

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 70 w Conclusions w References of text w Appendix (Essentials of Cultural Anthropology: A.R.N. Srivastava pp 57-58) Ethnology Ethnology is the comparative study of races and cultures. In Britain, Social Anthropology was earlier known as Ethnology. Ethnologists classify people on the basis of their distribution. It looks at people from an etic point of view. Ethnology can also be called as a historical study. It is different from ethnography. While ethnography requires primary data and close relationship with people, ethnology does not require direct interaction with the people. Ethnology can be based on different ethnographic studies. The important features of ethnology can be listed as below: w Ethnology is narrative w Ethnology is historical w Ethnology is comparative w It can be based on ethnographies. w It need not be based on primary data. w It studies cultures at different times and in different places. Now you are familiarised with the contents of Ethnology and Ethnography. Prepare a chart showing the difference between the two. Let us sum up w The Branch of Anthropology that concerns with the study of social institutions and the social and cultural aspects of human life is known as Social Cultural Anthropology. Some scholars have used the term Social Anthropology and some others have used the term Cultural Anthropology. The term Social Anthropology is popular in Great Britain and other Commonwealth countries. Cultural anthropology is popular in America. In India, the term social cultural anthropology is in vogue.

Unit- 2: Basics of Social Cultural Anthropology 71 w The first Anthropological definition of culture was given by Edward Burnet Tylor (1871). To him culture ……."is that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of the society". w Some scholars distinguish culture from civilisation and consider civilisation as the peak of development of culture. Culture comprises both material and non-material aspects. w Two famous cultural concepts in Anthropology: ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. Ethnocentrism is an attitude of judging other cultures based on the norms and values present in one's own culture. Opposite to ethnocentrism is the attitude of cultural relativism. w The two views of culture can be understood by studying the concepts of Emic and Etic. What the people think about their own culture is emic and what an outsider thinks about a culture other than his own is etic. w The smallest and indivisible unit of a culture is called 'culture trait'. Large number of culture traits that combine together to form a meaningful segment of culture is called a culture complex. w Enculturation refers to the process by which an individual learns the way of life and behaviour of his own culture. w Acculturation refers to the changes that occur in one's culture due to continuous contact with other culture. w Culture shock is the psychological or social maladjustment, experienced when people encounter a strange cultural situation for the first time. Ethnocentric people are more exposed to culture shock. A gap between the changes in the material and nonmaterial aspects of culture is called culture lag. w A society is not a culture but it has culture. Culture, on the other hand, is a product of society. w Community refers to a group, small or large, whose members live together in such a way that they share the basic condition of common life. w Institutions involve socially approved pattern of behaviour of members. It is guided by the norms and values existing in the society. Family, marriage and religion are institutions.

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 72 w Association refers to a group of persons formed with a specific objective or a set of objectives. w Like associations, individuals with common interest join together to form different groups. Associations are different from Groups. There are primary and secondary groups. w An individual, being a member of an association or group or institution, has a position in that group. Corresponding to one's position, one has to perform some duties also. The status which an individual occupies by birth is called ascribed status and the status which an individual acquires through one's own effort is known as achieved status. w Social structure is the arrangements of individuals in society. The arrangement of the activities of the individuals and groups in the society is social organisation. w Ethnographic studies had been a primary concern of Social Anthropology from its very beginning. It is the descriptive study of a culture. w Ethnology is the comparative study of races and cultures. The learner demonstrate the ability to w Analyse the meaning of social cultural anthropology and appreciate the British, American and Indian traditions. w Identify the meaning and definition of culture, elucidate its characteristics and components and differentiate culture from civilisation. w Distinguish the different concepts related to culture and ascertain its application. w Distinguish the concept of society from culture and delineate various terms and concepts associated with society. w Ascertain the concepts of role and status and appreciate their application in day to day life situation. w Analyse the meaning of social structure and delineate it from social organisation. w Identify the difference between ethnology and ethnography and write auto ethnography.

Unit- 2: Basics of Social Cultural Anthropology 73 Evaluation Items 1. While arranging some books in the Library, the Librarian asked you 'Why do the books having same content, have different titles like 'Social Anthropology', 'Cultural Anthropology, 'and Social Cultural Anthropology' etc. How will you explain to her about these differences? Explain this based on different traditions of Anthropology. 2. Do you think culture is universal? Identify the universal elements found in all cultures of the world. 3. Identify the cultural traits from your locality and arrange them into various cultural complexes, and explain the relationship between both. 4. 'Working of the society is the workings of social institutions' explain this based on the analysis of different social institutions like, family, marriage etc. 5. 'Family is a social institution and a primary group' justify this statement based on your knowledge of institution and group. 6. Prepare a time line showing major turning points in the development of field work for ethnographic studies in anthropology. 7. Prepare auto ethnography. 8. Classify the following terms under two suitable headings: (Descriptive, racial distribution, comparative study, field work, a cultue, secondary data, monograph, two or more cultures.) 9. Prepare 10 objective questions and their answers for conducting a quiz competition in your class on the topic 'Concepts of Society and Culture'.

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 74 Appendix Brief Ethnography of the Toda The toda is a pastoral tribe who live in the Nilgiri hills of South India. The Todas live there with four other tribes namely Badaga, Kota, Kurumba and Irula. They are tall, fair, with long and narrow nose, long head with black wavy hair. The word Toda has been derived from the name 'Tundra' - the sacred tree of the Todas. Numerical strength of Toda population is very low and government have taken some important measures to protect them. Material culture: The Todas present a classic example of pastoral economy. They know neither hunting nor agriculture, and rear only buffaloes. They make various products like ghee, cheese, butter, curd from milk of buffaloes. These products are partially consumed by themselves and the rest is sold or exchanged with the neighbouring tribal communities. Division of labour: Each family is engaged in caring large number of buffaloes. The males of the house take the animals to the field regurlarly. In the morning the Females are not allowed to enter into the dairy house because of the taboo - Milk is indispensible in the socio-religious life of the tribe. Milking is done twice a day - early in the morning and in the evening. The buffaloes are of two types, some are regarded as the ordinary type and other are sacred. The ordinary buffaloes are maintained by an individual family a for ordinary use, whereas sacred buffaloes are kept in the special shed. Milk from the sacred buffaloes is offered to gods. Food: The Todas are purely vegetarians. Their favourite dish is rice, boiled in milk. They also prefer curd, churned milk and plain milk. They take vegetables and green leaves as their principal meals. Meat of the sacrificed buffaloes is considered as sacred, so they take this during annual festivals. Both males and females of the Toda community are addicted to liquor. The habit of smoking also prevails among both the sexes. Reciprocity: The markets of the Todas are actually the homes of the neighbouring people. Neighbouring communities like Badaga supply them agricultural products in exchange of milk, the Kotas supply the various utensils made of clay and iron and the Irula and Kurumba, the hunting gathering group bring different forest products like honey fruit, tubers, vegetables etc. Settlement: The Toda village consists of ten to twelve huts called 'Mandu'. The huts are of two types. The first type is half-barrel in shape. A hut is divided into two portions, inside

Unit- 2: Basics of Social Cultural Anthropology 75 room and outside room. Inside room is used as a workshop where the females have no entry. The outside room is meant for living and other house hold work. The second type of hut is not barrel in shape. It is circular in shape and made of stone. This type of hut is used to keep the sacred buffaloes. Dress: Todas are simple people. The males use a long strip of white loin cloth which has to be thrown over the shoulders, after covering the waist. This is their traditional dress. Sometimes they use clourful cloth for covering the upper part of their body. Women use long thick cloth covering almost the entire body. They keep long hair in plait. They use ornaments like ear- rings, nose-rings, nose pin etc. The Toda women are expert needle workers. Social Organisation: Todas are endogamous, marriage alliances occur exclusively within the tribe. The tribe is divided into two subdivisions called moiety - Tartharol and Teivaliol. Each of these two moieties are again endogamous. The members of Thartharol consider themselves superior to the Teivaliol. Family: Todas exhibit polyandrous type of family. A woman with her multiple husbands and children usually form this type of family. The husbands may or may not be brothers. Children are known after their 'mother'.

BASICS OF BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY BASICS OF BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY Introduction Most of us are familiar with the interesting story of king Solomon who cleverly solved the dispute between two women both claiming a child to be theirs. When the king ordered to cut the child into two and give half part to each of the women, the actual mother step down from her claim. She agreed to give the child to the other as she wished the child should live. So the wise king found out the actual mother. CONTENTS I. Meaning and Scope of Biological Anthropology II. Theories of Human Origin and Evolution · Emergence of Life on rhe Earth · Earlier Theories of Evolution · Theories of Organic Evolution · Lamarkism · Darwinism · Neo-Darwimism · Synthetic Theory of Evolution. III. Human Evolution · Classification of Animal Kingdom · Human’s Place in the Animal Kingdom · Relationship between Humans and Apes · Early Hominids and Humans · Early forms of Homosapiens IV. Human Genetics · Basic Principles of Heredity and Variations · Mendel’s Law of Inheritance · Cell Division and their Genetic Significance V. Human Variation · Human Races · Criteria for Racial Classification · Major Races of the World · Blood Groups · ABO and Rh · Blood Group Identification · Blood Transfusion · Inheritance Pattern · ABO and Rh Incompatibility UNIT 3 Fig 3.1 Dispute over maternity-settlement in King Sloman's court in an artist's imagination.

Do you think such disputes can be solved in this way in the modern times? In one case, a 13 month old child was in the news. A young woman launched a legal battle against a man, who took away the baby within two days of its birth. This man and his legally wedded wife claimed the baby to be theirs. However the hospital records showed that the woman who registered the case was the real mother. To resolve the dispute the supreme court took resort to DNA profiling technology and ordered the test to be conducted for the couple, petitioner and the child. You have already studied about DNA and RNA in your previous classes. Along with DNA there are many other factors that distingiuish an individual from another. So we know that the biological variation of human is affected by hereditary factors and environment. It would be interesting to understand such biological variations of human along with knowing in detail his/ her biological origin and evolution. This unit on biological anthropology would help to understand all these areas of human life by examining various theories of evolution, concepts related to heredity and, variations. I. Meaning and Scope of Biological Anthropology. We have learned earlier that as human beings we are curious about so many things. As you know, anthropology addresses those questions of curiosity that concern all about human beings. The following are such questions related to our biological nature. w How did the humans originate? Where did they originate? w Are we related to other animal organisms including the apes and monkeys? w Why did the offspring look like or look different from their parents? w Why do the humans look so different from each other? w What is the basis for human variation and diversity? w Is there anything common among all human beings? We can go on and on with a number of questions as shown above. These are some of the questions that the biological anthropology is concerned with, in its attempt to explore the human species in its totality. Biological anthropology, also known as physical anthropology, studies the biological characteristics of humans. Biological anthropology deals with the study of biological origin, evolution and variation of human beings. It is interested in the comparative study of the past, present and future of human life from a biological point of view. It also analyses the biological adaptation of different human populations living in different geographical and Unit- 3: Basics of Biological Anthropology 77

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 78 ecological zones. Biological anthropology looks for scientific evidences in its analysis and inferences. In the process, it uses some of the general principles of biology and utilises the findings of anatomy, physiology, embryology, zoology, paleontology etc. For a systematic study of this kind, there are many fields of specialisation within biological anthropology as the following: l Paleoanthropology l Primatology l Human Genetics l Forensic Anthropology l Serology l Dermatoglyphics l Anthropometry and Craniometry l Paleopathology l Bio-archaeology l Neuro- Anthropology l Biomedical Anthropology Let us take a brief look into these specialised areas of biological anthropology before proceeding further. Palaeoanthropology earlier known as human palaeontology is the study of human origin and evolution, particularly as inscribed in the fossil record. Palaeo anthropologists are interested in reconstructing the evolutionary stages of humans, based on fossil evidences. They work with archaeologists, and geologists, in unearthing fossil remains from many parts of the world. The knowledge of osteology helps them to examine, measure, and reconstruct these remains to understand the course of human evolution, and identify the possible lines of descent from our ancestors to the present form, Homo sapiens. Primatology is the study of primates, the group to which prosimiians, apes, monkeys and humans belong. It focuses on how the behaviour of non-human primates is similar to that of the humans. The anatomy of non-human primates especially monkeys and apes has been studied to ascertain the similarities and differences between these primates and humans. This type of study helps to trace the evolutionary relationship between human and

Unit- 3: Basics of Biological Anthropology 79 non-human primates because of the remarkable similarities between monkeys, apes and humans. Human Genetics is the study of gene structure and action and the patterns of inheritance of traits from parents to off-spring. Forensic Anthropology deals with legal matters from an anthropological perspective. It is the application of osteology, paleopathology, archaeology, and other anthropological techniques for the identification of modern human remains or the reconstruction of events surrounding a person's death and for legal purposes. Serology: It is a scientific study of blood groups. It studies plasma serum and other redcell enzymes. In practice, the term usually denotes the diagnostic identification of antibodies in the serum. Serological tests are also used forensically, particularly concerning a piece of evidence. Dermatoglyphics is the study of skin ridges on finger palms, toes and soles. Finger print patterns are not only used in Forensic investigation but also is genetics to know the variation between two populations. Anthropometry is the systematic art/study of taking measurements on skeletons and living human beings. Craniometry is the sub branch of anthropometry deals with the measurement of craniums. Each of these specialised areas within biological anthropology contributes to the understanding of the biological aspects of humans. The important biological aspects of human beings would include those that are related to the theories New areas of Biological Anthropology Paleopathology is a study of disease in antiquity. It studies the traces of disease and injury in human skeletal remains. More over it focuses on pathogenic conditions observable in bones or mummified soft tissue. It also concentrates on nutritional disorders, variation in stature or the morphology of bones over time, evidence of physical trauma, or evidence of occupationally derived biomechanic stress etc. Bio-archaeology isthe combination of human osteology or the study of human bones with archaeology to study the human bones associating them with the location of its recovery in order to understand the past human populations Neuro-Anthropology is the study of human brain, evolution and culture as neurological adaptation and environment. Bio-medical Anthropology incorporates perspectives from the biological and medical anthropology subfields. It mainly seeks to improve medical practice and biomedical science through the holistic integration of cross-cultural or biocultural, behavioral, and epidemiological perspectives on health. As an academic discipline, it is closely related to human biology.

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 80 of human evolution, human genetics and human variation. The present unit focuses on each of these aspects for a detailed examination. Prepare a chart showing the different branches of Biological Anthropology. Check your progress 1. Find the pair. a. Study of blood : Serology , Study of bones : ........................ b. Study of fossils: Palaeoanthropology, Study of primates : ........................ 2. Fill the blank areas suitably. a) Biological anthropology, also known as ............... studies the ............... characteristics of............... b) The study of finger prints is known as ............... II. Theories of Human Origin and Evolution The most important question that has always been exciting human mind is about human origin and destination. Where did we come from and where are we heading to? Modern palaeantological evidences and scientific developments tried to find out an answer to these questions by reconstructing the human past. We were able to trace back to our origin with evidences based on the theories of evolution. To understand the human origin and evolution, we have to first look in to the emergence of life on the earth. Emergence of Life on the Earth You must have studied in your previous classes, some of the basics of the begining of the universe and about the formation of life on the earth. The earth is one of the planets that revolves around the sun. It is believed that the earth was formed about 4500 million years ago. According to one theory, it is thrown into the sun's gravitational field by the explosion of a star called Supernova. There was no life on earth until half of its life span. About 3000 million years ago life appeared on earth in the form of protoplasm (protozoa) at the meeting place of water and land. It is believed that life is originated from inorganic matters due to many physical-chemical conditions prevalent at the time of earth's evolution.

Unit- 3: Basics of Biological Anthropology 81 Earlier Theories of Evolution Along with knowing the time of origin of life, it is equally important to know how life forms originated as well. Different theories were proposed about the origin of life. Let us examine those earlier theories of evolution. Theory of Spontaneous Origin: According to Greek philosophers like Aristotle, Democritus and Thales, life has originated repeatedly from inanimate materials or nonliving things in a spontaneous manner. Theory of Divine Creation: A Spanish monk Father Sudrez proposed this theory. According to Genesis of the Old Testament of the Bible, the world was created by supernatural power. The theory specifies that all creations including plants, animals and human on earth were created during those 6 days. Since all the species were created individually by God, the theory does not accept the idea of origin of new species from ancestral forms. Theory of Eternity: This is an orthodox theory. It believes that some organisms were already parent, from the very beginning of the universe. Those organisms still exist and will continue to live in future, in addition to some new forms. According to this theory the original forms are eternal and they have been preserved automatically. Theory of Virus: Some scientists believed that virus was initially responsible for the emergence of the life. The viruses hold a transitional stage between living and non-living forms. By nature, virus is non-living, but when it reaches into the body cell of the living host, it behaves as living. Therefore, it is believed that such a creature might possess a role in the emergence of life. Theory of Cosmic Origin: Richter developed this theory and was supported by Thomson, Helmholtz, Von Tieghem and others. This theory advocated that the first life seed had been transported through the cosmic particles from other planets. According to these scholars, the meteorites that travelled through the earth's atmosphere, contained embryos and spores in them, which gradually grew and evolved into different types of organisms. Theory of Catastrophism or Cataclysm: French Geologist, Georges Cuvier proposed this theory. His observation was based on the fossil remains of varied organisms. According to him, the earth had to face severe natural calamities at different times during which many animal species have been destroyed. But each time when the earth settled after a great

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 82 catastrophe, relatively higher forms of animals appeared to replace the situation. According to him, a series of catastrophes were responsible behind changes, where previous sets of living creatures got replaced by new creatures of complex structures. As per his scheme, corals, molluscs and crustaceans appeared in the first phase. Then came the first plants, followed by the fish and reptiles. The birds and mammals appeared thereafter and in the last phase, human beings emerged. w What do you think about the shortcomings of these theories? w Are the propositions in any of these theories based on solid evidence? w Do they have any scientific basis? The earlier theories mentioned above were not accepted by scholars, as they lacked scientific basis. But later theories tried to explain the phenomena of organic evolution based on various evidences. Let us examine them in the following section. Theories of Organic Evolution The term evolution was first applied by the English philosopher Herbert Spencer, to mean the historic development in life. In this context, human biological evolution started with the origin of life. The first successful formation of protoplasm initiated the life, and the continuous development proceeded towards complexity to give rise to different life forms of evolved types. In the theory of evolution it is a universally accepted fact that there is a change in the form of organisms from the past to the present and also from the present to the future. This transformation of animals and plants into new and different species resulted in the diversification of life forms. We cannot perceive this process of diversification in our life time. It moves from simplicity to complexity and from homogenity to heterogenity. Evolution is a process that results inheritable changes in a population spread over many generations. First living existence was very minute and unicellular. As the time passed on, most of the unicellular forms were transformed into multi-cellular forms. Along with this, the geo-environment of the earth also underwent a process of continuous change. As a result, simple forms of organisms were transformed into very complex types of organisms. This process of change has been designated as organic evolution. Scholars agree that evolution was the important factor of origin of new life forms. But they proposed it in different ways. To get a comprehensive view of organic evolution, let us examine each of them in detail.

Unit- 3: Basics of Biological Anthropology 83 Lamarckism Jean Baptist de Lamarck (1744-1829) was a French biologist. Who for the first time, recognised that all life on earth is the product of evolutionary change. Lamarck spent the early part of his life as a botanist. Then at the age of 50, he turned his attention to zoology, particularly to the study of invertebrates. His extensive studies on invertebrates formed a base in zoological classification. He was the first scholar to recognise the distinction between invertebrates and vertebrates. As a result of his systematic studies, he became convinced that species were not constant but rather were derived from pre-existing ones. By consolidating all these ideas, he proposed his theory of evolution in his book Philosophie Zoologique 1809 which is known as Lamarckism. Lamarck believed that organic changes seen in animals resulted from the influence of environment. According to him, when the environment changes, animals need to change their body structure as well. In certain environmental conditions, organisms have to use certain body parts more. It may cause for changes in body structure. He postulated that such changed characters are variations in organisms. These characteristics would be transmitted to the offspring. Lamarck proposed these ideas as two different laws as the following. i) The law of use and disuse: According to Lamarck, a living body is influenced by the environmental factors and ultimately this phenomenon initiates an adaptation of organisms to its surroundings. As per necessity, some parts of the body may be used more and more. Therefore, those parts tend to show more development or changes in course of time, while, the other parts of the body, which may not be required much, will become weak or degenerate due to constant disuse. Thus Lamarck argued that, if an organ is put to continuous activity it will develop to the maximum extent and disuse of the same may lead to degeneration. ii) Inheritance of acquired characters: Evolution is the result of adaptation of organisms to the environment. Modifications produced during the life time of organisms become hereditary and will be inherited by the offspring. Thus, the theory of inheritance of acquired character states that all the modifications which the organism Fig. 3.2 Jean Baptist Lamarck

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 84 acquired during its life time in adaptation to the environment are automatically transmitted to the next generation and so become a part of heredity. To support his theory, Lamarck presented several examples. The most remarkable one is associated with the long neck and tall front legs of giraffes. According to Lamarck, the ancestors of giraffe were normal animals with reasonably long neck and forelimbs. They depended on grass and bushy vegetation for their survival. But a sudden scarcity of leafy vegetation due to some environmental factors, forced the giraffe to depend on leaves of tall trees and for that they had to stretch their neck and forelimbs. The continuous stretching of these organs resulted in the long neck and long forelimbs of present day giraffe. In another example, he mentioned that the ducks are unable to fly because their wings became weak, when they stopped flying. Again, the birds that started to live in an aquatic environment, gradually acquired webbed feet through the conquest of survival. Lamarck also cited other examples like limblessness in snake and certain cavedwelling forms. All these changes were held to be cumulative from generation to generation and also hereditary. Do you think that all the acquired characteristics in one generation will be transmitted to the next generation? Criticism of Lamarckism Lamarck's theory had been criticised from many angles. Most of the scholars did not accept this theory. The German scientist August Weismann criticised the essence of Lamarck's theory of inheritance acquired characters by his experiments, which involved cutting off the tails of mice for over twenty one generations. All tailless mice in all generations produced their offspring with tails. Therefore, he reached to the conclusion that the environmental factors might have an influence on the body cells, but it is not enough to profess a change of reproductive cells. Characters of an organism would not be inherited unless the change could occur in the reproductive cells. According to Weismann the body of an animal is composed of two parts viz. germ plasm (germ cells) and somatoplasm (body cells). Only those characters Fig. 3.3. According to Lamarck continuous stretching of neck and forelimbs resulted in evolution of organs among giraffes

Unit- 3: Basics of Biological Anthropology 85 which are located in the germ plasm will be inherited. As a result of these experiments, Lamarckian law of inheritance of acquired characters lost its evolutionary ground. But the effort towards finding facts related to organic evolution continued. Charles Darwin's interest in this field gave birth to new findings. Later on it became the basis of evolutionary principle. Any study of organic evolution will be incomplete without the examination of Darwin's theory, commonly known as Darwinism. Darwinism Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) was a British biologist, born on 12th February 1809 in Shrewberg, England. He was nominated to the position of a young naturalist for the voyage on H.M.S. Beagle. It was in this ship, Charles Darwin sailed around the world. The voyage on the 'Beagle' started on 27th December 1831 and Darwin visited many Islands in Atlantic ocean, some of the islands in the Pacific ocean including Galapagos Islands, many places on the coasts of South America and finally returned after five years on 2nd October 1836. During this voyage, Darwin took note of the flora, fauna, and the geology of the places visited. He also made extensive collections of living and fossil specimens of different species. He was writing his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay which described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of the theories of both of them. He presented his theory of evolution in the book On the Origin of Species by means of natural selection in 1859. Darwin argued that new species had evolved from older species and he described the mechanism behind the transformation process. Darwin's theory of evolution is based on the following five principles: w Organisms produce more offspring than can possibly survive. w Organisms face a constant struggle to survive. w Organisms within a species vary. w Organisms best suited to their environment survive w Those organisms which survive will reproduce and pass on their genes to the next generation. Fig. 3.4. Charles Robert Darwin

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 86 Each of these principles is explained below. Over-production: All species have a tendency to produce more and more offspring in order to increase the number of population. For example, a salmon produces 28,000,000 eggs in a single season; a single spawning of an Oyster may yield as many as 114,000,000 eggs; a common round worm (Ascaris lumbricoides) lays about 70,000,000 eggs in a day. Elephants appear to be one of the slowest breeders, having a life span of about hundred years. The active breeding age continues from thirty to ninety years, during which a single female may produce six young ones. Darwin calculated that starting from a single pair of elephants, at this rate reproduction would result in 19,000,000 elephants after 750 years. Similarly a jackfruit produces many seeds in a fruit. All these are examples of the possibility of over production in different species. This huge production is to ensure the survival of the species. Even though species are produced in larger number, the population of a particular organism remains more or less constant. Struggle for Existence: Darwin claimed that there was a continual 'struggle for existence' in nature, in which only the fittest would survive. This understanding of Darwin had come partly from his reading of Thomas Malthus's Essay on the Principle of Population. As a result of over production, there is a struggle for existence among organisms. Since the number of is persons is large, there is competition for food, shelter, mates etc. According to Darwin, struggle for existence may be of different types as follows: a. Intra-specific (Intra-species) struggle: The members of same species struggle among themselves for food, shelter and mates. b. Inter-specific (Inter-species) struggle: The members from different species may go on fighting for survival. A member from one species may hunt other members of other species as food. For example, tiger hunt goat and deer, cat hunt rat and so on. According to Darwin, in the animal kingdom, a species often stand as prey to other Charles Darwin Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) was born as the fifth son of his parents. He had elementary schooling in Shrewsbury. In childhood he took little interest in studies, but showed great interest in hunting birds and shooting dogs. His father and teacher considered him as little below with average in intelligence. Although in school, he showed some interest in mathematics and chemistry most of his time was spent in watching the birds, collecting insects etc. In 1825, Darwin was sent to Edinburg to study medicine, but soon he discontinued the course. After this his father wanted him to be prepared for the post of a clergyman, in the Church of England. So Darwin was sent to Cambridge. While studying at Cambridge, he gained friendship with some eminent scientists, such as the botanist Dr. Henslow and the geologist Sedgwick. Dr. Henslow’s friendship entirely changed Darwin’s life.

Unit- 3: Basics of Biological Anthropology 87 species, which clearly indicates a struggle for existence. In other cases, a single species may be used as food by different species. A tiger and lion may fight to get a deer. c. Environmental struggle: Organisms of different species struggle against the environmental hazards like earthquake, flood, drought etc. Only those species with better adjustment with the environment will survive. Darwin believed that the struggle is a continuous process and it is the way to survival. Struggle is predominant among the members of the same species as they depend on identical requirements of life. Variations: Variation is the tendency of an organism to deviate from the parental generation. Darwin observed that variety is a universal phenomenon seen among members of the same species in terms of structure, function, physiology, behaviour etc. These variations play a very important role for adaptations in the environment. Some variations are considered as favourable and others are unfavourable. Organisms with unfavourable variations easily get defeated in the struggle for survival. In course of time, they become eliminated from the world. On the other hand, variations that are useful to adapt to the pressures of the environment survive long. The new trait of advantageous characteristics is passed on to the future generations. Survival of the Fittest: The struggle for existence, leads to the survival of the fittest. When there are too many of an organism in an area, they compete for resources such as food and perhaps shelter, for example trees and caves. Darwin found that those organisms more suited to their environment or better adapted are more likely to survive. Those that are unfit will get eliminated. The surviving species will reproduce more number of offspring than those who are less adaptive. Natural Selection: The surviving individuals will give rise to the next generation. The successful variations are transmitted to the succeeding generations. The accumulation of advantageous traits in future generation gradually brings changes in species. Successive generations in this way tend to become better adapted to their environment. As the environment changes, further adaptations occur. The operations of natural selections occur for many generations. As a result, further changes occur in the organism. Eventually, a new species may evolve. Furthermore, certain members of a population with one group of variations may become adapted to the environment in one way, while others, with a different set of variations become adapted in a different way or become adapted to different environments. In this way two or more species may arise from a single ancestral stock.

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 88 The organisms always struggle to maintain their existence, as nature decides the survival of the fittest. Adaptive traits preserved through natural selection gradually bring changes in the characteristics of the species and thus evolution occurs. Examples of Natural Selection 1. The finches of Galapagos The finches of Galapagos Islands provide an excellent example of natural selection. Some species of finches have short thick beaks. They are used to eating seeds, fruits and buds. Some others have long straight beaks. They subsist primarily on nectar from flowers. If environmental condition suddenly changes some characteristics may be more favoured than others. 2. Industrial melanism in moth The changes that occurred in the moth population in different areas of England are the best example for natural selection. Before Industrialisation, the tree trunks were lighter and light coloured moths were predominant. Dark coloured moths were also present but they were limited in number. As a result of industrialisation, the pollution resulted in the darkening of tree trunks. So the light coloured moths become more visible to birds and were therefore eaten by their predators. As a result of this at the end of 19th century the common light coloured moths were almost completely replaced by the black variety The theory of origin of species by natural selection is regarded as a major advancement in evolutionary thought. Darwin contributed to the modern understanding of biological evolution by documenting the variation of living forms and identifying the key process of natural selection. Like most nineteenth century scientists, however, he did not understand heredity or how specific traits are passed from one generation to the next. His theory lacked the knowledge of modern genetics. However, mutation theory explained the causes of variations among organisms. Fig. 3.5 Darwin’s Finches

Unit- 3: Basics of Biological Anthropology 89 Neo-Darwinism Darwin could not explain systematically how variations exist. Hugo-de-Vries (1840- 1935), a Dutch botanist, proposed the mutation theory of evolution in 1901. According to this theory, new species evolve from earlier species not by natural selection but by sudden heritable changes in the genotype of an organism (characteristics of individuals), which he called 'mutation'. According to him, mutation is the chief cause of variation which leads to the formation of new species. Mutation theory distinguished heritable variations from environmental variations, which Darwin failed to understand in his theory of natural selection. Combination of Mutation theory and Darwin's theory of Natural Selection together is said to be New-Darwinism. Synthetic Theory of Evolution Darwinism, in its original form, failed to explain satisfactorily, the mechanism of evolution and the origin of new species. The inherent drawback in the Darwinian ideas was the lack of clarity as to the sources of variation and the nature of heredity. In the middle of twentieth century, scientists had come to a consensus to employ all sorts of knowledge, genetic, ecological, geographical, morphological, paleontological, etc. in order to examine the actual mechanism of evolution. Such consensus on evolution includes factors such as natural selection, gene recombination, reproductive isolation, mutation, migration, hybridization and genetic drift. With these factors, evolution at different contexts was explained in an effective way. The synthetic theory of evolution does not discard all previous propositions, rather, it considers them as partially important. Therefore, we find the amalgamation of various concepts namely natural selection, mutation, Mendelian principles, genetic drift, gene recombination and population genetics in this theory of evolution. But it is interesting to note that modern genetics does not acknowledge the mutation theory in its original form, Genetic Drift The random changes in the gene frequency occurring by chance alone are called genetic drift. The effect of genetic drift is very small in a large population but it is large in a small population. Gene Recombination The reshuffling of gene combinations which provides new combination of existing genes during crossing over is called gene recombination. Since, recombination adds new gene combinations in the gene pool, it is considered as an agent of evolution.

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 90 as proposed by De-Vries. At present, evolution appears to be a complex process, involving several complex forms. Activity: 1. Let us collect more information about creationism and evolutionism from various sources like, books internet etc and conduct a debate on the topic 'Creationism vs Evolutionism'. 2. Conduct a seminar on 'Theories of Organic Evolution and the Future of Humans'. Check your progress 1. Find the pair a. Origin of species: Darwin, Philosophic Zoologique:................ b. Mutation theory: Hugo-de-Vries, Natural selection:.............. 2. Find the odd item a. Use and disuse, natural selection, overproduction, variation b. Acquired character, struggle for existence, constant use, change in size 3. Identify the most scientific theory among the different theories of organic evolution. Substantiate your answer. We have discussed the various processes related to evolution. The main concern of anthropology is human being. So it is important to examine how each process of evolution worked in the evolution and formation of human beings. III Human Evolution Human being is a product of evolution. Human evolution is intimately related to the origin of life and its development on earth. It is customary to speak of evolution - from amoeba to human - as amoeba is the simplest form of life. But in reality, there are several organisms like virus which are earlier to amoeba. The origin of single celled species from organic molecules was the most complex step in evolution. It might have consumed the same extent of time from protozoan to human. So, to examine how humans evolved, the knowledge of other species in the animal kingdom and their phylogenic position are also important. Classification of organisms is made in different ways. Let us examine it.

Unit- 3: Basics of Biological Anthropology 91 Classification of Animal Kingdom Carl Linnaeus, a professor of botany in the university at Upsala, Sweden, is known as the father of taxonomy. He made systematisation and classification of plants and animals by introducing binomial terms. As per this, each plant and animal was assigned a genus name and a species name. He called humans as Homo sapiens, Homo being the genus, and sapiens, the species. The following is a taxonomic classification of organisms in the animal kigdom. Chart.3.1. Taxonamy of Animal kingdom Human's Place in the Animal Kingdom w Living beings on earth are classified into two kingdoms: namely plant kingdom and the animal kingdom. Human is the most developed primate in the animal kingdom. w Animal kingdom is divided into two sub kingdoms namely, protozoa and metazoa. Protozoa includes unicellular organisms. They reproduce through asexual

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 92 reproduction, i.e. through cell division (e.g. amoeba). The sub-kingdom metazoa, to which the humans belong, have multiple cells, and the feature of sexual reproduction. w Metazoa consists of two Phylums, chordata and non-chordata. Chordate, to which Humans belong, possesses a dorsal nervous system starting from the brain. It moves along with spinal column. The internal bony segments of the spinal column put humans in the sub-phylum vertebrates. w Chordate is classified into different classes, of which, the humans come under the mammals. The mammals are placed in the topmost position among the vertebrates. They are warm blooded and are able to maintain a constant body temperature. They have two sets of teeth, deciduous and permanent which are embedded in the sockets. The teeth are of different types (heterodont), such as incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. Mammals have breasts and the mothers nourish their babies with their own milk. The females of the mammals not only feed the young ones after birth but also establish a social relationship with their offspring. This trait of establishing social relationship is a milestone in human evolution. w The class Mammals or Mammalia is again divided into three sub-classes namely Prototheria, Metatheria and Eutheria, the last of which includes the placental animals including humans. Among them, the unborn young are developed in the maternal womb. The mother possesses placenta to nourish foetus during its development before birth, directly from the blood stream of the mother through placental plate. Fig. 3.6 Primate evolutionary tree Source: Roger Lewin, Human Evaluation: An Illustrated Introduction, 1993, P. 44

Unit- 3: Basics of Biological Anthropology 93 w The sub-class Eutheria is again divided into different orders, of which, the Primates are placed at the top, as the term means 'the First'. The human is placed in the order Primates. The following are some of the characteristics of the order Pimates: l The brain is large in proportion to body size. l prehensile hand - (ability to grasp) l Developed fingers, nails and toes l Flexible fore arm l Opposable thumb l Reduced canines l Centrally placed foreman magnum l Remarkable reduction in prognathism l Erect posture l Loss of opposability of great toe l Eyes are located forward on the skull. l They have the tendency to give birth only one offspring at a time. l They have a prolonged growth of maturity. w The order Primate is divided into two sub-orders namely, Prosimii and Anthropoidea. Tupiforms (Tree Shrews), Tarsiforms (Tarsiers - Malaysia), Lumeriforms (Lemur - Madagascar) and Lorissiforms (Lorise of Africa and Asia) are included in the suborder prosimii. Humans, along with apes and monkeys are included in the suborder Anthropoidea. It is characterised by frontally located eyes, stereoscopic vision and the bony eye socket. w The sub-order Anthropoidea contains three super families - Ceboidea (Old World monkey). Cercopithecoidea (New World monkey) and Hominoidea. The humans along with apes belong to the super family Hominoidea. They are characterised by the absence of tail and cheek pouches, presence of 32 teeth, modified pelvis suited for upright posture, etc. w The super family Hominoidea consists of three families namely Pongidae, Hylobatidae and Hominidae. The larger apes namely Oranguttan, Chimpanzee and Fig. 3. 7 Comparison of Hominoidea skeletons

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 94 Gorilla are included in the family Pongidae, while Gibbon is included in the family Hylobatidae. The humans including the extinct and the living come under the family hominidae which is charecterised by the nasal bridge, vertical fleshy nasal groove, lumbar curve, bony chin, true erect posture and less body hair. w The family Hominidae consists of different genus like Austrolopithecus, Ardipithecus and Homo. Humans are included in the genus Homo. w The genus Homo includes different species like habilis, erectus and sapiens. Human is considered a 'sapien'. This species is further divided into the sub-species Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis and Homo Sapiens Sapiens'. Thus anatomically modern human is scientifically known as Homo Sapiens Sapiens. Prepare a table showing the phylogenic classification of animal Kingdom and human's position in it. It is evident that in physical appearance human is having close resemblance with apes. But when we are included in the family Hominidae, apes are included in the family hylobatidae or Pongidae. Thus the above classification clearly illustrates that human have many thing in common with apes while we become a different species due to the differences that we have with the apes. Let us make a comparative analysis of human and apes. Relationship between Human and Apes Apes are human's closest relatives.The modern and extinct apes and humans which come under the super family Hominoidea are known as Hominoids. They are sub classified in to three families namely Hylobatidae (gibbon) Pongidae (chimpanzee gorilla and orangutan) and hominidae (humans).The representatives of the family Pongidae are also known as great apes. The modern apes include gibbon, orang-utan, chimpanzee and gorilla. Gibbons are small arboreal creatures that rarely exceed three feet in height. Their brain capacity is small. They show highly developed visual power. Weight of an adult may go up to 50 kg. The cranial capacity ranges from 76 to 90 cc (Cubic Centimetre). The extra ordinary length of hands helps them in brachiation. Fig. 3.8 Gibbon

Unit- 3: Basics of Biological Anthropology 95 It is the ability of swinging from branch to branch of the tree. Body is covered with black woolly hair but the face does not show any hair. Digital formula is 3>2>4>5>1 for both hands and feet. Considering the above characters, the scholars suggest that the gibbon stand a long way off from the direct line of human ancestry. Orang-utans that lives in Borneo and Sumatra seems to be closely related to gibbon. Orang-utans are also arboreal but their movements are slower than gibbons because of larger size and greater body weight. The height of an adult male is more than 4 feet and weight varies between 60kg to 80 kg. Body is covered with reddish brown hair. The cranial capacity ranges from 365 cc to 425 cc. A higher cranial capacity gave a little more intelligence. They are capable of making a variety of facial expressions. The digital formula of this animal is 3>4>2>5>1. Canines are big in size. The chimpanzee is more human like than orangutan. Average height of adult male is 5 feet and weight is about 125 kg. Skin colour is variable between black to brown. Cranial capacity is estimated between 400 cc to 500 cc which is more than gibbon and orang-utan. They can be taught many activities involving control and intelligence. They are even capable of using tools. Chimpanzees possess well deveoped pointed canine teeth. Although they have resemblance with human, the anatomical traits are largely similar to gorilla. It has been agreed that modern chimpanzees do not stand in the direct line of man's ancestry. The Gorilla is the bulkiest among all primates. The adult male is about five and half feet in average. Their weight is about 200 kg. Cranial capacity ranges between 450 cc to 550 cc which runs more or less parallel to chimpanzee. They spend most of the time on ground and Fig. 3.9 Orangutan Fig. 3.10 Chimpanzee Fig. 3.11 Gorilla

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 96 usually walk on four limbs. The body is covered with black hair except chest and face. Face of the gorilla is almost flat with a slightly elevated nasal bridge. Shape of the face resembles humans while nose is similar to other apes. Lips are also very thin like other apes. Gorilla is the strongest of all primates. You may have visited zoos and observed the physical features of apes. What are the features that make the apes different from humans? As in the case of physical structure, human is very much different from apes in functional aspects also. For instance, humans walk bipedally with an accurate erect posture. Bipedal-walks among apes are occasional with semi-erect posture. The thumbs among apes are quite short, the size of brain is much larger as well as developed among human with complex cortical structure, which is not found in apes. Human has the power of articulating speech. Examine whether the factors listed in the comparative chart prepared by you include the following similarities. Resemblance between humans and apes l None of them possess tail. l Vermiform appendix is found in human and apes. l They have blood of similar types. l Structure of the uterus and placenta are similar. l Opposability of thumb. l Both are omnivorous. l Both the species are characterised by stereoscopic vision. Fig. 3.12 Comparative picture showing the skull of human and Great Apes

Unit- 3: Basics of Biological Anthropology 97 The following chart will give a comparative picture of humans and apes. Characteristics Human Chimpanzee Gorilla Orang-utan Cranial capacity Lowest about Highest about Highest about Highest about 1000cc 500cc 550cc 425cc Forehead Well developed Not much Not much Not much developed developed developed Nasal bridge Well raised Absent Absent Absent Nasal bones Short and broad Short and flat Long long Chin present Absent Absent Absent Canine small Large, Very large, Large, pointed, sharp pointed, sharp pointed, sharp Foraman Placed anteriorly Placed Placed Placed magaum at the base of the posteriorly posteriorly posteriorly skull Table.3.1 Comparison of skull of Human, Chimpanzee, Gorilla and Orang-utan In the phylogenic chart we found that the family Hominidae includes three genus Ardipithecus Australopithecus and Homo,. We trace human evolution by examining the fossil evidences of such earlier specimens. So paleontological evidences are important in reconstructing the evolutionary sequence of human. The evoluation of human and prehominid forms present fascinating evidences in support of human evolution. Here, let us examine the early Hominids that represented the different stages of human evolution. Prepare a collage/chart/or presentation(Power Point)showing the similarities and differences between of humans and apes. Early Hominids and Humans In 1871, Darwin published his book 'The descent of man' in which he described in detail the evolution of human. He observed that humans had evolved from some more primitive forms. According to him the common ancestor of humans was hairy, tailed, quadraped (four limbed), probably with arboreal habits. That common ancestor had evolved

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 98 from minute organisms of the remote past. Human evolution probably began with an unspecified arboreal climbing primate, that we call ape. Palaeontological evidence shows that the human evolution take place some where in Asia and Africa. These two continents show greater number of fossils than that of Europe. Evidences show that all the primates disappeared since eocene epoch in North America. Moreover, South America was dominated only by platyrrhine monkeys. Humans entered the new world from old world. Hence, some strongly argue that humans originated first in Asia, while others argue that Africa is the birth place of humans. Yet another argument is that, evolution did not restrict to any continent. It followed different lines in different places. However, Darwin considers Africa as the cradle of humankind. L.S.B.Leaky and his wife Marry Leaky, eminent palaeantologists upheld this view. Humans are the most motivating, stimulating, talented and exceptional of all organisms on earth. In course of evolution, humans are the only animal that gained the capacity to create and sustain a way of life- culture. The biological make up, unique to humans, helped them to develop culture. Culture itself is the product of organic evolution. Culture gave humans capacity to adapt biologically with environment. The biological modifications like erect posture, bipedal locomotion, the grip function of hands and stereoscopic vision helped humans to develop articulation of speech, and other social cultural behaviour. Dryopithicines who lived 20 million years ago regarded as ancestor of both apes and human. It consists of 3 varieties namely Dryopithecus, Ramapithecus, and Gigantopithecus. Dryopithecus and Gigantopithecus are included in the family Pongidae and Ramapithicus is included in Hominidae. Human evolution, based on fossil skeletal remains, shows that it had passed through four important stages namely Ausralopithicines, Pithecanthropines, Neanderthals, and Cro-magnon. It is believed that about 4 million years ago, in pliocene epoch, the first undoubted hominid named Australopithecus having biped, erect posture appeared on earth. Australopithecines: Australopithecines represent the first stage of hominid evolution. Australopithicines are ape-like in many respects. They are characterised by small brain case, bi-molar teeth and facial prognathism. Their cranial capacity ranges from 400 to Ardipithecus; the First Bipedal Ape? In 1992, a team of researchers led by Tim White discovered fossils from Aramis of Ethiopia. They may be the earliest hominid. The name given to the species was ramidus and it was distinct from the Australopithecus. It has ape-like dentition, bipedal locomotion and an overall hominid- like skeleton.

Unit- 3: Basics of Biological Anthropology 99 700 cc. Strongly built supra-orbital bridges, massive jaws, absence of forehead and a number of other features resemble with apes. However, they differ from the apes as they lack projecting canines, downward facing foreman magnum and extended and expanded ilium. Australopithecene include different varieties like Australopithecus Africanus, Australopithecus Afarensis, Australopithecus Boisei and Australopithecus Robustus. Australopithecus Africanus: The first discovery of an australopithecine fossil was made by Raymond Dart ,an Australian anatomy professor in South Africa, in 1924. He discovered a well preserved fossil from the commercial quarries near Taung, South Africa. This fossil was named as Australopithecus Africanus. This species is also known as Taung Child or Taung Baby as the fossil was of a child discovered from taung. Prof. Dart has estimated its cranial capacity as 520cc. This indicates that their brain is larger than that of the chimpanzee. Based on the position of foramen magnum, the large hole in the skull where the spinal cord enters, Dart claimed that Australopithicus africanus was probably a bi-ped. Since Dart's original find, hundreds of other fossils of Australopithecus have been found, first in South Africa and late in Kenya, Ethiopia and in Tanzania. As they were discovered, many were given a number of different specific and generic names but all of them were considered a single genus Australopithicine. Australopithecus Afarensis: The fossil evidences of Australopithecus afarensis was discovered by Donald Johanson at the Hadar site in the Afar desert region of northern Ethiopia in 1974. Its age was estimated about 3 million to 4 milliom years ago. The Australopithecus afarensis was an erect, bi-pedal creature. Donald's finding, scientifically designated as Australopithicus Afarensis, became popularly known as Lucy. It had a small cranium (440cc), and a large canine teeth. The Lucy's skull Fig. 3.14 Australopithecus Afarensis Fig. .3.15 Lucy Fig. .3.13 Fossil of Taung Child

Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology 100 resembles that of modern chimpanzee. Lucy was bi-pedal in movement and she was 3.5 to 4 feet tall. Homo Habilis: The fossil remains of Homo habilis were discovered by Dr. Leaky at Olduvai in East Africa in 1962. The remains are parts of skull,upper jaw and lower jaw. The Zinjanthropus and Homo habilis are contemporary representatives but the Homo habilis is considered as more advanced type. According to Leaky Homo habilis resembles Homo sapiens. But some scientists argue that Homo habilis is a variant of Australopithecine, which may be regarded as relatively progressive Australopithecus. Pithecanthropines: The second stage of human evolution is represented by Pithecanthropines. It includes a variety of specimens like Homo erectus, Java man, Peking man and Homo heidelbergensis. Homo Erectus: In the early 1891, the first fossil of Homo erectus, the 'erect ape' man was found on the tropical Island of Java, by the Dutch scientist and the Army doctor Eugene Dubois. The fossil is popularly known as Java man. In 1894, he named this fossil as Homo erectus or Pithecanthropus erectus. Dating shows that, it is 1.9 million years old. Subsequently many discoveries were made from different regions in different times and are known by different names such as pithecanthropus, sinanthropus (China), atlanthropus (North Africa), telanthropos (South Africa), etc. All these are variants of a single species called Homo erectus and shows a close resemblance to human. Fig. 3.16 Homo Habilis Homo Ergaster Homo ergaster is an extinct species of Homo that lived in eastern and southern Africa during the early Pleistocene between 1.8 million and 1.3 million years ago. The south African palaeontologist St. John T Robinson first discovered a mandible of a new hominid in South Africa in 1949. He named it Telanthropus capensi. The most complete skeleton of Homo ergaster was discovered at Lake of Turkana ,Kenya in 1984 by Palaeontologists Kamoya Kimeu and Alan Walker. They nick named the 1.6 million years old specien as ‘Turkana Boy’. Homo ergaster was probably the first hominid to use ‘what we would recognise as a human voice’. The well developed brain and physical capabilities suggest the use of linguistic or symbolic communication of ergaster. Fig.3.17 Homoerectus