History of europe and world BA History

HISTORY OF EUROPE AND WORLD 1760 AD TO 1871 AD VENKATESHWARA OPEN UNIVERSITY www.vou.ac.in VENKATESHWARA OPEN UNIVERSITY www.vou.ac.in HISTORY OF EUROPE AND WORLD 1760 AD TO 1871 AD BA [HISTORY] [BAH-103] HISTORY OF EUROPE AND WORLD 1760 AD TO 1871 AD 8 MM

HISTORY OF EUROPE AND WORLD 1760 AD TO 1871 AD BA [History] [BAH-103]

Authors Dr Syed Mubin Zehra Units: (1.3-1.4, 2.2, 3.3, 4.2-4.3) © Dr Syed Mubin Zehra, 2019 Dr M Waseem Raja Units: (1.5, 3.2, 3.4) © Dr M Waseem Raja, 2019 Jaideep Majumdar Units: (2.4-2.5) © Reserved, 2019 Dr Shreeparna Roy Units: (2.6-2.7, 4.4-4.5) © Dr Shreeparna Roy, 2019 Vikas Publishing House Units: (1.0-1.2, 1.6-1.10, 2.0-2.1, 2.3, 2.8-2.12, 3.0-3.1, 3.4.1-3.4.2, 3.5-3.9, 4.0-4.1, 4.6-4.10) © Reserved, 2019 BOARD OF STUDIES Prof Lalit Kumar Sagar Vice Chancellor Dr. S. Raman Iyer Director Directorate of Distance Education SUBJECT EXPERT Dr. Pratyusha Dasgupta Dr. Meenu Sharma Sameer Assistant Professor Assistant Professor Assistant Professor CO-ORDINATOR Mr. Tauha Khan Registrar All rights reserved. No part of this publication which is material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or transmitted or utilized or stored in any form or by any means now known or hereinafter invented, electronic, digital or mechanical, including photocopying, scanning, recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior written permission from the Publisher. Information contained in this book has been published by VIKAS® Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. and has been obtained by its Authors from sources believed to be reliable and are correct to the best of their knowledge. However, the Publisher and its Authors shall in no event be liable for any errors, omissions or damages arising out of use of this information and specifically disclaim any implied warranties or merchantability or fitness for any particular use. Vikas® is the registered trademark of Vikas® Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. VIKAS® PUBLISHING HOUSE PVT LTD E-28, Sector-8, Noida - 201301 (UP) Phone: 0120-4078900 Fax: 0120-4078999 Regd. Office: A-27, 2nd Floor, Mohan Co-operative Industrial Estate, New Delhi 1100 44 Website: www.vikaspublishing.com Email: [email protected]

SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE History of Europe and World 1760 AD to 1871 AD Unit - 1 1. 18th century as Age of Enlightenment: Features and Impact on Society and Polity. 2. French Revolution: Causes, Reign of Terror, Constituent Assembly. 3. Napoleon Bonaparte: Rise, Reforms and Downfall. 4. Era of Conservatism: The Congress of Vienna, Metternich System. Unit - 2 1. Industrial Revolution in England: Causes and Consequences. 2. American War of Independence: Causes; Institution of Slavery, American Civil War-causes and Results, Role of Abraham Lincoln. 3. China: Opium Wars: Causes and Consequences; Unequal Treaties. 4. Japan: Commodore Perry and Opening of Japan; Impact on Shogunate. Unit - 3 1. The July Revolution of 1830-causes and Results. 2. The February Revolution of 1848: Causes and Results. 3. Political Development in France between 1848 and 1871, Paris Commune. 4. Russia: Modernisation under Alexander II. Unit - 4 1. Unification of Italy-Background, Roles of Mazzini, Garibaldi and Cavour. 2. Unification of Germany-Background from Zollverein to Bismarck. 3. Chinese Response to Colonialism: Taiping Rebellion, Tungchi Restoration. 4. Japan: Meiji Restoration-Background, Impact. Syllabi Mapping in Book Unit 1: 18th Century European World (Pages 3-42) Unit 2: Industrial Revolution, the American War on Independence and Developments in China and Japan (Pages 43-102) Unit 3: Developments in France and Russia in the 19th Century (Pages 103-127) Unit 4: Unification of Italy and Germany and Developments in China and Japan (Pages 129-173)

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1 UNIT 1 18TH CENTURY EUROPEAN WORLD 3-42 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Unit Objectives 1.2 18th Century as the Age of Enlightenment: Features and Impact 1.2.1 Factors Responsible for Enlightenment 1.2.2 Development in Arts 1.2.3 Developments in Architecture and Sculpture 1.2.4 Developments in Music 1.2.5 Reflections of the Age of Enlightenment in Literature 1.3 French Revolution: Causes, Reign of Terror and Downfall 1.3.1 Causes of the French Revolution 1.3.2 Course of the Revolution 1.4 Napoleon Bonaparte: Rise, Reforms and Downfall 1.4.1 Napoleonic Empire 1.4.2 Causes of Napoleon’s Failure 1.5 Era of Conservatism: The Congress of Vienna and the Metternich System 1.5.1 Reaction in Europe after 1815 1.6 Summary 1.7 Key Terms 1.8 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’ 1.9 Questions and Exercises 1.10 Further Reading UNIT 2 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, THE AMERICAN WAR ON INDEPENDENCE AND DEVELOPMENTS IN CHINA AND JAPAN 43-102 2.0 Introduction 2.1 Unit Objectives 2.2 Industrial Revolution in England: Causes and Consequences 2.2.1 Revolution in Textiles 2.2.2 The Iron and Coal Industry 2.2.3 Results of Industrial Revolution 2.3 American War of Independence 2.3.1 Ideologies behind the American Revolution 2.3.2 Causes of the American Revolution and War of Independence 2.3.3 Events of the American Revolution and War of Independence 2.3.4 Results and Significance of the American Revolution 2.4 Institution of Slavery 2.4.1 Origins of Abolitionism 2.4.2 Abraham Lincoln and Abolitionism 2.5 American Civil War and the Role of Abraham Lincoln 2.5.1 Causes of Defeat of the Confederacy 2.5.2 Conclusion 2.6 Opium Wars in China 2.6.1 First Opium War 2.6.2 Second Opium War

2.6.3 The Causes of the Opium Wars 2.6.4 Unequal Treaties 2.7 Developments in 19th Century Japan 2.7.1 Opening of Japan, Commodore Perry and the Impact on Shogunate 2.7.2 Unequal Treaties 2.8 Summary 2.9 Key Terms 2.10 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’ 2.11 Questions and Exercises 2.12 Further Reading UNIT 3 DEVELOPMENTS IN FRANCE AND RUSSIA IN THE 19TH CENTURY 103-127 3.0 Introduction 3.1 Unit Objectives 3.2 The July Revolution of 1830: Causes and Results 3.2.1 Objectives of the Revolution 3.2.2 Influence on Europe 3.3 The February Revolution of 1848: Causes and Results 3.3.1 Result of the Revolution 3.4 Political Developments in France between 1848 and 1871 3.4.1 Paris Commune 3.4.2 Russia: Modernisation under Alexander II 3.5 Summary 3.6 Key Terms 3.7 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’ 3.8 Questions and Exercises 3.9 Further Reading UNIT 4 UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY AND DEVELOPMENTS IN CHINA AND JAPAN 129-173 4.0 Introduction 4.1 Unit Objectives 4.2 Unification of Italy 4.2.1 Joseph Mazzini 4.2.2 Cavour’s Rise 4.2.3 Movement in the South and Garibaldi’s Role 4.3 Unification of Germany 4.3.1 Role of Bismarck 4.4 Chinese Response to Colonialism: Taiping Rebellion 4.4.1 The Taiping Rebellion 4.4.2 Tungchi Restoration 4.5 Japan: Meiji Restoration 4.5.1 Meiji Constitution 4.5.2 Impact of the Meiji Restoration 4.6 Summary 4.7 Key Terms 4.8 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’ 4.9 Questions and Exercises 4.10 Further Reading

Introduction NOTES Self-Instructional Material 1 INTRODUCTION For many historians, the history of modern Europe begins when the ideas of enlightenment began to germinate, culminating in the collapse of monarchies throughout the European continent. New ideas about how a nation should be governed resulted in the disintegration of the Ancient Régime of the Bourbons in France. From France, these ideas spread all over the continent. In the 18th and 19th century, Europe was to witness many revolutions, both social and political; these revolutions formed the foundation of the modern world as we know it and changed the lives of workers, peasants, aristocrats, the middle class, women and minorities living in European countries. However, modern European history was also witness to many tragedies. Wars were fought that killed more people than in any other point in history. China and Japan, two important countries in South-East Asia, were also witnessing changes with the arrival of imperial powers. Although they were once great ancient civilisations, the rise of Europe and the West resulted in the decline and regression of the great civilisations of Asia. By the nineteenth century, this decline had resulted in most Asian civilisations becoming essentially puppet states of western imperial powers. China and Japan were no different. However, by the time the 19th century ended, great churnings had taken place in China and Japan that would constitute the first steps to their re-emergence on the world stage. In this book, History of Europe and World 1760 AD to 1871 AD, you will learn in detail about the changes that took place in Europe and Japan and China in the 18th and 19th century. This book is written in a self-instructional format and is divided into four units. Each unit begins with an Introduction to the topic followed by an outline of the Unit Objectives. The content is then presented in a simple and easy-to-understand manner, and is interspersed with Check Your Progress questions to test the reader’s understanding of the topic. A list of Questions and Exercises is also provided at the end of each unit, and includes short-answer as well as long-answer questions. The Summary and Key Terms section are useful tools for students and are meant for effective recapitulation of the text.

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 3 UNIT 1 18TH CENTURY EUROPEAN WORLD Structure 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Unit Objectives 1.2 18th Century as the Age of Enlightenment: Features and Impact 1.2.1 Factors Responsible for Enlightenment 1.2.2 Development in Arts 1.2.3 Developments in Architecture and Sculpture 1.2.4 Developments in Music 1.2.5 Reflections of the Age of Enlightenment in Literature 1.3 French Revolution: Causes, Reign of Terror and Downfall 1.3.1 Causes of the French Revolution 1.3.2 Course of the Revolution 1.4 Napoleon Bonaparte: Rise, Reforms and Downfall 1.4.1 Napoleonic Empire 1.4.2 Causes of Napoleon’s Failure 1.5 Era of Conservatism: The Congress of Vienna and the Metternich System 1.5.1 Reaction in Europe after 1815 1.6 Summary 1.7 Key Terms 1.8 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’ 1.9 Questions and Exercises 1.10 Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION The French poet, novelist and dramatist Victor Hugo once said, ‘There is one thing stronger than all the armies in the world, and that is an idea whose time has come.’ The revolutionary ideas of 18th century France fundamentally changed the way one imagined society to be. These ideas not only altered the fabric of European society, but many decades later, the idea of ‘Liberty, Equality, Fraternity’ became the inspiration on which revolutions in other nations were fought. Today, the ideas of the French Revolution have also become the cornerstone of democratic societies in most of the world. The massive changes that were set in motion in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, showed their consequences in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. The primary force behind this was the ‘power of reason’ that aimed to transform society and seek and explore new knowledge. The ‘scientific view’ emerged to challenge and oppose the intolerance of the Church and state.

4 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES This age of ‘enlightenment’ brought people out of a state of ‘ignorance’ and encouraged them to question the existing systems and work towards intellectual, cultural and architectural advancement. A figure whose name is synonymous with the events that occurred in France after the French Revolution of 1789 is Napoleon Bonaparte. Bonaparte brought order to a lawless post-revolutionary France after the days of the reign of terror. After taking the title of emperor, he became one of the key figures who shaped the history of modern Europe in the 19th century. Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain, the four powers which were instrumental in overthrowing Napoleon in a series of wars (the Napoleonic Wars), convened the Congress of Vienna at Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815. The Vienna Congress was drafted to restore peace in Europe and realign the social and political order to prevent imperialism within Europe. But the Congress was shaped with conservative political and social views. What it achieved politically was to reinstate balance of power and legitimacy. Socially, the Congress stopped most revolts and uprisings. From 1815 to 1848, the Congress of Vienna was successful in ensuring peace and order in the region. Metternich, the chief minister of autocratic Austria and the country’s representative at the Congress, wanted to contain France. To ensure that France remains politically and militarily weak, the Congress of Vienna purposely surrounded the country by stronger nations. Metternich also wanted legitimate governments in these countries. Hence, the Bourbons of France, Spain, and Naples were restored, so were the ruling dynasties in Holland, Sardinia, Tuscany, and Modena. Russia, Austria, Prussia, and England formed a Concert of Europe that promised gave each other support, if revolutions broke out. The Quadruple Alliance of Russia, Austria, Prussia and England agreed to defend the status quo against any threat to the balance of power. Spain revolted in 1820 and the revolution was suppressed by the French troops. Also in 1820, Austrian troops were ordered to stop the revolution of Naples. This unit examines the emergence of scientific view and the factors responsible for ‘enlightenment’ and modernism in literature, art, architecture and music during the age of enlightenment. The French Revolution, its causes, immediate impact on France and Europe, and the causes of failure will also be discussed. Towards the end of this unit, the Congress of Vienna and the Metternich System will be explained in detail. 1.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you will be able to: • Discuss 18th century as the Age of Enlightenment • Describe the features and the impact of the Age of Enlightenment • Explain the causes and the downfall of the French Revolution • Discuss the Congress of Vienna • Analyse the Metternich System

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 5 1.2 18TH CENTURY AS THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT: FEATURES AND IMPACT The eighteenth century is remembered as the Age of Enlightenment. The Age refers to an era of European scholarly history that began in the early years of the eighteenth century. Many of the significant thinkers, interest groups and missions connected with the Enlightenment were based in France. The Enlightenment popularized the concepts created during the Age of Reason. The Enlightenment view or belief was that our understanding of the social world obtained from contemporary science can help us to advance the living conditions on Earth. War, poverty and injustice are not God-given penalties for our wickedness, but bad management. We can reform or overthrow the oppressive governments. Social disparity can be lessened and maybe overcome. Disease is not to be allowed enduringly but to be fought with new drugs. Poverty can be diminished by the productivity of new inventions and technologies. Ignorance can be conquered with the help of universal public education. Human societies can be made ideal if we have the will and employ our scientific information to plan and socially engineer for a better future. There is no frontier to what human rationale and resourcefulness can realize. The French Enlightenment thinkers were also called philosophes. They were not actually philosophers; however, what we would nowadays call journalists or popularizers. One of the greatest achievements of the philosophes was the publication of the Encyclopaédie. All those who supplied articles were called the Encyclopaedists. Philosophes and encyclopaedists are frequently used interchangeably while describing the French Enlightenment. During this era, a new structure of concepts about human beings and their societies was developed in the works of an extensive variety of thinkers. Especially, a new obsession with the social world emerged. This was seen as a specific and significant realm of human activity. This spotlight on the social atmosphere generated new queries about human history, political and economic activity and types of social contacts. To ‘classical’ authors or to religious texts for definite knowledge, this questioning of the social atmosphere was based in a new spirit of inquiry that no longer looked to convention. In its place, rational techniques of inquiry sought to describe how and why certain conditions of the present had arisen and, prominently, what might be done to alter these circumstances for the better. Enlightenment thinking occurred in an extensive paradigm in which certain essential tenets were accepted. A paradigm is a set of interconnected ideas, values, principles and facts within which logical theories (attempts to describe and to elucidate phenomena) are developed. A scholar of the Enlightenment, Hamilton, states that the key features of the Enlightenment paradigm comprised: • Reason: Stressing on the fundamental significance of reason and rationality as ways of organizing knowledge.

6 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES • Empiricism: This is the idea that all thoughts and knowledge of the natural and social worlds are dependent upon what we can capture through our senses. Much of Enlightenment thought relied upon using both rational and empirical techniques. • Science: This is the initiative that the only way to increase human knowledge is through those methods (experimental, etc.) devised during the ‘scientific revolution’ of the seventeenth century. • Universalism: The idea that reason and science are valid in all circumstances and that they can offer explanations for all phenomena in all circumstances. Science in particular was thought to expose universal laws. • Progress: This is a key concept of the Enlightenment Age. It supported the belief that human beings could advance their natural and social conditions through the application of logic and science. The result would be an ever-increasing stage of happiness and well-being. • Individualism: It is the concept, which explains that the person is paramount and that his or her individual logic cannot be subject to a higher (possibly irrational) authority (such as the Church) or traditional knowledge. • Toleration: It is the idea that all human beings are fundamentally the same and that the beliefs of other cultures or ‘races’ are not essentially inferior to those of European Christianity. • Freedom: It is just the opposite of the traditional restraints on belief, expression, trade, social interaction and so on. • Secularism: Another key feature of Enlightenment thought that is opposed to traditional spiritual knowledge and to metaphysical speculation. • Anti-clericalism: It is an opposition to the Church, organized religion, superstition and religious bullying. • Enthusiasm for technological and medical progress: It is a massive enthusiasm for scientific discovery and its realistic application in the fields of technology and medicine. • A desire for political change and reform: Enlightenment thinkers were not democrats, but they desired to see constitutional and legal reforms in the states in which they lived. • A belief in the pre-eminence of empirical, materialist knowledge: It is a desire to find out the real reasons for the ways in which societies operate; the replica used was derived from the natural sciences. The Enlightenment was mainly the ‘work of three overlapping and closely linked generations’ of thinkers. The first of these generations produced the French thinkers—Voltaire (1694–1778) and Montesquieu (1689–1755). This generation was powerfully influenced by the work of the English political philosopher John Locke and scientist Isaac Newton. For this generation of thinkers, rational query based on the natural sciences and an assessment of the social and political institutions of ‘absolutist’ monarchy was significant. The second generation of thinkers comprised Scottish philosopher David Hume and French philosophers Rousseau and Diderot. It was more openly ‘anticlerical’ and continued and developed the curiosity in the

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 7 application of scientific method to ‘moral’ (or social) subjects developed by the thinkers of the first generation. The third generation of thinkers comprised German philosopher Kant and Scottish moral philosophers Adam Smith and Adam Ferguson. Thus, Enlightenment thinking ceased to be so common and a series of more dedicated ‘proto-disciplines’ started to emerge, which comprised the following: • Epistemology • Economics • Sociology • Political economy Enlightenment thinking was not in any accurate sense consistent; however, it is customary to refer to the whole period as the ‘Age of Enlightenment’. This obviously implies that it was an era that saw itself as emerging into light from a ‘dark age’ of ignorance and superstition. 1.2.1 Factors Responsible for Enlightenment This change in outlook was rendered possible due to the progress of science and its new laws and methods. During this period, effort was made to translate the advances of science into a new philosophy and worldview. The thinkers of this period involved themselves in the revaluation of all aspects of society. Thus, they established a rational faith and tried to lay the foundations of systematic disciplines of social sciences. The spirit of reason, which pervaded this age, left a deep impact on literature, music and fine arts. It ushered in neoclassicism in literature and music. It resulted in the abandonment of the grandiose Baroque and daintier Rococo styles in favour of the pure neoclassical style. It may be observed that all the leaders of the Enlightenment were not cast in the same mould, yet they all possessed ideas and attitudes, which were quite distinct from the earlier as well as the later thinkers. One of the outstanding features of their thinking was ‘rationalism’. Under the impact of this rationalism, they were confronted with the problem of reconciling old faiths with new truths and thus created a sort of crisis in European conscience. One of the earliest leaders of the Enlightenment was Rene Descartes, the famous French philosopher. He tried to reconcile the medieval religious faith with the mechanistic world in which supernatural phenomena were impossible and everything had to be explained rationally. Therefore, he took a mathematical and rational view of the world and doubted everything. However, he perceived that he could not doubt that he existed or that there was something besides him. On the basis of these two premises, he rationally constructed a universe, God and an immortal soul for himself. His universe was a mechanical one, which rigidly obeyed the laws of matter and motion proclaimed by Galileo and others and which could be easily understood by anyone who understood geometry. Descartes, in his Discourse on Method, tells us that he constructed his rational universe in one day and that his ideas were not based on experience, but spun out of his own inner consciousness.

8 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES Descartes left a deep impact on Baruch Spinoza (1632–77) who also tried to reconcile spirit and matter. However, he rejected the dualistic system of Descartes and following his methods, built a mathematical philosophy in Ethics (1663). He was essentially a spiritual person and has been described as the God-intoxicated man. On the other hand, Francis Bacon, another prominent representative of the Age of Enlightenment and a lawyer, tried to learn the truth by observation and experiment. According to Prof. Swain, ‘both types of minds were necessary for the advancement of science and learning. The Cartesian rationalists were devastatingly critical of accepted beliefs and practices, but the Baconian observers and experimenters provided solid knowledge that an experimental method enables men to learn something really new. The rationalists could then use the new knowledge as the basis of new generalizations and new beliefs.’ 1.2.2 Development in Arts The extent and variety of artistic works during the period do not fit without difficulty into categories for understanding, but some loose simplifications may be drawn. At the beginning of the 17th century, baroque forms were still well-liked, as they would be at the end. They were somewhat supplanted, however, by a universal lightening in the rococo motifs of the early 1700s. After the middle of the century, this was followed by the formalism and balance of neoclassicism, with its rebirth of Greek and Roman models. Although the conclusion of the century witnessed a slight romantic turn, the era’s attributed accent on reason found its best appearance in neoclassicism. In paintings, the rococo style stressed the airy grace and refinement associated with the salon and the boudoir, the delicate jewellry and porcelains, wooded scenes, artful dances and women, especially women without clothes. Rococo painters also dedicated themselves to portraiture, showing aristocratic subjects in their fine clothes, idealized and beautified on canvas. Antoine Watteau’s (1684–1721) rococo painting (Figure 1.1) blended fantasy with acute observations of nature, conveying the ease and luxury of French court life. Fig. 1.1 Rococo Painting of Antoine Watteau

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 9 In France, Watteau’s successors comprised Francois Boucher (1703-1770) and Jean Fragonard (1732-1806). Italian painters, for example Giovanni Tiepolo (1696-1730), also reflected rococo style. English painting lacked the distinguishing rococo playfulness; however, the style affected works by Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723- 1792) and Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788), whose portrayals tended to compliment their aristocratic subject matter. Eighteenth century neoclassicism in painting is difficult to distinguish from some works in the era of Louis XIV. Both Charles Le Brun (1619-1690) and Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665) had initially projected order and balance, frequently in ostentatious scenes from antiquity or mythology. Jean Chardin (1699-1779) carried some of this over into the 1700s. The neoclassic approach, however, frequently showed powerful dissatisfaction and criticism of the accessible order, sometimes in harsh realism and sometimes in colossal metaphor. The most typical spokesperson of this approach was Jacques Louis David (1748-1825). His most famous work, Death of Socrates (Figure 1.2) illustrates his admiration for Greco-Roman customs. His sketch of Marie Antoinette enroute to the guillotine (Figure 1.3) evidently shows his revolutionary sympathies. The excellent examples of pure realism and social disapproval are the London street scenes by the English painter William Hogarth (1697-1764) and the Spanish court portraits of Francisco Goya (1746-1828). Fig. 1.2 Death of Socrates by Jacques Louis David Fig. 1.3 Marie Antoinette Enroute to the Guillotine: A Portrait in Pen and Ink by Jacques-Louis David

10 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES The number of women painters increased during the eighteenth century. They were so inadequate by traditions and so dependent upon public favour that they could barely maintain reliable styles. Only a few were sent to schools, where their work might have been presented for approval. In France, they were not allowed to work with nude models. This resulted in their practical constraint to still-life and portraiture. Among rococo painters, the two well-known were Rachel Ruysch (1664- 1750), a court painter of flowers in Dusseldorf, and Rosalba Carriera (1675-1757), a follower of Watteau, who was permitted to attend classes in the French Academy in 1720. Vigee Le Brun (1755-1842) and Adelaide Labille-Guiard (1749-1803) were two very famous French portrait painters and members of the Academy. However, Angelica Kaufmann (1741-1807), who was a Swiss-born artist outshone them. Most of her paintings were completed in England and Italy. All three were commemorated in their times. Each made grand scenes in the neoclassical style; however, their market did not allow them to do flattering portraits, at which they were very good. 1.2.3 Developments in Architecture and Sculpture Neoclassicism was also reflected in the themes of architecture and sculpture. The highlight of the architecture was a return to the intrinsic decorum of what a modernday author called ‘the noble simplicity and tranquil loftiness of the ancients’. The Madeleine of Paris is a suitable copy of a still-standing Roman temple, and the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin (Figure 1.4) was designed after the monumental entrance to the Acropolis in Athens. In England, where the classical style did not let baroque influences to mar it, the great country houses of the nobility now showed a purity of design, which frequently included a portico with Corinthian columns. An outstanding example of neoclassicism in colonial America is Mount Vernon. The trend in sculpture at times revitalized classical themes from Greek and Roman mythology; statues of Venus became more and more admired. Claude Michel (1738-1814) and Jean Houdon (1741-1828) were two French neoclassical sculptors who also achieved outstanding success with existing portraits. Houdon’s Portrait of Voltaire (Figure 1.5) is a well-known example. Fig. 1.4 Brandenburg Gate in Berlin

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 11 Fig. 1.5 Houdon’s Portrait of Voltaire 1.2.4 Developments in Music At the beginning of the eighteenth century, music represented archetypal baroque features. These were reflected in instrumental music, particularly that of the organ and the strings. Opera was the most archetypal baroque medium. It had opulent and highly emotional content. The period ended in the extravagant religious music of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750), a productive German organ master and choir director. In the same way, George Frideric Handel (1685-1759), Bach’s great contemporary and the German-born naturalized Englishman, is well-known for his grand and theatrical operas, oratorios and cantatas. Today, he is best known for his religious oratorio, Messiah (1742). Composers of the late eighteenth century shifted from the heavy and intricate baroque styles to classical music of superior clarity, simpler structures and more ceremonial models. Plain, often folk-like, melodies also became widespread. With the manifestation of symphonies, sonatas, concertos and chamber music, the interest in mere accompaniment for religious services or operatic presentations declined. The common emphasis on technical perfection, melody and orchestration is summarized in the work of Austrian composers Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791). Along with plentiful other works, Haydn wrote over 100 symphonies. Mozart came up with more than 600 works that included 41 symphonies, 22 operas and 23 string quartets, ending his career with his three most popular operas: The Marriage of Figaro (1786), Don Giovanni (1787) and The Magic Flute (1791). At the end of this century, musical expression was tapped by the genius of immortal German composer Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827). The zeal of his sonatas and symphonies articulated a revolutionary romanticism that challenged the sedate classicism of his time.

12 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES 1.2.5 Reflections of the Age of Enlightenment in Literature The neoclassicism of the eighteenth century’s fascination, reason and scientific law was reflected more in literature than in art. Indeed, the verbal medium of poetry, drama, prose and exposition were frequently used to express the new philosophic principles. Fig. 1.6 Alexander Pope A characteristic poetic voice of the Age of Reason in England was the man shown in Figure 1.6, i.e. Alexander Pope (1688-1744). In his most popular work, An Essay on Man (1733), Pope articulated the optimism and respect for reason that marked the era. He explained a Newtonian universe in the following frequently quoted lines: All are but parts of one stupendous whole, Whose body nature is, and God the soul... All nature is but art, unknown to thee; All chance, direction, which thou cannot see. All discord, harmony not understood; All partial evil, universal good And, spite of pride, in erring reason’s spite, One truth is clear: Whatever is is right. Two other deserving poetic voices also call for attention here. One was Anne Finch the English Countess of Winchilsea (1661-1720), who praised reason and feminine equality in her verse. The other was a Massachusetts slave girl, Phyllis Wheatley (1753-1784), whose rhyming couplets, matching Pope’s style, implored the cause of freedom for the American colonies and for her race.

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 13 Reflecting the widespread contempt for irrational customs and outworn traditions were such masterpieces of satire as Candide (1759), by Francois-Marie Arouet, better known as Voltaire, the Frenchman of letters. Another well-known satirist, England’s Jonathan Swift (1667-1745), mocked the pettiness of human concerns in Gulliver’s Travels (1726), in which Captain Gulliver, in visiting the fictitious land of Lilliput, found two different factions: the Big-endians, who fervently advocated opening eggs at the big end, and the Little-endians, who fervently proposed an opposite process. The novel emerged a major literary means in this era. It first became popular in France during the preceding century and was soon after popularized in England. Robinson Crusoe (1719), by Daniel Defoe (1659-1731), is frequently called the first modern English novel. The straight prose of the novel satisfied a customary demand for clarity and ease; but the propensity in this period to focus on middleclass values, gallant struggle and over-romantic love foreshadowed the forthcoming Romantic Movement. Samuel Richardson (1689-1761), while writing along these lines, produced Pamela (1740-1741). It is the story of a righteous servant-girl. During that time, Henry Fielding (1707-1754) wrote the similarly famous Tom Jones (1749), the rollicking tale of a young man’s deep pleasures and shallow regrets. Each novel, in its own way, defined a natural human moral. In both France and England, in the romantic novel, women discovered an exclusively promising passage for their long-ignored talents. Through the romantic novel they could articulate personal feminine concerns and domestic issues. Madame de Graffigny (1695-1758), whose Lettres D’Une Peruvienne (1730) became a best-seller, and Madame de Tencin (1682-1749), who wrote The Siege of Calais, a historical novel of love and danger, were the two among a huge number of able French women novelists. In England, Fanny Burney (1753-1840) was collectively praised after the publication of her first novel, Eveline (1778). It was about ‘a young lady’s entrance into the world’. Aphra Behn (1640-1689) was a playwright whose novel, Oroonoko (1688), was an appeal for the natural person, long before the works of Defoe and Rousseau. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1. Who were referred to as the philosophes? 2. Define paradigm. 3. Write down any two features of the Enlightenment paradigm. 4. Name any two female writers of Europe in the 18th century. 1.3 FRENCH REVOLUTION: CAUSES, REIGN OF TERROR AND DOWNFALL The French Revolution of 1789 brought forth issues that European society was to debate throughout the 19th and early 20th century. Indeed, the chief causes of the

14 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES French revolution were also prevalent in other European societies. Thus, to understand why the French Revolution occurred, it is important to understand the socio-political structure that was prevalent in most of the societies of Europe in the 18th century. European society in the 18th century was dominated by various aristocratic houses. France was ruled by Louis XVI, Spain by Charles III, Russia by Catherine the Great, etc. Even the Parliament of Great Britain greatly depended on the patronage of the English nobility and its monarch George III. The monarchs of Europe in the 18th century were termed as ‘Enlightened Despots’. Along with their relatives in the European aristocracy, these monarchs owned the majority of the land where common citizens worked for their livelihood. People had no power to influence how the aristocracy in these nations functioned. Many of them were considered serfs who did not have any individual rights granted to them. This resulted in the general public in Europe being strongly resentful towards the aristocracy. The feudal structure of the society also contributed towards this resentment. In a feudal structure, the major burden of taxation is on the poor whose money is used for privileges that are only meant to be enjoyed by the nobility. European Feudal landlords acted as petty sovereigns, while the state’s concern for common citizens was limited only to the collection of taxes. This broke the humane link between the rulers and ruled and the exploitation of serfs at the hand of landlords became the order of the day. The church was of no help to people either. In fact, the church was one of the power centres which legitimized the exploitation of the masses by the nobility. Moreover, many of the monarchs also had megalomaniac tendencies without any moral or ethical considerations in their relations with other nations. According to the historian Charles Downer Hazen, ‘the old regime in Europe was disloyal to the very principles on which it rested’. Those principles were the respect for the established order and regard for regality and engagements. Along with this prevailing situation, the ideas of the Renaissance were slowly taking shape among the masses of Europe. There was spread of scientific inquiry and increasing questioning of religious dogmatism. The invention of the printing press allowed many of the ideas of great thinkers to become widespread. Many pamphlets and journals were published that attacked the church. Perhaps most important of all, the theory of the divine right of kings was also increasingly questioned. All of these factors combined together to become the fuel for the upheaval that was to come to Europe at the end of the 18th century. 1.3.1 Causes of the French Revolution The French Revolution was one of the few historical events that not only changed the shape of Europe, but its ideas also gave rise to a new type of political system. The Russian thinker and writer Peter Kropotkin, in his book The Great French Revolution, stated, ‘Two great currents prepared and made the Great French Revolution. One of them, the current of ideas, concerning the political reorganization of States, came from the middle classes; the other, the current of action, came from the people, both peasants and workers in the towns, who wanted to obtain immediate and definite improvements in their economic condition. And when these two currents

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 15 met and joined in the endeavour to realise an aim, which for sometime was common to both, when they had helped each other for a certain time, the result was the Revolution.’ The causes of the French revolution can be divided into social and political causes. They are enumerated as follows: Social Causes of the French Revolution According to many historians, the revolution of 1789 was much less a rebellion against despotism than a rebellion against inequality. The socio-economic inequality that prevailed in France ultimately paved the way for the unrest that gradually usurped Louis XVI’s regime of its status. French society at that time was divided into the haves and the have nots. The haves consisted of the clergy and the nobility whose total strength was about one percent of the population. While the haves enjoyed all privileges, the other 99 per cent of the population suffered misery and exploitation. The division of society in France in the 18th century was based on the social hierarchy that was conceived in the Middle Ages called the ‘estate of the realms.’ This social hierarchy divided French society along three estates. Broadly speaking, the three estates of France were as follows: • First Estate: The First Estate in France consisted of the entire clergy, which was traditionally divided into the ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ clergy. The ‘higher’ clergy were essentially the nobility of the clergy, whose members came from the families of the Second Estate. • Second Estate: The Second Estate in France consisted of the French nobility. The monarch of France was not a member of the Second Estate as he was considered to be outside the system of estates. They were divided into those who administered justice and civil government and those who were made up of the officers of the military. • Third Estate: All those who were not part of the First and the Second Estate were members of the Third Estate. The Third Estate in France at the time of the French Revolution consisted of over 95 per cent of the population. They could be divided into two groups: urban and rural. The urban members of the Third Estate included those who had wealth but no titles, like the rich bourgeoisie or traders, as well as the poor wage-labourers. The rural members of the Third Estate were extremely poor, yet, they were forced to pay excessively high taxes compared to the other Estates. The members of the First and Second Estates lived off the labour that was produced by the Third Estate. During the time of Louis XVI, there was a famous saying in France which said, ‘The nobles fight, the clergy pray, the people pay’. In the 18th century, peasants made up to 90 per cent of the population but owned only a small amount of land that they cultivated. On the other hand, the nobility, the church and other rich members of the Estates owned 60 per cent of the land. The member of the first two estates enjoyed certain privileges by birth. The most important of these was that they were exempted from paying taxes to the state. The aristocracy also enjoyed feudal privileges. These included feudal dues, which they extracted from the peasants.

16 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES The peasants were obliged to render services to the feudal lord to work in his house and fields to serve in the army or to participate in building roads. During the reign of Louis XVI, the aristocracy had a monopoly of practically all the jobs in the army and the church. Like the nobility, the clergymen also enjoyed privileges. The ‘higher’ clergy had castles, cathedrals, palaces, invaluable pictures, rich investments and rental from land in the form of tithes. Moreover, the church extracted direct tax called taille and also a number of indirect taxes. The burdens of financing activities of the state through taxes were borne by the members of the Third Estate alone. The members of the third estate were expected to pay taxes like taille or land tax, vingtieme or income tax, the gabelle or the salt tax and the corvee or the road tax. Estimates suggest that after paying all the taxes, a French peasant was left with only about 20 percent of his total produce. According to the historian Professor Leo Gershoy, three principal causes determined the steady decline in the fortunes of the French peasantry in the 18th century. They were a sharp and continuous growth in population, a marked upward movement of prices without a corresponding increase in the real wages and the influence of the Physiocrats in stimulating agrarian reforms. The population of France rose from 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789. This led to a rapid increase in demand of food grains. The production of grains, however, did not keep pace with this demand. Thus, the gap between the rich and poor widened with things becoming worse if a drought occurred. Like the peasants, the bourgeoisie or the middle class also belonged to the Third Estate of French society. The bourgeois class consisted of professors, lawyers, physicians, bankers and merchants. However, unlike the peasants, the wealth of the bourgeoisie was almost equal to the aristocratic class. According to the famous 18th century French writer Voltaire, ‘the middle class has enriched itself through industrial and commercial profits have increased, there is less luxury among nobility than formerly and more in middle class life so that the contrast between them is not so marked’. While the bourgeois class had wealth, they lacked any real political power. Being educated, the bourgeoisie believed that no group should be privileged by birth. Influenced by works of philosophers like John Locke’s Two Treaties of Government and Jean Jacques Rousseau’s The Social Contract, the bourgeois dreamed of a society based on freedom and equal laws and opportunity for all. It was the social awakening of the bourgeois class that gave shape to the ideas of the French Revolution. It is for this reason that many refer to the French Revolution as the Bourgeois Revolution. Political Causes of the French Revolution Two important causes of the French Revolution of 1789 were the absolute concentration of power that the French monarch held and the inability of French rulers who followed the reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715). The French monarchs were part of the Bourbon dynasty and built for them a grand palace at Versailles. All functions of government, administration of justice, recruitment and promotion to high offices were all concentrated in the hands of the crown. Had the Bourbon administration been efficient, this centralisation might have served its end. However, the administration was totally inefficient. The legal system employed by the Bourbon’s

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 17 was also extremely cruel. People were routinely given severe punishment for ordinary offences. All of these factors added to the difficulties faced by the people of France. Although the Bourbon King Louis XIV worked hard and was the last competent emperor of France, he left behind a legacy of financial bankruptcy for his successor. During the reign of Louis XV (1715-1774), France participated in a number of international conflicts. His reign was also characterised by a huge amount of pomp and extravaganza. Writing about Louis XV’s court, the Austrian ambassador at Paris wrote, ‘At court there is nothing but confusion, scandals and injustice’. Louis XV was devoted to hunting and the pleasures of the court. He was popular with the courtiers who bled the treasury in an irresponsible and selfish manner. Under his reign the bourgeois started getting increasingly restless as they were never consulted or involved in any government activity. Many believe that the decisions that Louis XV took during his reign played a huge part in the revolution that was to occur 15 years after his death. Louis XV managed to weaken the treasury considerably and helped to discredit the concept of absolute monarchy in France. Luis XV was succeeded by Louis XVI (1774-1792). At the beginning there was high expectation from Louis XVI because Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, a friend of Voltaire and contributor to the Encyclopaedic was appointed the Minister of Finance and Comptroller-General under Louis XIV. Louis XVI tried his best to give France a fresh start after it had grown weary under the reign of his predecessor. Following Enlightenment ideals, Louis XVI abolished torture, serfdom, the land tax, and actively participated in America’s struggle to gain independence from Britain. Under Louis XVI’s reign and Turgot’s direction, industry and commerce were freed of restrictions and the tax burden on the lower classes were reduced by transferring a share of taxes to the nobles and clergy. However, these measures were opposed vociferously by the clergy and the nobility. Faced by a hostile aristocracy, and failing to impose his will forcefully, Louis XVI was forced to dismiss Turgot in 1776. Fig. 1.7 King Louis XVI Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LouisXVI-France1.jpg

18 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES Turgot’s successors also tried various reforms. However, most of them were directed towards preventing bankruptcy rather than reforming the society. A banker businessman Jacques Necker was another finance minister during Louis XVI’s reign. Necker published the first account of the royal treasury, i.e., the Compte Rendu which exposed the extravagances of the Queen Marie Antoinette and her friends. Antoinette was the daughter of Queen Maria Theresa of Austria and was looked upon by the people of France as a foreigner who sympathised with France’s enemies. Her reputation of extravagance, along with the gossip that surrounded her, played a role in making the French people disillusioned of the monarchy in France. On the complaints of the Queen’s friends, Necker was dismissed as finance minister and was replaced by Charles Alexandre de Calonne. Calonne, unlike Turgot and Necker, restored the lavish spending of the French aristocracy. The financial bankruptcy that France saw facing was the spark that ignited the fire of the revolution. Facing financial bankruptcy, foreign bankers refused to lend more money to the crown. Matters turned to worse when the Parliament of Paris, a judicial body, defied the monarch and refused to enforce new taxes. In 1788, Louis XVI, as a last resort, called a meeting of the Estates-General. The last meeting of the Estates-General had taken place in 1614. The representatives of the Estates met at Versailles early in May 1789. However, the representatives could not reach any agreement. During the meeting, the representatives of the Third Estate felt that the other two estates were only interested in talking about taxes, while they wanted discussions on representations and how the Estates would operate. After several weeks, the representatives of the Third Estate gave up and decided to form the National Assembly. This signaled the start of the French Revolution. 1.3.2 Course of the Revolution The various stages of the cause of the revolution were as follows: Revolution and the Work of the National Assembly (1789-1791) • Oath of the Tennis Court: On 17 June 1789, the representatives of the Third Estate proclaimed a National Assembly and invited the representatives of other estates to join in the work of national reform. The King, under the influence of his courtiers, resolved to dictate the reforms that were to be introduced. When the members of the National Assembly met on 20 June, they found the hall where they had met before had been closed by the King. Thus, they proceeded to the tennis court and took the oath to ‘never to separate and to meet wherever circumstances demand, until the constitution of the kingdom is established and affirmed on solid foundations’. This is known as the Oath of the Tennis Court and is regarded as the beginning of the French Revolution. It marked the first time that French citizens had stood up to the King. After they refused to back down, the King gave in and ordered the sitting of the Three Estates together and vote by head as members of the Constituent Assembly. However, at the same time, troops moved into Paris and Versailles indicating that the King was preparing to use force. When the Assembly requested the removal of troops, the King refused, stating that the troops were deployed as a precautionary measure. Public outrage at the King for calling troops resulted in the storming of the Bastille.

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 19 Fig. 1.8 The Tennis Court Oath Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anonymous_Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg • Storming of the Bastille: The Bastille, a fortress at the heart of Paris, was regarded as the symbol of Bourbon despotism. Its storming by the people of Paris is regarded by many historians as the beginning of the French Revolution. On 11 July, with troops in Paris and Versailles, the King dismissed his finance minister Jacques Necker who was sympathetic to the Third Estate. Parisians, fearing that Necker’s dismissal marked the beginning of some sort of conservative coup, began to riot. The rioting mob in search for arms stormed the Bastille on 14th July 1789. The fall of the Bastille was a clear indication that the masses were with the National Assembly and not with the King. As a result, the Louis XVI backed down. He recalled Necker and agreed to dismiss the extra troops. The King made the instigator of the Oath of the Tennis Court the mayor of a new government in Paris called the Commune de Paris. He also gave full recognition to the national assembly and confirmed the appointment of the Marquis de La Fayette, one of the outstanding champions of constitutional monarchy, as Commander of the National Guard. Fig. 1.9 The Storming of the Bastille Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anonymous_Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg

20 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES • Working of National Assembly: On 4 August 1789, feudalism was abolished by the National Assembly. The assembly also abolished the special privileges given to the members of the first and the second estate. On 26 August, the Assembly published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The declaration is still considered as being one of the most important documents of human rights. The Declaration opened by affirming ‘the natural and imprescriptible rights of man’ to ‘liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression’. It also called for the destruction of aristocratic privileges by proclaiming an end to exemptions from taxation, freedom and equal rights for all men, and access to public office based on talent. According to the declaration, the power of the monarchy was restricted, and all citizens were to have the right to take part in the legislative process. The Declaration also asserted the principles of popular sovereignty and social equality among citizens by stating that, ‘All the citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents’. The National Assembly also took on the task of drafting a new constitution for France. After a long series of negotiations, Louis XVI reluctantly agreed to a new constitution in 1791. The constitution of 1791 gave the National Assembly the power to make laws. France Becomes a Republic The turmoil during the revolutionary war brought losses and economic difficulties to the people of France. Large sections of the population were convinced that the revolution had to be carried further as the Constitution of 1791 gave political rights only to the richer sections of the society. Political clubs became an important rallying point for people who wished to discuss government policies and plan their own reforms. The most successful of all these clubs was that of the Jacobins. The leader of the Jacobins was Maximilian Robespierre. On August 10, 1792, radicals led by the Jacobins massacred the Swiss guards who protected the King and his family. Louis XVI and his family were taken prisoner. The Jacobins supplanted the legal community with the revolutionary commune. An executive council was created to replace the King and his ministers. The National Convention, which was comprised of the constitutional and legislative assembly, abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic on September 22, 1792. • Reign of Terror: The period from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the ‘Reign Of Terror’ in France. During the two years an estimated 40,000 people were executed after being accused of counter-revolutionary activities. The National Convention in April 1793 had created the Committee of Public Safety, which acted as the de facto executive. The Committee of Public Safety came under the control of the leader of the Jacobins, Robespierre. Robespierre followed a policy of severe punishment for all those who were assumed or were seen as enemies of the Republic, i.e., ex-nobles clergy, members of other political parties, etc. Among the people executed during the reign of terror were the former monarch Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette. Even members of

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 21 Robespierre’s own party who did not agree to his ideas were arrested and tried by the revolutionary tribunal. The Reign of Terror unleashed by Robespierre made even the supporters of the Jacobins disillusioned. Finally, in July 1794, Robespierre was arrested and eventually executed by guillotine. • Directory: After the excesses committed by Robespierre and his eventual execution, the new government drafted a new constitution. The new constitution limited the suffrage based on property, unlike the constitution of 1793 which had proclaimed universal male suffrage. The constitution of 1795 created a bicameral legislature made up of a Council of Elders and a Council of the Five Hundred. Executive power went to five ‘directors’. Many of the directors were known to be extremely corrupt and did little to make the life of the average French citizen better. Extremely unpopular with the people, the directors lasted only for less than four years (1795-1799). The political instability in France after the revolution eventually resulted in the army, under the leadership of the popular general Napoleon Bonaparte, to stage a coup to overthrow the French Directory. Bonaparte replaced the French Directory with the French Consulate, with himself as the head. The coup by Napoleon effectively marked the end of the revolution and the beginning of the Napoleonic era. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 5. Write down any two causes of the French Revolution. 6. When was the Bastille raided? 7. When did France first become a republic? 1.4 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE: RISE, REFORMS AND DOWNFALL Napoleon Bonaparte is considered one of the greatest generals in the history of the world. He was born on15 August 1769 in Corsica. The son of a petty nobleman, Bonaparte joined the army at the age of 17 years as an artillery officer. Napoleon first rose to fame during the post revolutionary years when he led successful campaigns against European monarchs who had wanted to suppress the French Revolution. Napoleon’s successes in the Italian and Egyptian campaign had made him one of the most popular generals in France even before he assumed power. • Napoleon as First Counsel: After staging the coup that overthrew the French Directory, Napoleon established the French Consulate. The lack of reaction by the public to Napoleon’s coup showed that the French people were tired of years of chaos and yearned only for stability. The new constitution drafted in 1799 after the coup provided for the appointment of three counsels elected for a period of 10 years. Napoleon plotted to draft the constitution in such a way that the first counsel would effectively have power over the other two counsels. Napoleon then made sure that he was appointed the First

22 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES Counsel. As First Counsel, Napoleon had the power to rule by decree and thus established a single, centralised authoritarian government under him. As First Counsel, Napoleon also had the authority to appoint the Senate, which in turn interpreted the constitution. In 1802, Napoleon was appointed the First Counsel for life with the right to nominate his successor. In 1804, fearing attempts to restore the Bourbon monarchy, Napoleon appointed himself the Emperor of France. Fig. 1.10 Napoleon Bonaparte Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Napoleon_in_His_Study.jpg Napoleonic Reforms • Administrative reforms: After becoming First Counsel and later Emperor, Napoleon initiated a series of administrative reforms in France. Napoleon centralised the whole system of local government in France. Under him, the elective bodies paid direct obeisance to the central government. Their powers were wielded by prefects and sub prefects who were appointed by Napoleon and were responsible only to him. Mayors were nominated by the government and criminal courts were set up in the departments. Moreover, judges were appointed by the First Counsel to try common law offences. • Fiscal reforms: After assuming power, Napoleon tried to improve the financial situation of the country. The chaos of the revolution and ensuing wars had not allowed any serious look at the fiscal problems facing France that went back to the pre-revolutionary days. Napoleon centralised the fiscal administration in an effort to consolidate his hold over the nation. In 1800, the Bank of

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 23 France was established. Through the Bank, the government got capital from private sources with accounts being regulated through national agents; this resulted in corruption being significantly reduced. Moreover, Napoleon also centralised the tax collection system. 1801-02 Napoleon succeeded in balancing the budget. This resulted in Napoleon’s popularity increasing in the business and merchant community. • Concordat of 1801: In order to gain the support of the Catholics, Napoleon signed the Concordat with Pope Pius VII .Through the Concordant of 1801, the church became tied to the national government and the state undertook to pay the salaries of the clergy. Moreover, the First Counsel nominated the Bishops while the Bishops appointed the priests. Religious minorities like the Calvinists and Lutherans were given freedom to practice their faith in France. Even Jews were granted special privileges and also were allowed to organise on a national basis, though they were still subject to restrictions. • Napoleonic Code: Perhaps the most durable part of Napoleon’s reforms was the formation of the Napoleonic legal codes. Napoleon once said, ‘My true glory is not to have won 40 battles...Waterloo will erase the memory of so many victories. But what will live forever, is my Civil Code.’ The Napoleonic Code still has importance today in a quarter of the world’s jurisdictions and has influenced legal codes of nations in Europe, the Americas and Africa. Napoleon wanted to reform French laws in accordance with the ideas of the French Revolution. He felt that the old laws were vestiges of the pre-revolutionary days. In 1804, Napoleon drafted the Civil Code, which was followed by the Criminal Procedure Penal code and the Commercial Code. Some of the important edicts of the legal codes were that it forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs should go to the most qualified. • Educational reforms: Napoleon also developed a more comprehensive educational system than before. He started using the clergy as teachers and decreed that primary schools were to be maintained by every Commune under the general supervision of Prefects and Sub prefects. During his rule, secondary or grammar schools provided special training in French, Latin and elementary science. Whether supported by private or public funds, after Napoleon’s reforms, all schools came under the control of the government. The lycees or high schools were opened in every important town; moreover, special schools like technical schools, civil schools, and military schools were brought under regulation. Napoleon also established the University of France in 1808. All these schools promoted ethical principles of Christianity and taught loyalty to the head of state. • Public works: Under Napoleon, Paris was reconstructed in 1802. Wide roads, known as boulevards, were further enhanced. The art treasures brought by Napoleon from Italy were catalogued and brought together at the Louvre. Napoleon also oversaw the construction of bridges, network of canals and waterways. During his rule, the principal sea ports were enlarged and fortifications built, especially at Cherbourg and Toulon.

24 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES 1.4.1 Napoleonic Empire After becoming Emperor of France, Napoleon won victories in the War of the Third Coalition against Austria, Prussia, Russia, Portugal and allied nations. His notable victories include the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805, where Napoleon defeated the armies of the Russian and Austrian Empire and the Battle of Friedland in 1807 where another army of the Russian Empire was defeated. His military victories gave Napoleon the reputation of being a great military strategist. In 1807, Napoleon signed the Treaty of Tilsit, which effectively ended two years of war on the European continent. The series of wars that Napoleon fought have come to be collectively known as the Napoleonic Wars. Through these wars Napoleon extended the rule and influence of France over much of Western Europe and into Poland. Napoleon’s victories resulted in France becoming the supreme power on the European continent. During the height of its power, the French Empire under Napoleon had 130 départements, ruled over 44 million subjects, maintained an extensive military presence in Germany, Italy, Spain, and the Duchy of Warsaw, and could count Prussia and Austria as nominal allies. • Continental system: The period from 1806 to 1814 in European history can be considered to be the struggle between Napoleon’s France and Great Britain. After effectively taking control of the European continent, Napoleon wanted to turn Europe into a closed economy. To do this, he had to first content with the British. Napoleon’s reason for turning Europe into a closed economy was because he wanted to protect French commerce and trade from British competition. Through this, Napoleon wished to restore the French colonial empire. Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree in 1806 which proclaimed a state of blockade against the British Isles and closed French and allied ports to ships from Britain or its colonies. The Berlin Decree was extended by the Decrees of Warsaw and Milan in 1807 and Fontainebleau in 1810. However, the defect in the Continental system soon became apparent. The boycott of British goods did not hurt the British significantly; however, as a lot of European countries were dependent on English goods, the boycott resulted in the Austrians, Prussians and Russians turning against Napoleon. Moreover, the French Empire proved to be too vast to be governed effectively; the blockade of the British Isles also did not work effectively since Napoleon lacked a strong navy. The disastrous Russian invasion of 1812 ended Napoleon’s hold on the European continent. Napoleon was finally defeated in the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 by the Seventh Coalition, an amalgamation of armies from Britain, Netherlands, Prussia, Hanover, Nassau and Brunswick. After his defeat, the British exiled Napoleon to the island of St. Helena, 1870 kms from the west coast of Africa, where he spent the remaining years of his life. 1.4.2 Causes of Napoleon’s Failure Napoleon attained the height of his power after signing the Treaty of Tilsit with Russia in 1807. However, his decline began soon after. Historians attribute his downfall to many reasons. The most important of which was the disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. Although Napoleon’s campaign in Russia initially went well, the onset of the

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 25 Russian winter resulted in catastrophic losses for Napoleon’s army and signalled the turning point in the Napoleonic Wars. Leo Tolstoy’s War and Peace, considered by many to be the greatest novel ever written, delineates in graphic detail the invasion by Napoleon and the effect it had on Russian society. Other than the invasion of Russia, the other causes of Napoleon’s failure as as follows: • The failure of the Continental System • The tactic of constant warfare known as Napoleonic War • His ego which led him to constantly want more and more land • Guerrilla warfare in Spain that tied down his army; Napoleon himself stated that it was ‘the Spanish Ulcer’ that ruined him • The limitations of human genius despite aspirations The French revolution followed by the rule of Napoleon gave to France a new system of governance. For a few years after the revolution absolute monarchy was replaced by universal franchise, something that was unthinkable before. Although dictatorial rule was once again established by Napoleon, the formation of the Napoleonic codes showed that the order of feudalism was coming to an end and a new order was emerging in the world. Even Napoleon maintained that he was the child of the revolution. Looking back from the future, we can safely say that the torch of ‘Liberty Equality and Fraternity’ was lit by the French Revolution of 1789 and it was one of the most significant moments in the evolution of modern democratic nation-states. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 8. Who was Napoleon Bonaparte, when and where was he born? 9. Write down any two causes of Napoleon Bonaparte’s failure. 1.5 ERA OF CONSERVATISM: THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA AND THE METTERNICH SYSTEM The immediate background to the Congress of Vienna was the defeat of France and surrender of Napoleon in May 1814. This brought an end to the twenty-five years of war. Napoleon’s eastward march to Russia spelled his doom. The strong French army of 422,000 soldiers was left to die in the harsh winter of Russia in 1812. Though Napoleon managed to return home with 30,000 troops, Paris was lost in 1814 and Napoleon had to flee. The Allies (Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain) began negotiations and realignment of European territories even though Napoleon made a dramatic return to rule France for a Hundred Days (March–July, 1815). The Congress’ signed the Final Act (the Second Peace of Paris) nine days before Napoleon was finally defeated at Waterloo on 18 June, 1815.

26 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES The fall of Napoleon brought with it one of the most complicated and difficult situations for diplomats of the time. As all the nations of Europe had been profoundly affected by his enterprises, all were profoundly affected by his fall. The destruction of the Napoleonic regime was followed by reconstruction of Europe. This work of reconstruction was undertaken by the Congress of Vienna, one of the most important diplomatic gatherings in the history of Europe (September 1814-June 1815). Never before had there been seen such an assemblage of celebrities. Present were the emperors of Austria and Russia, the kings of Prussia, Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Denmark, a multitude of lesser princes, and the diplomats of Europe of whom Metternich and Talleyrand were the most noticeable. All the powers were represented except Turkey. Provisions—Work of the Congress The main task of the Congress was the distribution of the territories that France had been forced to relinquish. Certain arrangements had been agreed upon by the allies before going to Vienna, in the First Treaty of Paris, 30 May 1814. The King of Piedmont, a refugee in his island of Sardinia during Napoleon’s reign, returned to his throne, and Genoa was returned to him. There was a general understanding that the doctrine of legitimacy should be followed in determining the re-arrangement of Europe. That is to say, the principle that princes deprived of their thrones and driven from their states by Napoleon should be restored. However, this principle was ignored according to the suitability of the Allied powers. Demands of Russia The allies, who had, after immense effort and sacrifice, overthrown Napoleon, felt they should have their reward. The most powerful monarch at Vienna wasAlexander I, Emperor of Russia, who, ever since Napoleon’s disastrous invasion of Russia, had loomed large as a liberator of Europe. He now demanded that the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, whose government fell with Napoleon, be given back to him. This state had been created out of Polish territories which Prussia and Austria had seized in the partitions of that country at the close of the 18th century. Alexander wished to unite them with a part of Poland that had fallen to Russia, thus, largely to restore the old Polish kingdom and nationality, to which he intended to give a parliament and a constitution. There was to be no incorporation of the restored kingdom in Russia, but the Russian emperor was to be King of Poland. The union was to be merely personal. Demands of Prussia Prussia was willing to give up her Polish provinces on the condition that she should be indemnified elsewhere. She, therefore, fixed her attention upon the rich kingdom of Saxony with important cities of Dresden and Leipzig, as compensation. Russia and Prussia supported each other’s claims, but Austria, England and France opposed them stoutly. The latter even agreed to go to war to prevent the aggrandizement of the two northern nations. It was this dissension among those who had conquered him that caused Napoleon to think that the opportunity was favourable for his return from Elba. But, however jealous the allies were of each other, they, one and all, hated Napoleon and were firmly resolved to be rid of him. They had no desire for more war and consequently quickly compromised their differences. The final decision

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 27 was that Russia should receive the lion’s share of the Duchy of Warsaw, Prussia retaining only the province of Posen, and Cracow being erected into a free city; that the King of Saxony should be restored to his throne; that he should retain the important cities of Dresden and Leipzig, but should cede to Prussia about two-fifths of his kingdom; that, as further compensation, Prussia should receive extensive territories on both banks of the Rhine. Prussia also acquired Pomerania from Sweden, thus rounding out her coast line on the Baltic. Russian acquisitions Russia emerged from the Congress with a good number of additions. She retained Finland, conquered from Sweden during the late wars, and Bessarabia, wrested from the Turks, also Turkish territories in the southeast. But, most important of all, she had now succeeded in gaining most of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Russia now extended farther westward into Europe than ever and could henceforth speak with greater weight in European affairs. Austrian acquisitions Austria recovered her Polish possessions and received as compensation for the Netherlands, northern Italy, to be henceforth known as the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom, comprising the larger and richer part of the Po valley. She also recovered the Illyrian provinces along the eastern coast of the Adriatic. Thus, after twenty years of war, almost uninterruptedly disastrous, she emerged with considerable accessions of strength, and with a population larger by four or five millions than she had possessed in 1792. She had obtained, in lieu of remote and unprofitable possessions, territories which augmented her power in central Europe, the immediate annexation of a part of Italy, and indirect control over the other Italian states. Fig. 1.11 A Portrait of the Vienna Congress Source: http://pub.uvm.dk/2008/democracycanon/images/figur25.jpg English acquisitions England, the most persistent enemy of Napoleon, the builder of repeated coalitions, the pay-mistress of the allies for many years, found her compensation in additions to her colonial empire. She retained much that she had conquered from France or from

28 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES the allies or dependencies of France, particularly Holland. She occupied Helgoland in the North Sea; Malta and Ionian Islands in the Mediterranean; Cape Colony in South Africa; Ceylon, and other islands. It was partially in view of her colonial losses that Holland was indemnified by the annexation of Belgium, as already stated. The Map of Italy Another question of great importance, decided at Vienna, was the disposition of Italy. The general principle of action had already been agreed upon, that Austria should receive compensation here for the Netherlands, and that the old dynasties should be restored. Austrian interests determined the territorial arrangements. Austria took possession, as has been said, of the richest and, in a military sense, the strongest provinces, Lombardy and Venetia, from which position she could easily dominate the peninsula, especially as the Duchy of Parma was given to Marie Louises, wife of Napoleon, and as princes, connected with the Austrian imperial family were restored to then thrones in Modena and Tuscany. The Papal States were also reestablished. No union or federation of these states was affected. It was Metternich’s desire that Italy should simply be a collection of independent states, a geographical expression, and such it was. Changes in the map of Europe Other changes in the map of Europe, now made or ratified, were these: • Norway was taken from Denmark and joined with Sweden • Switzerland was increased by the addition of three cantons which had recently been incorporated in France, thus making twenty-two cantons in all • Frontiers of Spain and Portugal were left untouched Fig. 1.12 Map of Europe. Source: http://edtech2.boisestate.edu/lockwoodm/FrenchRev/images/CongVien.jpg

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 29 Character of the Congress The Congress of Vienna was a congress of aristocrats to whom the ideas of nationality and democracy, as proclaimed by the French Revolution, were inconvenient, incomprehensible and loathsome. The rulers rearranged Europe according to their desires, disposing of it as it were their personal property, ignoring the sentiment of nationality, which had lately been so wonderfully aroused, indifferent to the wishes of the people. Theirs could be no ‘settlement’ because they ignored the factors that alone would make the settlement permanent. The history of Europe, after 1815 was destined to witness repeated, and often successful, attempts to rectify this cardinal error of the Congress of Vienna. Criticism of the Congress Such were the territorial readjustments decreed by the Congress of Vienna, which were destined to endure, with slight changes, for nearly fifty years. It is impossible to discover in these negotiations the operation of any lofty principle. Self-interest is the key to this welter of bargains and agreements. Not that these titled brokers neglected to attempt to convince Europe of the nobility of their endeavours. Phrases, such as ‘the reconstruction of the social order’, ‘the regeneration of the political system of Europe’ durable peace based upon a just division of power were used by the diplomats of Vienna to impress the people of Europe, and to lend an air of dignity and elevation to their august assemblage. But the people were not deceived. They witnessed the unedifying scramble of the conquerors for the spoils of victory. They saw the monarchs of Europe, who for years had been denouncing Napoleon for not respecting the rights of people, acting precisely in the same way, whenever it suited their pleasure. The Holy Alliance In addition to the Treaties of Vienna, the allies signed two other documents of great significance in 1815—the Holy Alliance and the Quadruple Alliance. The former proceeded from the initiative of Alexander I of Russia, whose mood was now deeply religious under the influence of the tremendous events of recent years and the fall of Napoleon, which to his mind seemed the swift verdict of a higher power in human destinies. He himself had been freely praised as the White Angel, in contrast to the fallen Black Angel, and he had been called the Universal Saviour. He now submitted a document to his immediate allies—Prussia and Austria—and which gave the popular name to the system of repression which was for many years followed by the powers that had conquered in the late campaign. The document stated that it was the intention of the powers, henceforth, to be guided, in both their domestic and foreign policies, solely by the precepts of the Christian religion. The rulers announced that they would regard each other as brothers and their subjects as their children, and they promised to aid each other on all occasions and in all places. The other powers, thus, asked by the Emperor of Russia to express their approval of Christian principles, did so, preserving what dignity they could in playing what most of them considered a farce of questionable taste. For, knowing the principles that had actually governed the Tsar and the other rulers at the Congress

30 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES of Vienna, they did not consider them particularly biblical or as likely to inaugurate a new and idyllic diplomacy in Europe. As a matter of fact no state ever made any attempt to act in accordance with the principles so highly approved. The only important thing about the Holy Alliance was its name, which was, in the opinion of all liberals, too good to be lost, so ironically did it contrast with what was known of the characters and policies of the rulers of Russia, Prussia, and Austria, the ‘holy allies’. The Quadruple Alliance The other document, signed on 20 November 1815, by Russia, Prussia, Austria, and England established a Quadruple Alliance providing that these powers should hold congresses from time-to-time for the purpose of considering their common interests and the needs of Europe. The Congresses that were held during the next few years in accordance with this agreement were converted into engines of oppression everywhere largely through the adroitness of Prince Metternich, Chancellor of the Austrian Empire, whose influence upon their deliberations was decisive. Prince Metternich (1773-1859) Klemens Wenzel von Metternich appeared to the generation that lived between 1815 and 1848 as the most commanding personality of Europe, whose importance can be estimated from the phrases such as ‘era of Metternich’ and ‘system of Metternich’. He was the central figure not only in Austrian and German politics, but in European diplomacy. He was the most famous statesman Austria produced in the 19th century. A man of high rank, wealthy, polished, blending social accomplishments with literary and scientific pretensions, his foible was omniscience. He was the prince of diplomatists, thoroughly at ease amid all the intriguing of European politics. His egotism was Olympian. He spoke of himself as being born ‘to prop up the decaying structure’ of European society. He felt the world rested on his shoulders. Fig. 1.13 Klemens Wenzel von Metternich

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 31 My position has this peculiarity he says, that all eyes, all expectations are directed to precisely that point where I happen to be. He asks the question, Why, among so many million men, must I be the one to think when others do not think, to act when others do not act, and to write because others know not how? He admitted at the end of a long career that he had ‘never strayed from the path of eternal law’, that his mind had ‘never entertained error’. He felt and said that he would leave a void when he disappeared. On analysis, however, his thinking appears singularly negative. It consisted of his execration of the French Revolution. His lifelong role was that of incessant opposition to everything comprehended in the word. He denounced it in violent and lurid phrases. It was ‘the disease which must be cured, the volcano which must be extinguished, the gangrene which must be burned out with the hot iron, the hydra with open jaws to swallow up the social order’. He believed in absolute monarchy, and considered himself God’s lieutenant in supporting it. He hated parliaments and representative systems of government. He regarded the talks of liberty, equality and constitutions as pestilential. He defied himself as a man of the status quo. Keep things just as they are, all innovation is madness; such was the constant burden of his song. He was the convinced he was the resourceful opponent of all struggles for national independence and aspirations for self-government. Democracy could only ‘change daylight into darkest night’. Such was the man who succeeded Napoleon in the centre of the European stage. 1.5.1 Reaction in Europe after 1815 Austrian Empire The Battle of Waterloo, remarked Napoleon at St. Helena, will be as dangerous to the liberties of Europe as the battle of Philippi was dangerous to the liberties of Rome. Napoleon was not exactly an authority on liberty, but he did know the difference between enlightened despotism and unenlightened. The style was set by Austria, the leading state on the Continent from 1815 to 1848. Austria was not a single nation like France, but was composed of many races. To the west were the Austrian duchies, chiefly Germany, the ancient possessions of the House of Hapsburg; to the north, Bohemia, an ancient kingdom acquired by the Hapsburgs in 1526; to the east, the Kingdom of Hungary, occupying the immense plain of the middle Danube; to the south, beyond the Alps, the Kingdom of LombardyVenetia, purely Italian. The two leading races in this Austrian Empire were the Germans, forming, the body of the population in the duchies, and the Magyars (modyorz), originally an Asiatic folk, encamped in the Danube valley since the 9th century and forming the dominant people in Hungary. There were many branches of the Slavic race in both Austria and Hungary. There were also Romanians, a different people still, in eastern Hungary. Austria, a land of the old regime To rule twenty-nine million people was a difficult task. This was the first problem of Francis I (1792-1835) and Metternich. Their policy was to resist all demands for

32 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES reform, and to keep things as they were, to make the world stand still. The people were sharply divided into classes, each resting on different factors. Of these, the nobles occupied a highly privileged position. They enjoyed freedom from compulsory military service and got enormous exemptions from taxation, a monopoly of the best offices in the state. They possessed a large part of the land, from which in many cases they drew enormous revenues. On the other hand, the condition of the peasants, who formed the mass of the people, lived in deplorable conditions. They were even refused the right to purchase relief from the heaviest burdens. Condition of Austria in 1815 was that of absolutism in government, feudalism in society, special privileges for the favoured few, and oppression and misery for the masses. The police system It was the purpose of the government to maintain status quo, and it succeeded largely for thirty-three years, during the reign of Francis I, till 1835, and of his successor Ferdinand I (1835-1848). During this period, Metternich was the chief minister. His system, ‘at war with human nature, at war with the modern spirit’, rested upon a meddlesome police, an elaborate espionage system, and a vigilant censorship of ideas. Censorship was applied to theatres, newspapers and books. Spies were everywhere, in government offices, in places of amusement, and educational institutions. In education, political science and history practically disappeared as serious studies. Particularly, the government feared the universities because of new ideas. Spies even attended lectures. Professors and students were subjected to humiliating regulations. The government insisted on having a complete list of the books that each professor took out of the university library. Students were not allowed to study abroad or form societies. Austrians were not allowed to travel to foreign countries without the permission of the government, which was rarely given. Austria was sealed as nearly hermetically as possible against the liberal thought of Europe. Intellectual stagnation was the price paid. A system like this needed careful bolstering at every moment and at every point. The best protection for the Austrian system was to extend it to other countries. Having firmly established it at home, Metternich laboured with great skill and temporary success to apply it in surrounding countries, particularly in Germany and in Italy. We shall now trace the application of this conception of government in other countries. This will serve among other things to show the dominant position of the Austrian empire in Europe from 1815 to 1848. Vienna, the seat of rigid conservatism, was now the centre of European affairs, as Paris, the home of revolution, had been for so long. The German Confederation One of the important problems presented to the Congress Vienna concerned the future organization of Germany. The Holy Roman Empire had disappeared in 1806 at the hands of Napoleon. The Confederation of the Rhine, which he had created to take its place, had disappeared with its creator. Something must evidently be put in its place. The outcome of the deliberations was the establishment of the German

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 33 Confederation, which was the government of Germany from 1815 to 1866. The Confederation consisted of thirty-eight states. The central organ of the government was the Diet, meeting at Frankfort. This was to consist, not of representatives chosen by the people, but of delegates appointed by different sovereigns and serving during their pleasure. They were to be, not deputies empowered to decide questions, but simply diplomatic representatives, voting as their princes might direct. Austria was always to have the presidency of this body. The method of procedure within the Diet was complicated and exceedingly cumbrous, making action difficult, delay and obstruction easy. The Confederation did not constitute a real nation, but only a loose league of independent states. The states agreed not to make war upon each other, and that was about the only serious obligation they assumed. The Confederation was a union of princes, not of peoples. It was created because each prince was jealous of every other prince, and was far more concerned with the preservation of his own power than with the prosperity of Germany. Now the spirit of nationality had been tremendously aroused by the struggles with Napoleon. All the more progressive spirits felt that the first need of Germany was unity and a strong national government. But German unity was, according to Metternich, an ‘infamous object’, and Metternich was supported by the selfishness of the German rulers; not one of whom was willing to surrender any particle of his authority. Intense was the indignation of all liberals at what they called this ‘great deception’ of Vienna. Disappointment of the Liberals The liberals desired unity, they also desired liberty. They wished a constitution for each one of the thirty-eight states; they wished a parliament in each; and they also wished to have the reign of absolutism brought to a close. Metternich, even more opposed to free political institutions than to a strong central government, succeeded in thwarting the reformers at this point too. The latter were put off with only vague and doubtful promises, which, were never realized, save in the case of a few of the smaller states. Metternich’s programme was to secure the prevalence in Germany on the same principles that prevailed in Austria, and in this he largely succeeded. Certain incidents of the day gave him favourable occasions to apply the system of repression. Repression according to him was the only sure cure for the ills of this world. One of these was a patriotic festival held in 1817 at the Wartburg, a castle famous in connection with the career of Martin Luther. This was a celebration organized by the students of the German universities and it expressed the vigorous liberalism of the students, their detestation of reaction and reactionaries. Sometime later, a student killed a journalist and playwright, Kotzebue (Kcot—so-bo), who was hated within the university circles as a Russian spy. These and other occurrences played perfectly into the hands of Metternich, who was seeking the means of establishing reaction in Germany as it had been established in Austria. He secured the passage by the frightened princes of the famous Carlsbad Decrees (1819). Through their provisions, Metternich became the virtual controller of the Confederation. These decrees were the work of Austria, seconded by Prussia. They signified in German history the suppression of liberty for a generation. They

34 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES really determined the political system of Germany until 1848. They provided for a vigorous censorship of the press, and subjected the professors and students of the universities to close government supervision. All teachers who should propagate ‘harmful doctrines’, that is, who should in any way criticize Metternich’s ideas of government, should be removed from their positions, and once so removed, could not be appointed to any other positions in Germany. The student association were suppressed. Any student expelled from one university was not to be admitted into any other. By these provisions it was expected that the entire academic community, professors and students, would be reduced to silence. Another provision was directed against the establishment of any further constitutions of a popular character. Thus, free parliaments, freedom of the press, freedom of teaching, and free speech were outlawed. Reaction in Germany The Carlsbad Decrees represent an important turning point in the history of Central Europe. They signalized the dominance of Metternich in Germany as well as in Austria. Prussia now docilely followed Austrian leadership, abandoning all liberal policies. The King, Frederick William III, had, in his hour of need, promised a constitution to Prussia- He never kept this promise. On the other hand, he inaugurated a peculiarly odious persecution of all liberals, which was marked by many acts as inane as they were cruel. Prussia entered upon a dull, drab period of oppression. Restoration in Spain In 1808 Napoleon had, as we have seen, seized the crown of Spain, and until 1814 had kept the Spanish King, Ferdinand VII, virtually a prisoner in France, placing his own brother Joseph on the vacant throne. The Spaniards rose against the usurper and for years carried on a vigorous guerrilla warfare, aided by the English and ended finally in success. As their King was in the hands of enemy they proceeded in his name to frame a government. Being liberal-minded, they drew up a constitution, the famous Constitution of 1812, which was closely modeled on the French Constitution of 1791. It asserted the sovereignty of the people, thus discarding the rival theory of monarchy by divine right which had hitherto been the accepted basis of the Spanish state. This democratic document, however, did not a have long to life as Ferdinand, on his return to Spain after the overthrow of Napoleon, immediately suppressed it and embarked upon a policy of angry reaction. The press was gagged. Books of a liberal character were destroyed wherever found, and particularly all copies of the constitution. Thousands of political prisoners were severely punished. Vigorous and efficient in stamping out all liberal ideas, the government of Ferdinand was indolent and incompetent in other matters. Spain, a country of about eleven million people, was wretchedly poor and ignorant. The government, however, made no attempt to improve the conditions. Moreover, it failed to discharge the most fundamental duty of any government, that is, to preserve the integrity of the empire. The Spanish colonies in America had been for several years in revolt against the mother country, and the government had made no serious efforts to put down the rebellion.

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 35 Revolution in Spain (1820) Such conditions, of course, aroused great discontent. The army particularly was angry at the treatment it had received and became a breeding place of conspiracies. A military uprising occurred in 1820 which swept everything before it and forced the King to restore the Constitution of 1812 and to promise, henceforth, to govern in accordance with its provisions. The text of the constitution was posted in every city, and parish priests were ordered to expound it to their congregations. Thus, revolution had triumphed again, and only five years after Waterloo. An absolute monarchy, based on divine right, had been changed into a constitutional monarchy based on the sovereignty of the people. Would the example be followed elsewhere? Would the Holy Alliance look on in silence? Had the revolutionary spirit been so carefully smothered in Austria, Germany, and France, only to blaze forth in outlying sections of Europe? Answers to these questions were forthcoming. Italy a Geographical Expression After the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna restored most of the old states which had existed before he first came into Italy. There were, henceforth, ten of them—Piedmont, Lombardy-Venetia, Parma, Modena, Lucca, Tuscany, the Papal States, Naples, Monaco, and San Marino. Genoa and Venice, until recently independent republics, were not restored, as republics were not ‘fashionable’. The one was given to Piedmont, the other to Austria. These states were too small to be self-sufficient, and as a result Italy was dependent on Austria. Austria was given outright the richest part of the Po valley as a Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. Austrian princes or princesses ruled over the duchies of Modena, Parma, and Tuscany, and were easily brought into the Austrian system. Thus, was Austria the master of northern Italy; master of southern Italy, too, for Ferdinand, King of Naples, made an offensive and defensive treaty with Austria, pledging himself to make no separate alliances and to grant no liberties to his subjects beyond those which obtained in Lombardy and Venetia. Naples was, thus, a satellite in the great Austrian system. The King of Piedmont and the Pope were the only Italian princes at all likely to be intractable. And Austria’s strength in comparison with theirs was that of a giant compared with that of pygmies. Reactionary policies of the Italian princes Italy again became a collection of small states, largely under the dominance of Austria. None of the states had parliament. There was neither unity nor any semblance of popular participation in the government. Following the restoration, the princes became absolute monarchs. They did little to hide the hatred for the French and made all efforts to extinguish any sign of their presence. They abolished all constitutions and laws, and institutions of French origin. Vaccination and gas illumination were forbidden for the simple reason that the French had introduced them. In Piedmont, French plants in the Botanic Gardens of Turin were torn up. French furniture in the royal palace was destroyed in response to this vigorous and infantile emotion. In every one of the states there was distinct retrogression, and the Italians lost ground

36 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES all along the line—politically, industrially, socially. In most, the Inquisition was restored. Education was handed over to the clergy. The course of studies was carefully purged of everything that might be dangerous. The police paid particular attention to ‘the class called thinkers’. Thus, Italy was ruled by petty despots with petty spirits. Moreover, most of the princes took their cue from Austria, the nature of whose policies we have already examined. The natural result of such conditions was deep and widespread discontent. The discontented joined the Carbonari, a secret society, and bided their time. In 1820, a revolution broke out in Italy. It started with military insurrection in Naples. The revolutionists demanded the establishment of the Spanish Constitution of 1812, not because they knew much about it but because it was democratic. The king immediately yielded, and the constitution was proclaimed. Critical Estimate Thus, in 1820, the Revolution, hated by the diplomats of 1815, resumed the offensive. Spain and Naples overthrew the regimes that had been in force for five years, and had adopted constitutions that were thoroughly saturated with the principles of Revolutionary France. There was likewise a revolution against the established regime in Portugal. There was shortly to be one in Piedmont. Metternich, the most influential person in Europe, who felt the world resting on his shoulders, had very clear views as to the requirements of the situation that had arisen. Anything that threatened the peace of Europe was a very proper thing for a European congress to discuss. A revolution in one country may encourage a revolution in another, and thus the world, set in order by the Congress of Vienna, may soon find itself in conflagration once more, the established order everywhere threatened. By a series of international congresses, at Troppau, Laibach, and Verona (1820-1822), Metternich was able to secure the official condemnation of these revolutions in Italy and Spain and then to have armies sent into those peninsulas, which speedily restored the old system, more odious than ever. Thousands were imprisoned, exiled, executed. Arbitrary government of the worst kind and thirsty for revenge was meted out to the unfortunate peoples. Needless to say, Metternich was quite satisfied. I see the dawn of a better day, he wrote. Heaven seems to will it that the world shall not be lost. The Holy Alliance, by these triumphs in Naples, Piedmont, and Spain, showed itself the dominant force in European politics. The system, named after Metternich, because his diplomacy had built it up and because he stood In the very centre of it, seemed firmly established as the European system. But it had achieved its last notable triumph. It was now to receive a series of checks which were to limit it forever. Having restored absolutism in Spain, the Holy Allies considered restoring to Spain her revolted American colonies. In this purpose they encountered the pronounced opposition of England and the United States, both of which were willing that Spain herself should try to recover them but not that the Holy Alliance should recover them for her. As England controlled the seas she could prevent the Alliance

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 37 from sending troops ‘to the scene of revolt. The President of the United States, James Monroe, in a message to Congress (December 2, 1823), destined to become one of the most famous documents ever written in the White House, announced that we should consider any attempt on the part of these absolute monarchs to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety, as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States. This attitude of England and the United States produced its effect. After this no new laurels were added to the Holy Alliance. A few years later Russia was herself encouraging and supporting a revolution on the part of the Greeks against the Turks, and in 1830 revolutions broke out in France and Belgium which demolished the system of Metternich beyond all possible repairs. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 10. What was the demand set by Russia after Napoleon Bonaparte was overthrown? 11. What were the changes made in the map of Europe after Napoleon was defeated? Write down any two. 12. Name the countries that were a part of the Quadruple Alliance. 1.6 SUMMARY • The eighteenth century is remembered as the Age of Enlightenment. The Age refers to an era of European scholarly history that began in the early years of the eighteenth century. • The French Enlightenment thinkers were called philosophes. They were not actually philosophers; however, what we would nowadays call journalists or popularizers. One of the greatest achievements of the philosophes was the publication of the Encyclopaedia. All those who supplied articles were called the Encyclopaedists. Philosophes and encyclopaedists are frequently used interchangeably while describing the French Enlightenment. • During the age of Enlightenment, a new structure of concepts about human beings and their societies was developed in the works of an extensive variety of thinkers. Especially, a new obsession with the social world emerged. • A scholar of the Enlightenment, Hamilton, states that some of the key features of the Enlightenment paradigm comprised: Reason, empiricism, science, universalism, progress, universalism, toleration and freedom. • The Enlightenment was mainly the ‘work of three overlapping and closely linked generations’ of thinkers. • The first of the three generations of the Age of Enlightenment produced the French thinkers—Voltaire (1694–1778) and Montesquieu (1689–1755). This generation was powerfully influenced by the work of the English political philosopher John Locke and scientist Isaac Newton. For this generation of

38 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES thinkers, rational query based on the natural sciences and an assessment of the social and political institutions of ‘absolutist’ monarchy was significant. • The second generation of thinkers of the Age of Enlightenment comprised Scottish philosopher David Hume and French philosophers Rousseau and Diderot. It was more openly ‘anticlerical’ and continued and developed the curiosity in the application of scientific method to ‘moral’ (or social) subjects developed by the thinkers of the first generation. • The third generation of thinkers of the Age of Enlightenment comprised German philosopher Kant and Scottish moral philosophers Adam Smith and Adam Ferguson. • Neoclassicism was reflected in the themes of architecture and sculpture of the Enlightenment era. The highlight of the architecture was a return to the intrinsic decorum of what a modern-day author called ‘the noble simplicity and tranquil loftiness of the ancients’. • At the beginning of the eighteenth century, music represented archetypal baroque features. These were reflected in instrumental music, particularly that of the organ and the strings. • The neoclassicism of the eighteenth century’s fascination, reason and scientific law was reflected more in literature than in art. A characteristic poetic voice of the Age of Reason in England was Alexander Pope (1688-1744). Two other deserving poetic voices also call for attention here. One was Anne Finch the English Countess of Winchilsea (1661-1720) and the other was a Massachusetts slave girl, Phyllis Wheatley (1753-1784), whose rhyming couplets, matching Pope’s style, implored the cause of freedom for the American colonies and for her race. • The novel emerged a major literary means in the Enlightenment era. It first became popular in France during the preceding century and was soon after popularized in England. Some of the most popular novels of that time include: Robinson Crusoe (1719), Pamela (1740-1741), and Tom Jones (1749). • European society in the 18th century was dominated by various aristocratic houses. France was ruled by Louis XVI, Spain by Charles III, Russia by Catherine the Great, etc. Even the Parliament of Great Britain greatly depended on the patronage of the English nobility and its monarch George III. People had no power to influence how the aristocracy in these nations functioned. Many of them were considered serfs who did not have any individual rights granted to them. This resulted in the general public in Europe being strongly resentful towards the aristocracy. • The feudal structure of the society also contributed towards resentment of the aristocrats. In a feudal structure, the major burden of taxation is on the poor whose money is used for privileges that are only meant to be enjoyed by the nobility. Further, the ideas of the Renaissance were slowly taking shape among the masses of Europe. There was spread of scientific inquiry and increasing questioning of religious dogmatism.

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 39 • The French Revolution was one of the few historical events that not only changed the shape of Europe, but its ideas also gave rise to a new type of political system. The causes of the French revolution can be divided into social and political causes. • Napoleon Bonaparte is considered one of the greatest generals in the history of the world. He was born on 15 August 1769 in Corsica. The son of a petty nobleman, Bonaparte joined the army at the age of 17 years as an artillery officer. • Napoleon first rose to fame during the post-revolutionary years when he led successful campaigns against European monarchs who had wanted to suppress the French Revolution. Napoleon’s successes in the Italian and Egyptian campaign had made him one of the most popular generals in France even before he assumed power. • After becoming Emperor of France, Napoleon won victories in the War of the Third Coalition against Austria, Prussia, Russia, Portugal and allied nations. His notable victories include the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805, where Napoleon defeated the armies of the Russian and Austrian Empire and the Battle of Friedland in 1807 where another army of the Russian Empire was defeated. His military victories gave Napoleon the reputation of being a great military strategist. • Napoleon Bonaparte’s downfall was due to several reasons. Some of the reasons include: Russia’s invasion, the failure of the Continental System, the Guerrilla warfare in Spain that tied down his army and his ego which led him to constantly want more and more land. • The immediate background to the Congress of Vienna was the defeat of France and surrender of Napoleon in May 1814. The Allies (Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain) began negotiations and realignment of European territories. The Congress’ signed the Final Act (the Second Peace of Paris) at Waterloo on 18 June, 1815. • Klemens Wenzel von Metternich appeared to the generation that lived between 1815 and 1848 as the most commanding personality of Europe. 1.7 KEY TERMS • Age of Enlightenment: The Age refers to an era of European scholarly history that began in the early years of the eighteenth century. • Empiricism: This is the idea that all thoughts and knowledge of the natural and social worlds are dependent upon what we can capture through our senses. • Universalism: The idea that reason and science are valid in all circumstances and that they can offer explanations for all phenomena in all circumstances.

40 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES • Neoclassicism: It refers to something belonging or pertaining to a revival of classic styles or something that is held to resemble classic styles, as in art, literature, music, or architecture. • Baroque: Relating to or denoting a style of European architecture, music, and art of the 17th and 18th centuries that followed Mannerism and is characterized by ornate detail. In architecture the period is exemplified by the palace of Versailles and by the work of Wren in England. Major composers include Vivaldi and Bach. • Renaissance: The activity, spirit, or time of the great revival of art, literature, and learning in Europe beginning in the 14th century and extending to the 17th century, marking the transition from the medieval to the modern world. 1.8 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’ 1. The French Enlightenment thinkers were also called philosophes. They were not actually philosophers; however, what we would nowadays call journalists or popularizers. One of the greatest achievements of the philosophes was the publication of the Encyclopaedia. 2. A paradigm is a set of interconnected ideas, values, principles and facts within which logical theories (attempts to describe and to elucidate phenomena) are developed. 3. Two features of the Enlightenment paradigm are: (a) Reason: Stressing on the fundamental significance of reason and rationality as ways of organizing knowledge. (b) Individualism: It is the concept, which explains that the person is paramount and that his or her individual logic cannot be subject to a higher (possibly irrational) authority (such as the Church) or traditional knowledge. 4. Two female writers of Europe in the 18th century were Madame de Graffigny (1695-1758) and Fanny Burney (1753-1840). 5. The two causes of French Revolution were: (a) The social causes: The socio-economic inequality that prevailed in France ultimately paved the way for the unrest that gradually usurped Louis XVI’s regime of its status. French society at that time was divided into the haves and the have nots. (b) The political causes: Two important causes of the French Revolution of 1789 were the absolute concentration of power that the French monarch held and the inability of French rulers who followed the reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715).

18th Century European World NOTES Self-Instructional Material 41 6. A rioting mob in search for arms stormed the Bastille on 14th July 1789. 7. The National Convention, which was comprised of the constitutional and legislative assembly, abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic on September 22, 1792. 8. Napoleon Bonaparte is considered one of the greatest generals in the history of the world. He was born on15 August 1769 in Corsica. 9. Two causes of Napoleon’s downfall were: (a) The disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. (b) The failure of the Continental System. 10. The allies, who had, after immense effort and sacrifice, overthrown Napoleon, felt they should have their reward. The most powerful monarch at Vienna was Alexander I, Emperor of Russia, who, ever since Napoleon’s disastrous invasion of Russia, had loomed large as a liberator of Europe. He now demanded that the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, whose government fell with Napoleon, be given back to him. 11. The two changes in the map of Europe after Bonaporte was defeated were as follows: • Norway was taken from Denmark and joined with Sweden. • Switzerland was increased by the addition of three cantons which had recently been incorporated in France, thus making twenty-two cantons in all. 12. Russia, Prussia, Austria, and England established a Quadruple Alliance. 1.9 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES Short-Answer Questions 1. Discuss the various key features of the Enlightenment paradigm. 2. What is nationalism? 3. Name any two popular women painters of the 18th century. Why were women painters so few in number? 4. Discuss the Revolution in Spain (1820) briefly. 5. Who was Prince Metternich? Why is he considered important? Long-Answer Questions 1. Discuss the key personalities of all the three generations of the Age of Enlightenment. 2. Why is the 18th century termed as the ‘Age of Enlightenment? 3. What were the factors responsible for the Age of Enlightenment? 4. Discuss the development in arts in the 18th century.

42 Self-Instructional Material 18th Century European World NOTES 5. Discuss the revolution and the work of the National Assembly (1789-1791). 6. Discuss the causes of the French Revolution in detail. 1.10 FURTHER READING Berlin, Isaiah. 1970. The Age of Enlightenment: The Eighteenth Century Philosophers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Egon. 1974. New Oxford History of Music: The Age of Enlightenment, 1745-1790. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Merriman M. John. 2009. A History of Modern Europe: From the French Revolution to the Present. New York: W.W. Norton

Industrial Revolution, the American War on Independence and Developments in China and Japan NOTES Self-Instructional Material 43 UNIT 2 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, THE AMERICAN WAR ON INDEPENDENCE AND DEVELOPMENTS IN CHINA AND JAPAN Structure 2.0 Introduction 2.1 Unit Objectives 2.2 Industrial Revolution in England: Causes and Consequences 2.2.1 Revolution in Textiles 2.2.2 The Iron and Coal Industry 2.2.3 Results of Industrial Revolution 2.3 American War of Independence 2.3.1 Ideologies behind the American Revolution 2.3.2 Causes of the American Revolution and War of Independence 2.3.3 Events of the American Revolution and War of Independence 2.3.4 Results and Significance of the American Revolution 2.4 Institution of Slavery 2.4.1 Origins of Abolitionism 2.4.2 Abraham Lincoln and Abolitionism 2.5 American Civil War and the Role of Abraham Lincoln 2.5.1 Causes of Defeat of the Confederacy 2.5.2 Conclusion 2.6 Opium Wars in China 2.6.1 First Opium War 2.6.2 Second Opium War 2.6.3 The Causes of the Opium Wars 2.6.4 Unequal Treaties 2.7 Developments in 19th Century Japan 2.7.1 Opening of Japan, Commodore Perry and the Impact on Shogunate 2.7.2 Unequal Treaties 2.8 Summary 2.9 Key Terms 2.10 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’ 2.11 Questions and Exercises 2.12 Further Reading 2.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit, you will learn about the Industrial Revolution in Britain, American War of Independence, and the American Civil War.