INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE DESIGN

Introduction to Database Design

First Edition (2019)

Published by:
Politeknik Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin.
KM 08, Jalan Paka,
23000 Dungun, Terengganu Darul Iman.
Tel : 098400800
Fax : 09-8458781
www.psmza.edu.my

Copyright © 2019 @ramlah

All rights reserved. No part of this document may
reproduced, stored in retrieval system or transmitted in
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permission of the copyright owner.

Preface

In the name of Allah, The Most Gracious and Merciful.
All praise to Allah S.W.T for His great loving kindness and
blessing, this book is successfully published.

This Introduction to Database Design book is designed
specifically for a first course in databases at the junior or
senior undergraduate, or first year graduate level. The
purpose in this text is to present the fundamental
concepts of database design. These concepts include
aspects of database design like fundamental of database,
DBMS, relational data model, Entity Relationship Model,
normalization, structured query language (SQL) and
database transaction management.

The authors would like to express deepest appreciation to
all those who have provided the possibility in publishing
this book especially family, friends and colleagues.

The book covers all the essential aspects of database
design based on those used in existing commercial or
experimental database design. Hopefully students and
lecturers can use it for a learning process.

Thank you.

Chapter Table of Contents Page
Contents

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Database 2
Management System

Chapter 2 Relational Data Model 48

Chapter 3 Entity-Relationship(ER) 64
Model & Normalization

Chapter 4 Structured Query Language 96
(SQL)

Chapter 5 Database Transaction 132
Management

FUNDAMENTALS

1 OF DATABASE
MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM

In this chapter, you will:

 Understand Database
 Understand DBMS

 Understand Data Model

Introduction to Database Design

UNDERSTAND DATABASE

Data: Database:

Known facts * A collection of related
that can be data/ Shared collection
recorded and of logically related data
have an implicit
meaning/ Raw (and a description of
facts; that is, this data), designed to
facts that have meet the information
not been yet
processed to needs of an
reveal their organization.
meaning to the
end user. * Is a centralized and
structured set of data
Information: stored on a computer

Facts (data) system.
that are
* Provide facilities for
arranged in retrieving, adding,
meaningful
patterns. modifying and deleting
data when required.

*Provides facilities for
transforming retrieved

data into useful
information.

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

EVOLUTION OF DATABASE
File-Based
Flat Files

Hierarchical Data Model
Network Data Model

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Introduction to Database Design

Flat Files •Earlier, punched cards technology was
used to store data – later, files. But the
Hierarchical files have no as such advantage, rather
Data Model have several limitations.

•1968 File-Based: predecessor of
database, data was maintained in a flat
file.

•[1968-1980] Era of Hierarchical
Database: Prominent hierarchical
database model was IBM’s first DBMS
called IMS (Information Management
System).

•Mid 1960s Rockwell collaborates with
IBM to create the Information
Management System (IMS), IMS lead
the mainframe database market in 70’s
and early 80’s.

•In this model, files are related in a
parent/child manner, with each child
file having at most one parent file.

•The previous system FMS drawback of
accessing records and sorting records
which took a long time was removed in
this by the introduction of parent-child
relationship between records in
database.

•The origin of the data is called the root
from which several branches have data
at different levels and the last level is
called the leaf.

•The main drawback in this was if there
is any modification or addition made to
the structure then the whole structure
needed alteration which made the task
a tedious one.

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

Network •Early 1960s, Charles Bachmann developed
Data first DBMS at Honeywell, Integrated Data
Model Store (IDS).

Relational •It standardized in 1971 by the CODASYL
Model group (Conference on Data Systems
Languages).

•In Network data model, files are related as
owners and members, similar to the
common network model except that each
member file can have more than one
owner.

•In this the main concept of many-many
relationships got introduced. But this also
followed the same technology of pointers
to define relationships with a difference in
this made in the introduction if grouping of
data items as sets.

•1970-present Era of relational database
and Database Management System
(DBMS)

•Based on relational calculus, shared
collection of logically related data and a
description of this data, designed to meet
the information needs of an organization

•System catalog/metadata provides
description of data to enable program-data
independence; logically related data
comprises entities, attributes, and
relationships of an organizations
information.

•Data abstraction allows view level, a way
of presenting data to a group of users
and logical level, how data is understood
to be when writing queries.

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Introduction to Database Design

MEMBERS

STUDENT FACULTY CORPORAT

FULL TIME PART TIME
Hierarchy Data Model

BankID State City LocationID

LocLocation Location Location
ID Address Address

Network Data Model

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

Relational Model
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Introduction to Database Design

EVOLUTION OF RELATIONAL MODEL

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

Relational DBMS at glance:

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Introduction to Database Design

DBMS FUNCTIONS

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
DBMS’S

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Introduction to Database Design

IMPORTANT HISTORICAL

CONTRIBUTIONS 1970-72 – E.F. Codd

1960’s: Computers

became cost proposes the relational
effective for model for databases,
private companies, disconnecting the logical
and storage organization from the
capacity increases.
physical storage.

1976: P.Chen Early 1980’s: The first
proposes the commercially available
entity relationship relational DB systems
model (ERM) for start to appear at the
database design. beginning of 1980s with

Mid-1980s: Orcale ver 2
structured query
language becomes Early 1990s: industry trend
widely accepted changes Oracle survives
many go away.
standard
Late 1990’s: Large
Mid 1990’s: www investment in internet
appears companies – helps tools-

Early 21st Century: market boom in
Solid growth of DB web/internet/DB

applications connectors
continues.

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

IMPORTANCE OF DATABASES TO EVERYDAY LIFE

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Introduction to Database Design

Additional Notes :
** Data redundancy also occurs in database

systems that have values repeated
unnecessarily in one or more records or fields,
within a table, or where the field is
replicated/repeated in two or more tables.
** There is data inconsistency between the files if
the same data is stored in different formats in
two files or if data must be matched between
files.
Major Steps in the Database Development
Process

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

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Introduction to Database Design

SHARING CONCEPT OF DATA IN
DATABASE

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

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Introduction to Database Design

PROPERTIES OF DATABASES

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

UNDERSTAND DBMS

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Introduction to Database Design

FEATURES OF DMBS

Database Nonprocedural Transaction
Definition
Access Processing

Application Procedural Database
Development Language Tuning
Interface

CATEGORIES DBMS

Desktop • Example : Microsoft
databases Access, FoxPro,
FileMaker Pro, Paradox,
Lotus.

Server • Example : Oracle,
databases Microsoft SQL Server,
IBM, DB2.

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

THE TRADITIONAL APPROACH TO
INFORMATION PROCESSING

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Introduction to Database Design

PROS AND CONS OF THE TRADITIONAL
APPROACH
PROS

Simple

*Matched existing business processes and functions
*Company's were not as interested in funding complicated
information sytems

Initially
low-cost

*Early computing was not viewed as beneficial for large
funding
*Systems were designed to be cheap in order to save on
cost

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

CONS

Lack of data
sharing

* Same data stored in multiple locations
* Caused unnecessary doubling of efforts for
processing and managing data

High costs in the long run

*Hiring data processors for each department was
very expensive, and each position was typically
working on the same thing just for a different area
• *Doubling of work as well as excessive
maintenance costs

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Introduction to Database Design

Separated
ownership

* Business functions had a high sense of data
ownership
* Departments unwilling to share data for fear of
minimizing their superiority

Unmanaged
redundancy

* Multiple instances of the same data appeared
throughout various files, systems, and databases
* Information updated in one place was not
replicated to the other locations
* Disk space was very expensive, and redundancy
had a big impact on storage
•

Data
inconsistency

* Redundant data stored in various locations was
usually never stored the same way
* Formatting was not centrally managed

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

LIMITATIONS OF THE FILE PROCESSING
SYSTEM I FILE-BASED APPROACH

Separated and
Isolated Data

Data Duplication
Dependence of data

Disadvantages

Data Security Concurrent
Access

Anomalies

Data
Inflexibility

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Introduction to Database Design

IMPORTANCE OF HAVING DBMS

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

DATABASE ARCHITECTURE

A •is a database that is under the control
Distributed of a central database management
system (DBMS) in which storage
Database devices are not all attached to a
common CPU. It may be stored in
multiple computers located in the
same physical location, or may be
dispersed over a network of
interconnected computers.

•Collections of data (e.g. in a database)
can be distributed across multiple
physical locations. A distributed
database can reside on network
servers on the Internet, on corporate
intranets or extranets, or on other
company networks. The replication
and distribution of databases improves
database performance at end-user
worksites.

Centralized •has all its data on one place. As it is
Database totally different from distributed
database which has data on
different places. In centralized
database as all the data reside on one
place so problem of bottle-neck can
occur, and data availability is not
efficient as in distributed database.

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Introduction to Database Design

UNDERSTAND DATA MODEL

Data models Data The very Earlier
define how models first data
the logical define data models
structure of a model were not
database is how so
modeled. data is could be scientific,
Data Models connect flat hence they
ed to data- were
are each prone to
fundamental other models, introduce
and how where lots of
entities to they are all the duplicatio
introduce process data n and
abstraction in ed and used are update
a DBMS. stored to be anomalies
inside kept in

the the
system same
place.

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

THE EVOLUTION OF DATA MODELS

Genera Time Model Examples Comme
tion nts
First 1960s− File VMS/VSA Used
1970s System M mainly
on IBM
Second 1970s Hierarch IMS mainfra
Third ical ADABAS me
Mid- and IDS-II systems
1970s Network Manage
to Data DB2 d
present Model Oracle records,
Relation MS SQL- not
al Server relations
Data MySQL hips
Model Early
database
systems
Navigati
onal
access
Concept
ual
simplicit
y
Entity
Relation
ship (ER)

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Introduction to Database Design

Fourth Mid- Object- Versant modelin
1980s Oriente FastObject g
Next to d s.Net and
Genera present Extende Objectivity support
tion d /DB for
Present Relation DB/2 UDB relationa
to al Oracle 10g l data
future modelin
XML dbXML g
Tamino Support
DB2 UDB complex
data
Extende
d
relationa
l
products
support
objects
and data
warehou
sing
Web
database
s
become
common
Organiza
tion and

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

Oracle 10g manage
MS SQL ment of
Server unstruct
ured
data
Relation
al and
object
models
add
support
for XML
docume
nts

LOGICAL DATA MODEL

A logical data model or logical schema is a data model of
a specific problem domain expressed independently of a
particular database management product or storage
technology (physical data model) but in terms of data
structures such as relational tables and columns, object-
oriented classes, or XML tags. This is as opposed to
a conceptual data model, which describes the semantics
of an organization without reference to technology

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Introduction to Database Design

TYPES OF LOGICAL DATA MODEL

Object Based Logical Record Based Logical
Model Model

Entity Relationship Hierarchical data
Data Model model
Network data model

Relational data model

 Object based Logical Model : E-R Model
 The entity relationship model is based on a

perception of the world as consisting of a

collection of basic objects (entities) and

relationships among these objects.

 The overall logical structure of a database can

be expressed graphically by an E-R diagram.

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

 Record based Logical Model: Hierarchical
Data Model
 A hierarchical database model is a data
model in which the data are organized into a
tree-like structure. The data are stored as
records which are connected to one another
through links. A record is a collection of fields,
with each field containing only one value.

 Record based Logical Model: Network Data

Model model is a database
 The network

model conceived as a flexible way of

representing objects and their relationships.

Its distinguishing feature is that the schema,

viewed as a graph in which object types are

nodes and relationship types are arcs, is not

restricted to being a hierarchy or lattice.

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Introduction to Database Design

 Record based Logical Model: Relational Data
Model

 The relational model (RM)

for database management is an approach to

managing data using a structure and

language consistent with first-order predicate

logic, first described in 1969 by English

computer scientist Edgar F. Codd, where all

data is represented in terms of tuples,

grouped into relations. A database organized

in terms of the relational model is a relational

database.

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

In the relational model, related records are linked together with a
"key".

 The purpose of the relational model is to provide
a declarative method for specifying data and
queries: users directly state what information the
database contains and what information they
want from it, and let the database management
system software take care of describing data
structures for storing the data and retrieval
procedures for answering queries.

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Introduction to Database Design

THREE LEVEL ARCHITECTURE OF DBMS

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

In
 It shows the architecture of DBMS.
 Mapping is the process of transforming

request response between various database
levels of architecture.
 The goal of the three-schema architecture is
to separate the user applications and the
physical database.
 Mapping is not good for small database,
because it takes more time.
 In External / Conceptual mapping, DBMS
transforms a request on an external schema
against the conceptual schema.
 In Conceptual / Internal mapping, it is
necessary to transform the request from the
conceptual to internal levels.
 In Conceptual / Internal mapping, it is
necessary to transform the request from the
conceptual to internal levels.

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Introduction to Database Design

Conceptual Conceptual level describes the
Level structure of the whole database for a
group of users.

It is also called as the data model.

Conceptual schema is a representation
of the entire content of the database.

These schema contains all the
information to build relevant external
records.

These schema contains all the
information to build relevant external
records.

It hides the internal details of physical
storage.

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

External External level is related to the data which
Level is viewed by individual end users.

This level includes a no. of user views or
external schemas.

This level is closest to the user.

External view describes the segment of
the database that is required for a
particular user group and hides the rest of
the database from that user group

Physical Physical level describes the physical
Level storage structure of data in database.

It is also known as Internal Level.

This level is very close to physical storage
of data.

At lowest level, it is stored in the form of
bits with the physical addresses on the
secondary storage device.

At highest level, it can be viewed in the
form of files.

The internal schema defines the various
stored data types. It uses a physical data
model.

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Introduction to Database Design

Three level architecture

Client-Server Architecture of DBMS
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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

Client-Server Architecture of DBMS

Client-server architecture
(client/server) is a network
architecture in which each computer
or process on the network is either a
client or a server. Servers are
powerful computers or processes
dedicated to managing disk drives
(file servers), printers (print
servers), or network traffic (network

servers).

Client/server architectures that
have evolved can be distinguished by
the distribution of application logic

components across clients and
servers.

Three components of application
logic:

Input/output (I/O) @ presentation
logic

Processing Logic
Storage Logic

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Introduction to Database Design

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

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Introduction to Database Design

BENEFITS OF MOVING TO CLIENT/SERVER
ARCHITECTURE

Flexibility and Staged Facilitation
scalability delivery of of Web-
facilitates functionality enabled
business speeds applications
process deployment
reengineering
Benefits of
Moving To
Client/Server
Architecture

Reduced GUI
network traffic interfaces
due to ease
increased application
processing at use
data source

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Database Management System

CATEGORIES OF DBMS

Desktop • Example : Microsoft
databases Access, FoxPro,
FileMaker Pro,
Server Paradox, Lotus.
databases
• Example : Oracle,
Microsoft SQL
Server, IBM, DB2.

CHARACTERISTIC

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Introduction to Database Design

BENEFITS OF DESKTOP DATABASE

Inexpensive

Easy Dekstop User
DatabaseManagement
Friendly

Offer
Web
Solution

USERS of DBMS

End User

Users of DBMS Database
Administrator

Application
Programmer

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