How It Works I158 2021

DID YOU KNOW? A camel can drink a quarter of its own weight in water at a time WHAT’S ON A
DESERT MENU?
FAT-FILLED HUMPS
Humps store fatty tissue. When food is limited, animals can’t
When food is scarce, this afford to be fussy eaters. Camels are
herbivores and rely on desert shrubs,
fat is metabolised to grasses and twigs. Their mouths are
release nutrients. tough and able to withstand thorns,
but their lips remain flexible enough to
tAhecadmayela’snfduwr kaermepastitncigohotl in grab and break off food.

Their stomachs have three or four
chambers, which can prolong
digestion to thoroughly break down
tougher meals. The increased
surface area of the stomach means
moisture in the plants they eat can be
better absorbed before leaving the
body. Eating plumps up camels’
humps, and after a long time without
food they will shrink.

EXTENSIVE Camels can eat cactuses by grinding
INTESTINE sharp thorns on their mouth palate
Camels need all the
water they can get in CAMEL
desert lands. Their BEHAVIOUR
long small intestines
have a large surface Camels are social animals, often
area to maximise traversing deserts in male-led groups.
water reabsorption When greeting each other, they’re
into the body. known to blow in each other’s faces.
Different noises are made when
WIDE FEET camels ‘talk’ to each other. These
A camel’s weight is include moans and hums. When a
distributed evenly female camel gives birth, she usually
across this relatively separates herself from the herd. The
wide surface area. mother looks after the calf alone
This makes the animal before rejoining the herd two weeks
later. For the next 10 to 12 months she
more stable. will produce milk for her young.

STOMACH Did
CONTENTS you know?
Sometimes camels
regurgitate their food to Baby camels
re-chew. This can help can walk within
when digesting tough 30 minutes of
foods and sometimes
allows for extraction of being born
more nutrients.

Female camels need to find enough food © Alamy / Getty
to produce milk for their young

51

M ethods used in farming are constantly changing. In Running a farm and growing produce requires extensive Above: GPS tracking
the 1950s, for example, the increased use of manual labour, and as advanced machinery increases is used to locate
pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers drastically farmers’ yields and farms grow in size, the workload increases autonomous tractors
as well. In recent years, autonomous technology has meant
improved crop yield, becoming known as the that vehicles and machines no longer need to be tethered to a Opposite: A Fastrac
human driver. Instead of every change in speed, steering, Two’s average speed is
Green Revolution. But arguably the biggest 20th-century braking and navigation being initiated by the farmer, intelligent 135 miles per hour
computers can automatically perform this series of
agricultural development was the arrival of the tractor. These movements without much external input.

vehicles replaced the animal power we previously relied on. In the future, driverless machines are likely to take on
different roles around farms, with people controlling and
Machinery excelled in fields; tractors could carry more across preplanning the vehicles’ daily movements. Some farmers
welcome these ‘super tractors’ as a way to increase
longer distances for longer periods of time, and even turn the productivity while they focus on managing the farm, while
others prefer more traditional methods. What today’s tractors
soil. Farmers no longer needed to use large swathes of their are providing, however, is choice and versatility in farming.

land to grow food for the working animals.

Tractors are evolving as new tools expand the boundaries of

farming. Whether you’re looking for technology that tackles a

vehicle’s speed, maximises the number of tractors that can

work at once or limits wasted resources, there are many

features to consider when choosing a tractor today.

52

DID YOU KNOW? Each year, around 2 million tractors are sold around the world

TYRE STRENGTH WORLD’S FASTEST REDUCED SIZE ARzone SCANHERE
Steel cylinders at the The JCB Fastrac Two is engineered to reach Its height is 20
speeds of over 150 miles per hour
centre of the tyres centimetres lower
add strength, needed than the previous
Fastrac model, with
when travelling at width reduced by
high speeds. 30 centimetres.

DIESEL ENGINE TORYFAECTAT HORRES
The low-sitting
engine has six

cylinders and holds
7.2 litres of fuel.

1 2021
MASSEY FERGUSON
8S.265
This tractor’s standout
feature is its cab: it’s
quiet, it provides
increased visibility with
its large glass panes
and supports
connectivity with other
farm vehicles.

ALUMINIUM BONNET 2 2020
The aerodynamic bonnet is made FENDT 942 VARIO
This won Tractor of the
of aluminium rather than steel. Year as well as Best
This is lighter and less dense. All-Purpose Tractor. It
was found to manage
power output well at
particularly low speeds.

“Driverless machines are LIGHTER CHASSIS 3 2019
OLNHO\ WR WDNH RQ GLƈHUHQW The chassis rails, CASE IH MAXXUM
145 ACTIVEDRIVE 8
roles around farms” extending the length of The 2019 winner
achieved the lowest
BIG BUD the tractor, are half the fuel use in its class.
The 145’s power
weight of the previous transmission
incorporates eight
Fastrac vehicle’s. powershift steps,
providing 24 different
Did speeds in both forward
you know? and reverse.

To the top of 4 2018
the cab, Big Bud VALTRA VERSU
T254 SMART
is 4.3 metres TOUCH
tall With a 23-centimetre
touchscreen, the
The biggest tractor ever built is the Big Bud 16V-747. Measuring 8.5 The Big Bud 747 was built in Montana armrest in this tractor © Alamy / Getty / Wiki: Myron Reynard/Illustration by Adrian Mann
metres long and six metres wide, this king of the fields gained its title allows the operator to
when it was first built in 1977, and has retained it ever since. When Big adjust and preplan the
Bud’s fuel tank is full, the tractor weighs more than 45,000 kilograms tractor’s settings.
– that’s six times as heavy as an elephant.
5 2017
The vehicle’s sheer size means that Big Bud can farm three acres of CASE IH OPTUM
land in one minute. While there were multiple Big Bud tractors 300 CVX
manufactured, only one of the largest models was built. Brothers This high-power tractor
Robert and Randy Williams, who own Big Bud, used the tractor for has a modern look, and
cultivating until one of its tyres sustained irreparable damage and it in 2017 was lighter and
was put out of service. The brothers restored Big Bud with new tyres, more compact than
allowing the largest tractor to continue operation. similar models.

53

TRANSPORT AR ZONE

EAALUGETRCOITCNRUOILCMTAUONURDSE DRIVERLESS SPRAYER
Smarter and more sustainable This raised machine stands
tractors are transforming the on four narrow tracks and
future of farming holds a 560-litre spray tank.
Its high stance means it can
travel along rows of relatively

tall crops while spraying
them with pesticides.

AUTONOMOUS SEE & SPRAY
TRACTOR Smart camera
technology can detect
John Deere has released a different colouration as
new, electric and fully it scans fields. Water is
autonomous concept targeted at green crops,
limiting any water that
tractor. Without the need for is wasted on the
a driver cab, these tractors surrounding land.

are compact and can be
used with tracks or wheels.

CONNECTED TECHNOLOGY EFFICIENT HARVESTING
A smart device such as a tablet – or OMNiDRIVE is new technology
built-in technology inside a driven that can turn grain-collecting
tractor – can be used to track the
vehicles into autonomous
progress and live location of the ones. Instead of requiring two
farm’s operating tractors. This drivers, the grain cart can be

helps when monitoring programmed to follow the
vehicles with no driver. combine harvester and

“Tractors are evolving automatically match its speed.
as new tools expand the
boundaries of farming”

54

DID YOU KNOW? Monarch Tractor released the world’s first fully electric and autonomous tractor in 2020

Did Crops can be sprayed
you know? from the air by drone

Most tractors
average speeds

of around 25
miles per hour

VOLODRONE
This is a 9.2-metre-wide drone

with eight rotors. Its battery
allows 30 minutes of flight time

per charge, spraying six
hectares per hour. The route
can be preprogrammed or

controlled remotely.

SEMI-AUTONOMOUS VEHICLE This driverless vehicle can
This tractor can be driven or used fit over fields of taller crops

autonomously. The latter is achieved
with vision-based row guidance and

smart sensors. When spraying
pesticides on rows of trees, an
operator isn’t exposed to chemicals.

John Deere’s autonomous tractor is electric-powered

ARzone SCANHERE The cameras on the See & Spray © John Deere / Illustration by Nicholas Forder
device capture 20 images per second

55

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HISTORY

58

DID YOU KNOW? Templar knights wore the distinctive red cross, while sergeants wore plain clothes

T he Knights Templar was an order of devout TEMPLAR HIERARCHY
Catholics founded in Jerusalem in 1118 CE,
after the First Crusade. Also known as the
Order of Solomon’s Temple, it was created to They were all known as knights, but their
protect Europeans travelling to the Holy Land, among varied roles provided structure
other duties. The knights were known across Europe as

an elite fighting force with a strict code of conduct and,

eventually, immense wealth. For nearly 200 years the

Knights Templar were at the centre of politics and GRAND MASTER
finance in Europe, taking part in Christian military Once selected, this person was the
campaigns in the Holy Land. supreme authority of the Templars
for the rest of their life. Despite their
In the seventh century, a Muslim Arab army power, many grand masters chose
conquered Jerusalem and the Holy Land, ending
Christian rule in the region under the Byzantine Empire, to fight, and even died in battle.
also called the Eastern Roman Empire. By the end of the

11th century, the Byzantine Empire had lost more

territory to Muslim invasions, including more Christian SENESCHAL

holy sites. In response, the pope called for the They acted

capture of Christianity’s holy sites in the Holy as the advisor to

Land, beginning the First Crusade in 1096. Did the grand master MARSHAL
A multinational army was raised for the you know? and had an This was the
leader of wars. The
Crusade, led by several of Europe’s European royals administrative marshal was in
monarchs and nobility. The Crusaders donated estates role in the charge of anything
succeeded in capturing not only to the Templars order. war-related, such
Jerusalem, but also much of the region. as weapons,
horses and tactics.
They created four territories, known as

Crusader States: the County of Edessa, the

Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli and

the Kingdom of Jerusalem. These states were also

known as Outremer, meaning ‘overseas’, from the COMMANDERS OF LANDS
French term outré-mer. Each of the lands had a leader who
worked for the grand master. These
After most of the Crusaders returned to Europe, there commanders were in charge of the
remained a need to defend the Holy Land, as well as
govern its population, which included Christians, Jews, region’s buildings and farms.
Muslims and new settlers from Europe. They needed to

consolidate their hold on Jerusalem and the immediate

vicinity. But they didn’t really have a consolidated state

that would form a solid area on a map. Another COMMANDERS OF
problem they had is that a certain number of KNIGHTS, HOUSES
places they controlled were very easy for an
enemy to infiltrate, and there was nothing really to AND FARMS
keep law and order. It was these circumstances These commanders
that produced the Templars. were directed by the
commander of their land,

but were responsible for

a given city. This meant

monitoring daily

activities in specific

communities.

KNIGHTS AND SERGEANTS
Knights ranked slightly above

sergeants, but both fought in battles.
They made up the majority

of the Knights Templar. Knights
could have three horses, while
sergeants were allowed just one.

Knights decorated with © Getty
the iconic red cross

59

HISTORY

After the Siege of Acre in 1291, there
were no successful Crusades

This Templar tombstone was discovered in Cyprus

WTHHEEYRBEAWSEEDRE?
These devout Christians
established kingdoms around
the ‘Holy Land’ of Jerusalem

CYPRUS BASE

The Knights Templar bought

the island of Cyprus from

Did Richard the Lionheart in 1191. CHATEAU PÈLERIN
you know? When Acre was lost in 1291, 4,000 knights
this became the Templars’
There were a new Eastern headquarters. occupied this fortress.
total of 25 laws As it was near the sea,
END OF THE ORDER for the Templars
supplies could be
to obey delivered more easily
by fellow Templars.

Once the Crusades were over and Muslim forces controlled

Jerusalem, military orders, including the Templars, were blamed

for the loss of the Holy Land. After the Mamluks conquered the The southeast corner TEMPLE MOUNT,
city of Acre in 1291, the Templars and other orders retreated to of Temple Mount JERUSALEM
the island of Cyprus. This was the first

This prompted demands to reform the military orders. headquarters used in
Philip IV of France, who was in huge financial debt to the Jerusalem as the Templars
Templars, ordered the mass arrest of French Templars on 13
October 1307, confiscating their property and wealth. defended the city.

Prosecutors charged the Templars with worshipping idols,

spitting on the cross and kissing one another in their induction

ceremonies. Under torture, the Templars confessed to the

charges. In 1308, Pope Clement V absolved the Templars of

heresy, but the order and its reputation had already been

damaged. In March 1312, Pope Clement V disbanded the

Templars as an organisation, and the order’s members were

arrested across Europe. Two years later, Jacques de Molay, the

last grand master, was burned at the stake in Paris on a charge

of relapsed heresy.

60

DID YOU KNOW? The knights were known as ‘milites Christi’, meaning ‘Christ’s soldiers’

ũ$ƏWHU PRVW RI WKH &UXVDGHUV

returned, there remained a
QHHG WR GHIHQG WKH +RO\ /DQGŪ

TORTOSA EDESSA BATTLE This illustration
A cathedral was built Christian troops failed to shows priests
here around 1150 after defend Edessa as Muslim guiding the
the Knights Templar forces invaded in 1144. This knights during
gained control over sparked the Second Crusade, the First Crusade
initiated by Pope Eugene III.
the area of Tartus.

ARWAD ANTIOCH TEMPLAR
In 1302, the Templars on this The Templars occupied RULES
small island began fighting the
Mamluks on the mainland. The this state, along with 1 ALWAYS
Mamluks seized the island and three others, following OBEY ORDERS
sent the captured Templars to Accepting absolute
the First Crusade. obedience meant that
Egypt to become slaves. knights acted quickly
once commanded,
CHASTEL BLANC creating a strong unit.
This Templar hotspot was built at
the centre of a mountain range. At 2 NO FANCY
this settlement, a tower served as a CLOTHES
lookout over the Mediterranean The Templars’ uniforms
were plain, with a red
Sea and Templar fortresses. cross on the chest. Fur
clothes and pointed
DAMASCUS SIEGE shoes were banned.
This battle took place in July 1148.
As part of the Second Crusade, the 3 EAT IN PAIRS
Templars attacked Damascus from the The knights carried out
many activities in pairs.
west, but were unsuccessful. This was practical as it
meant each knight was
ACRE closely observed.
This was a port Meals were eaten
used as access to in silence.
the Holy Land by the
Templars until 1291. 4 DON’T
SAVE MONEY
MALDOIM Money couldn’t be
This base was used carried unless
to defend the road permission was given.
between Jerusalem The Templars had to
swear an oath of
and Jericho. poverty in order to fully
commit to god.
The Templar fortress of Acre still stands © Getty
today, nearly 1,000 years after it was built 5 NEVER DESERT
THE LINE
This rule heightened
control on the
battlefield and helped
to maintain formation.
The knights were
expected to fight until
the end, follow orders
and only act with
permission.

61

HISTORY

Maya cities lie in ruin today,
visited by many tourists

62

DID YOU KNOW? The earliest Maya spoke one language. Today there are around 70 Mayan languages still in use

MayaWHY THE

CIVILISATION COLLAPSED
What went wrong for this ancient
South American nation?

WORDS OWEN JARUS

T he Maya have lived in Central America and the When the city of Chichén Itzá declined – largely because of
Yucatán Peninsula since at least 1800 BCE, a lengthy drought during the 11th century – another Yucatán
flourishing in the region for thousands of
Peninsula city called Mayapán started to thrive. Mayapán

years. The Maya civilisation collapsed Did had lords, priests, hundreds of religious hieroglyphic
between 800 and 1000 CE. But though the term
‘Maya collapse’ brings up images of ruins you know? books, complex astronomy and a pantheon of
overgrown with forests and of an ancient deities. Much of what we know about earlier Maya
civilisation whose cities fell and were abandoned, Prisoners of war religion comes from books written in Mayapán’s
the reality is far more complex. played ‘ulama’, day and from descendant populations who met and
with losers put survived European contact.
Just why did the Maya civilisation collapse, and
to death While Mayapán declined prior to European

can you even call it a ‘collapse’? For starters, the Maya contact, another Yucatán Peninsula site called Ti’ho

are still around today. It was the Maya political system that was growing at the time the Europeans arrived. Maya states

collapsed, not their society. The Maya region was large, with continued to exist even after the region was ravaged by war

many environments, and multiple languages were spoken in and disease brought about by the European conquests in

the Maya family. Central America.

MODERN MAYA

After the last Maya state was conquered by the

Spanish in 1697, the Maya people continued on,

enduring discrimination and at times revolting

against Spain and the governments that came into

power after Spanish colonial rule ended in 1821.

This arrival brought about a profound change in the

Maya world. New diseases decimated the Maya, and

the Spaniards forced the Maya to convert to

Christianity, even burning their books.

Today, despite the devastation they experienced,

the Maya people live on. Although classic Maya cities Tdhisispl1a4ytsh-acnecnietunrtyMmaaynanusscyrmipbt ols

and states did collapse, and culture did transform,

the Maya didn’t disappear. The descendant

population of over 7 million in Mesoamerica now © Alamy / Getty

lacks adequate political representation in the In Guatemala, Maya descendents make up

countries where they live. over 40 per cent of the population

63

HISTORY TEMPLE OF THE SUN
Ancient Maya civilisations
EXPLOMRAEYAANCAITNYCIENT
The city of Palenque shared common features believed that the Sun
with other cities across Mesoamerica wouldn’t travel across the

TEMPLE OF THE CROSS sky unless they made
Each temple was usually sacrifices. Animals or
humans would be taken
dedicated to a specific god.
This temple was for the god here for sacrifice.

of the ocean.

THE PALACE
This large building sits on a

raised platform and has
multiple rooms and corridors.

At its centre is a lookout
tower. These structures were
used in Maya cities for safety,
and potentially astronomical

observations.

The aim of the ancient Maya ball game ‘ulama’ NORTHERN GROUP
was to get the balls through stone rings More temples can be found north of

the city’s centre. Maya temples
were made from stone.

TYhaxecfaabcáe,oMf eaxnicaon,ccieanrvt eMdaiynasrtuolneer from

64

DID YOU KNOW? There was an abundance of soft limestone around the city of Palenque, which was used for carving

SACRED RIVER TEMPLE OF THE Did
The Otolum river runs south of INSCRIPTIONS you know?
the palace. Palenque’s ancient King Pakal ruled Palenque for
68 years – the longest of any Some Maya
occupants called the city ancient Maya leader. When he rulers wasted
‘Lakamha’, meaning ‘place of died in 683 CE, his body was resources on

great water’. buried here. warfare

BALL COURT ũ1RW DOO 0D\D VHƔOHPHQWV REASONS
Ulama was a popular ball game played by FOR CITIES’
were controlled by a king or
Maya across Mesoamerica. The game DQ HOLWH PHPEHU RI VRFLHW\ Ū DECLINE
involved keeping the ball off the ground
1 DROUGHT
without using hands or feet. As rainfall decreased
by up to 70 per cent for
ANCIENT LEADERS village seems to have been managed communally, extended periods, © Alamy / Getty / Illustration by The Art Agency: Nick Sellers
perhaps by local elders. maize and other crops
The ancient Maya didn’t have one central leader – struggled to grow,
like an emperor in ancient Rome – and were not There was no single collapse for these polities; a
unified into a single state. Instead, the ancient number of Maya cities rose and fell at different times, while drinking
Maya civilisation consisted of numerous small states, some within the 800 to 1000 CE time period, and reservoirs
each centred around a city. While these city-states some afterward. For example, while areas in southern became
shared similarities in culture and religion, they each Mesoamerica – a cultural region that forms the empty.
had their own local leaders, with some more powerful southern tip of continental North America – such as
than others. Tikal in what is now Guatemala, declined in the eighth 2 TRUST
and ninth centuries due to environmental problems Maya
Not all Maya settlements were controlled by a king and political turmoil, populations rose in other areas, rulers often
or an elite member of society. At Joya de Cerén, a such as Chichén Itzá on what is now the Mexican linked their
Maya village in El Salvador that was buried by a Yucatán Peninsula. own power
volcanic eruption 1,400 years ago, archaeologists to deities.
found that there was no elite class in control, and the The
problems the
Maya suffered
from droughts
caused the people
to lose trust in their
rulers, which is more
than just losing trust in
the government when
your rulers are closely
tied to deities.

3 TRADING
As dry seasons
continued, river levels
dropped until canoes
were unable to travel
along them. This
impacted the trade of
goods between cities.

4 POPULATION
The overpopulation of
Maya cities may have
put a bigger strain on
resources. As more
land was cleared for
the growing population,
the region’s ecosystem
was also challenged.

5 INCREASED
WARFARE
As archaeologists have
studied Maya history,
they’ve learned that
these cities engaged in
several violent wars.
Hostility between large
cities may have grown
as resources became
less available.

65

HISTORY AR ZONE

INSIDE The curved row is very striking LADY’S
BATH’S ROYAL BEDROOM
CRESCENT GENTLEMAN’S BEDROOM The lady of the
Bedrooms were located on the house slept in this
Discover the upper floors. This was used for room. This is also
history and where her maid
architecture of privacy and rest. would help her
this beautiful dress and prepare
Georgian street for the day.

WORDS AILSA HARVEY

AGWEHOEORAMGLIETAHNY

Take a look at the interior of
No. 1 Royal Crescent

WITHDRAWING ROOM
Evening entertainment was

moved to this floor after
dinner. This room was a place

to drink tea and relax.

AzonRe DINING ROOM SECOND ENTRANCE
This was an area for Below the grand front door is
SCANHERE entertaining guests. a concealed entrance, which
66 Objects placed in this servants were restricted to.

room were often
intended to show off
the owner’s wealth.

DID YOU KNOW? In Charles Dickens’ The Pickwick Papers, Mr Pickwick stays in the Royal Crescent

T he city of Bath in Somerset, England, front of the crescent’s houses is a large lawn,
is famous for its golden stone designed to be an open space for the residents
buildings, quaint cobbled streets and to enjoy.

Roman baths. While Bath became a This grassy area previously held grazing

spa when the Romans built the baths in 60 CE, livestock and was used to grow food when it was

its popularity only surged as a spa town during limited during World War II. A fence and ditch

the Georgian era. During this time, many of – called a ha-ha – separates this private

Bath’s picturesque buildings were built, Did section of grass from Royal Victoria The majority of Georgian buildings in Bath
including the Royal Crescent. you know? Park. This also helped to keep
livestock out of the formal garden. are made from the same stone
This curved row of 30 terraced No. 2 was hit by
houses was designed by architect BUILDING WITH
John Wood the Younger and built bombers during BATH STONE
between 1767 and 1774. These homes
World War II The honey-coloured stone that makes
up the Royal Crescent is known as
were targeted at middle-class city ‘Bath stone’. In the Jurassic Period,
which ran from 201 to 145 million
residents. Although they didn’t have the years ago, the land that Bath sits on
was underwater. As calcium carbonate
money to afford a large mansion in the grains moved across the seafloor, they
combined with the inorganic mineral
countryside, the new residents wanted to live in a lime. Sediment continued to fall in
layers, putting pressure on the rock
luxurious city dwelling. The original owners were and producing limestone.

allowed to personalise the interior build of their This made the perfect building
material for the Royal Crescent and
new homes, meaning that no two houses in this many other buildings in Bath, because
it’s a freestone: it formed from tiny
sweeping crescent have an identical layout. grains of minerals and rock, so the
stone can be cut easily in any direction
The Royal Crescent is over 150 metres long without it breaking into distinct layers
like other rocks.
and is adorned with 114 tall columns – a classic
Architect John Wood worked with
feature of Georgian architecture. In the space in entrepreneur Ralph Allen to source
and utilise the stone from Combe
Architect John Wood the Down, on the outskirts of Bath. This is
where large amounts of Bath stone
SERVICE WING Younger designed the was extracted during the Georgian
The service wing had a Royal Crescent, while his era. Allen owned these quarries and
kitchen and sleeping area built a tramway to transport the stone
father John Wood the to the crescent.
used by servants. Elder designed the

nearby ring of houses,

EXTENSION called the Circus

Architect John Wood, who

part-owned the house by

marrying the first owner’s sister,

added an extension to it in 1769.

COLLECTION The iconic columns are 17 metres
CABINET tall and 76 centimetres wide

At the time the
crescent was built, it
had become popular
to collect objects of
natural history. These

were displayed in
cabinets in the home.

GENTLEMAN’S ROOM THE PARLOUR © Alamy / Getty / Illustration by Nicholas Forder
In the 1700s, men often had a This was a family room and
room tailored to their interests. private space. Breakfast took
There they could read or work. place here as an informal meal.

67

TECHNOLOGY

HOW
BITCOIN
MINING
WORKS

Discover the tools that
Bitcoin miners use to gain

valuable cryptocurrency

WORDS MARK SMITH

68

DID YOU KNOW? The first-ever Bitcoin transaction took place in 2010, when a man in Florida paid 10,000 BTC for two pizzas

Masses of servers are used for Square and
mining cryptocurrencies Twitter founder
Jack Dorsey
wants to make
it easier to
mine crypto

I t was in the late-1800s that hundreds to the blockchain, are called ‘blocks’.
of thousands of prospectors The fact it works this way also means
descended on the Klondike in crypto is not controlled by any one
Canada to mine for gold. It was organisation, bank, government or individual, but
known as the ‘gold rush’, and some of them by the community that uses it. Once that
found their fortunes. Many didn’t find transaction is agreed, it can be used to buy
anything at all - and over a century later goods and services, just like in the real world.
people are trying the same thing. But this You can buy crypto using real money on an
time, instead of spades and pickaxes, online currency exchange. Buchi Okoro, CEO and
they’re using computers. It’s known as cofounder of African crypto exchange Quidax,
‘crypto mining’ and since the launch of the says: “Nobody owns it, but anyone who has a link
first cryptocurrency, Bitcoin, in 2009, more and can contribute to it. And as different people
more people have tried to find their fortune by update it, your copy also gets updated.”
mining it and other virtual currencies. You may
have heard of Bitcoin, but there are many more EAST VS WEST
cryptocurrencies out there – over 5,000, in fact.
Cryptocurrency is virtual money. Unlike The race to mine crypto has seen the
ordinary cash, which has its value controlled by balance of power shift back and forth
governments and banks, crypto is stored on between nations in recent years. The
something called a virtual ledger, which is like a most recent development saw the US
database – a computer program for recording overtake China as the country with the
information. When crypto passes between two largest amount of Bitcoin mining. The
people in the virtual world, say, to buy something, figures demonstrate the impact of a
the transaction is stored on something called a crackdown on Bitcoin trading and
‘distributed ledger’, also called a blockchain. mining launched by the Chinese
Whereas an ordinary database can be government in late May 2021, which
changed by one person, lots of people have devastated the industry and caused
access to that one distributed ledger. This gives miners to shut up shop or move
the information stored on it – such as the fact overseas. Other major mining
someone has paid for something with Bitcoin – operations are centred around Russia
very difficult to fake or make inaccurate. and Eastern Europe, with mining
The transaction can be ‘trusted’ to have really farms that are truly vast in scale.
taken place, giving the virtual money real-world
value. These bits of information, which are added

An engineer on a cherry picker There has been a major crackdown on
adjusts mining rigs at the Bitcoin in China
CryptoUniverse cryptocurrency
mining farm in Nadvoitsy, Russia © Getty

69

TECHNOLOGY

There are a few reasons that people Did MINING RIGS
use crypto. One is that it’s semi- you know?
anonymous, and another is that it’s The devices used to mine crypto
simple to use and can be transferred Bitcoin is can be the size of a desktop
between a buyer and a seller quickly limited; once
online. Also, its value doesn’t change it’s all mined, computer or truly vast, taking up
entire buildings
that’s it

depending on what’s happening in any

one country, such as rising interest rates or job

losses. In September 2021, El Salvador became

the first country in the world to adopt Bitcoin as

legal tender.

The creation of Bitcoin is referred to as ‘Bitcoin GRAPHICS RISER CABLES OPERATING
mining’, and it involves adding new blocks to the CARDS These connect the six SYSTEM
blockchain. The people who do this are all taking graphics cards to the
part in a worldwide competition known as the Linked graphics Each rig has an
‘mining race’ – think of it as a 21st-century gold cards provide the motherboard and operating system,
rush. To take part, miners have to use specialist allow spacing between which can be Windows
hardware known as mining rigs. This is computer computation or something like
equipment that creates new blocks to be added power behind the cards to stop too NiceHash OS, Hive OS
mining process. much heat building up.
or RaveOS.

to the blockchain. It does this by solving complex

mathematical problems. If they’re successful,

they can get two types of rewards.

The first is the block reward, which is issued to

the publisher of every block. Think of it as a pat

on the back for a job well done. The second

reward is a transaction fee – fractions of Bitcoins

paid by a private user who is making a

transaction. This fee helps incentivise the miner

to include these transactions in published

blocks. In essence, they’re being paid to record

the transaction.

Perhaps because it was the first or most

famous crypto, Bitcoin mining is dominated by

big players now rather than individuals. The

biggest Bitcoin mining rig is said to consist of

$300,000,000 (£218,000,000) worth of

application-specific integrated circuit computers.

But miners with smaller operations have turned

their hand to other crypto, such as Ethereum and MOTHERBOARD/CPU
Like a PC, the motherboard
Zilliqa. The price of Bitcoin jumped recently POWER SUPPLY METAL FRAME and CPU are the brains of the
Pretty much the This case is what
when Square CEO Jack Dorsey – who also “Miners have to keeps everything in whole rig, allowing it to
founded Twitter – said that he wanted his use specialist same as you’d find on place, and should be regulate its components.
digital payments company to build a desktop PC, this open to the air to allow
software which would make it easier for hardware known keeps the whole rig heat to escape.
operational.
everyday people to mine crypto. He as mining rigs”
tweeted: “Mining needs to be more

distributed. The more decentralised this is, the

more resilient the Bitcoin network becomes.”

MINING’S COST TO PLANET EARTH

Bitcoin mining is having a detrimental impact Traditional types of mining are known for of the annual carbon footprint of Argentina. A
on the environment, say some experts their potential to negatively impact the single transaction made with Bitcoin has the
planet, and Bitcoin mining is no different. same carbon footprint as 680,000 Visa
With vast amounts of energy needed to transactions or 51,210 hours of watching
power computerised rigs, it’s thought the YouTube. Benjamin Jones, a professor of
total amount of power needed to mine economics at the University of New Mexico,
Bitcoin worldwide is more than that used by said the amount of electricity used to mine
some countries. Bitcoin “has historically been more than
[electricity used by] entire countries,
In the last year, the total crypto-mining like Ireland”.
power consumption soared to the equivalent

70

DID YOU KNOW? No one knows who created Bitcoin. People believe it’s Satoshi Nakamoto, whose real identity is unknown

MONEY FROM THE ETHER Ethl eSawlvoarlddotrobaedcoapmt eBtithceofinirsatscleoguanlttreyninder
Creating new crypto can be a rewarding process
with the right equipment STARTING THE
EXCHANGE
BUYING POWER
Users can exchange Bitcoin is stored in
a digital wallet and
Bitcoin and other
crypto for real-world can only be
products and services. accessed with the

user’s ID key.

MINING DISTRIBUTED LEDGER THE BLOCKCHAIN
BEGINS The blockchain can be All the information
Computer rigs accessed by anyone,
use complex about the transaction,
algorithms to meaning it’s difficult for any including value, date
validate the new one person to erase or and time, is registered
data created by change the history of the on the blockchain.
the transaction. transaction.

TRANSACTION APPROVED
Once the validation process is
complete, the transaction is
added to the blockchain and
cannot be removed.

STRIKING GOLD PAYMENT
Because the validation SUCCESSFUL
process is so complex, those Now that the records
who do it successfully are have been validated, the
given a reward in Bitcoin. seller can receive their
Bitcoin in exchange for
goods or services.

© Getty

71

TECHNOLOGY

FOLDING ALUMINIUM FRAME COCMOPMOPNAECNTTS
ELECTRIC BIKE The aluminium skeleton Explore the engineering of
TEARDOWN weighs 5.5 kilograms. this space-saving bike
This makes up about a
How It Works takes apart third of the bike’s weight. BATTERY
The bike’s battery capacity is
the Xiaomi MiJia QiCycle SPEED SENSOR 208.8 watt hours; it can be
This sensor detects
WORDS AILSA HARVEY charged in three hours.
forward pedal
C ombining clever mechanical and electrical rotations and
engineering, this folding electric bike aims to make activates the motor.
travelling a more practical process. Boarding a
train with a bike can mean navigating tight aisles
with a bulky metal frame, while packing it into a car can be a
challenge. The QiCycle gets around this by transforming into a
much more compact unit. The seat can be pushed right down,
the handlebars turned upside down and the frame can be
folded in half lengthways.
Folding bikes have been around for over a century, but
electric versions have only emerged in the last two decades
after improvements in battery design. The combination of
human pedal power and electric power makes longer bike rides
achievable for people of nearly any age or fitness level. People
can travel farther and faster with electric bikes, and can choose
when to turn on electrical pedal assistance to suit their needs.
With both electric and folding qualities, the QiCycle makes it
easier to travel with and on the bike.
The QiCycle has small wheels – a common feature with
folding bike models as it limits the width of the bike when
folded. In non-electric bikes, a smaller wheel size would mean
the rider would have to work harder over long distances. On an
electric folding bike, though, each push of the pedal triggers a
motor that propels the rider forward with ease.

The QiCycle has small 40-centimetre wheels ELECTRICAL WIRE
Inside the aluminium casing, this
72
wire connects all the electrical
components of the bike.

DID YOU KNOW? Englishman William Grout is credited with the invention of the first folding bike in 1878

CONTROL UNIT NEXUS THREE- Did
The brain of the bike SPEED HUB you know?
takes energy from the
battery and directs it Gear shifting changes the Electric bike sales
to the motor. It also level of electric assistance are expected to
used when pedaling. More reach 40 million
connects to the electricity increases the
pedals, display and by 2023
power produced by the
other sensors. motor per pedal.

When folded, the wheels come together
and the handlebars fold downwards

BUILT-IN COMPUTER

To set up the Xiaomi MiJia QiCycle’s
computer, you first need to download
the QiCycle smartphone app and scan
the barcode shown on the computer
with your phone camera. This
synchronises details such as the time
to match those on your phone.

As the rider starts to pedal, the
speed of the bike will automatically
display on the computer screen in real
time. Using the arrows on the
computer, the level of electrical
assistance can be altered. The bike
has four modes: enhanced, balanced,
eco and off. Enhanced mode has the
highest power assistance, while the
‘off’ mode uses no electricity. Holding
down the up arrow turns on the bike’s
lights when cycling at night.

The accompanying smartphone
app displays extra information such
as calories burned while riding, the
bike’s battery level as a percentage
and the distance travelled on the
bike. While the built-in computer is
best for monitoring live performance
while riding, the app stores the bike’s
historical data.

FOLDING PEDALS MOTOR Battery level, speed, distance and power © iFixit
The pedals fold inwards The motor has an can be viewed on the bike computer
when compacted to reduce
output of 73
the width of the bike. 180 watts.

SCIENCE

WORDS DAISY DOBRIJEVIC

E arth – the Blue Marble – is our very After all, there are many out there who truly
much spherical home. Humankind believe that this is the case. How would
has been aware of this for more than everyday life function? Would it function at all?
2,000 years, ever since the ancient Here we explore how much of an oddball – or
Greek academic Pythagoras proposed its ‘oddslice’ – Earth would be if it were flat and
spherical shape back in 500 BCE. Eratosthenes whether there are any advantages to living on a
then calculated its circumference around strange disc with the Sun and Moon rotating
240 BCE. But let’s imagine that Earth is flat. overhead like characters on a cosmic carousel.

74

DID YOU KNOW? At the equator, the circumference of Earth is around 25,000 miles

NO MORE AURORAE, 1 Aurora photographed by NASA
AND WE’D ALL astronaut Jack Fischer aboard the
BE ROASTED
International Space Station
On spherical Earth, the swirling molten metal
surrounding our iron core generates electric currents, Hurricane Florence photographed
which in turn create our protective magnetic field, from the ISS
curving around the planet from one pole to the other.
But on a flat Earth, without a solid core generating a 3
magnetic field, we would lose our protective layer,
called the magnetosphere. Charged particles from HURRICANES WOULD BE
the Sun would no longer interact with our A THING OF THE PAST
magnetosphere to create incredible auroral light
shows. Though the absence of aurorae would be the Every year, hurricanes, formed over the North Atlantic and
least of our worries, as Earth would no longer be Northeast Pacific; typhoons, formed over the Northwest
protected from the solar wind. We’d be bombarded Pacific, and cyclones, formed over the South Pacific and
with harmful solar radiation that could strip Earth of Indian Oceans, cause unprecedented damage. In 2017
its protective atmosphere, leaving a barren world akin Hurricane Harvey alone caused $125 billion (£90 billion)
to our neighbour, Mars. worth of damage in the US.

EVERYONE WOULD The devastating rotating nature of these tropical storms
stems from Earth’s Coriolis force, which causes those in
2SHARE THE SAME VIEWS the Northern Hemisphere to rotate clockwise and those in
the Southern Hemisphere to rotate counterclockwise.
OF THE NIGHT SKY However, on a stationary, flat Earth, no Coriolis force
would be generated. No Coriolis means no hurricanes,
On a flat Earth there would be no Northern or Southern Hemisphere, and our typhoons or cyclones. This is also why we don’t see these
night sky would look the same wherever you were in the world. It sure would storms between five degrees north and south of the
make stargazing easier, as you wouldn’t have to travel to a different hemisphere equator, as the Coriolis magnitude is zero at the equator.
to tick off all the targets on your astronomy bucket list. But isn’t that all part of
the fun? If we all shared one view of just one portion of the night sky, we’d miss 75
out on the many discoveries that have been made through our enjoyment of a
360-degree view of the observable universe.

On a flat Earth, we would all have the same view of the sky

© Getty / Alamy / NASA

SCIENCE AR ZONE

ARV ISUA LISING

FLAT EARTH zone SCANHERE

What would a flat world look like?

WE’D HAVE NO

5ATMOSPHERE

With no gravity, flat Earth would no longer
be able to hold onto an atmosphere.
Without our planet’s protective blanket our
skies would turn black, and surface life
would cease to exist.

Water would boil away in the vacuum of
space, and surface temperatures would
plummet. But it isn’t all bad news. Deep
ocean-dwelling organisms that don’t
require oxygen (anaerobic bacteria) and
those that don’t need sunlight to generate
food and energy (chemosynthetic
bacteria) might just survive. After all, such
bacteria have endured long trips in space
and lived to tell the tale.

6SIDEWAYS

RAIN

If gravity pulled towards the centre of the planetary disc, rain,
snow and other forms of precipitation would gravitate towards
the North Pole. Only at the centre of the disc would this weather
behave as we know it on our spherical Earth – falling straight
down. The further from the pole you travelled, the crazier and
more horizontal the precipitation would be. Water would also flow
towards the North Pole, and vast, bulging oceans would collect at
the centre of the planet, leaving practically no water at the edges.

76

DID YOU KNOW? For someone 183 centimetres tall, the horizon is just over three miles away

WE WOULD ALL 7
GET LOST

It’s very likely that satellites wouldn’t exist if
Earth were flat, as they would have trouble
orbiting a flat plane. “There are a number of
satellite missions that society depends on
that just wouldn’t work,” says James Davis,
a geophysicist at Columbia University’s
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory. “I
cannot think of how GPS would work on a
flat Earth.”

We depend on Global Navigation Satellite
Systems (GNSS) for everything from the
GPS services on your phone to travel
information and supermarket stock
management to make sure produce arrives
as fresh and as quickly as possible. And,
critically, emergency services use GPS to
locate callers from their phone signal – so
satellite communications could possibly
save your life.

It’s hard to imagine a world without GPS.
Suffice to say we’d be lost without it. On the
upside, at least on a flat Earth we’d have the
horizontal rain to point us in the right
direction – or north, at least.

SAY GOODBYE TO GRAVITY… SOME JOURNEYS 8
WOULD TAKE FOREVER
4AT LEAST AS WE KNOW IT
Longer travel times would be expected, not just from getting lost © Getty / Alamy / Illustration by Nicholas Forder
On spherical Earth gravity pulls equally from all sides due to a lack of GPS, but also the distances we would need to
no matter where in the world you are. For Earth to travel. According to flat Earth belief, the Arctic lies in the centre of
take the shape of a disc in the first place, gravity must the planet, and Antarctica forms a giant ‘ice wall’ around the
be having no effect. If it did, it would soon pull the edge, which conveniently stops people falling off. But if you’re
planet back into a spheroid. Maybe a flat Earth would unable to fly around the globe, and instead are forced to fly
have no gravity at all. Or perhaps a flat Earth would ‘across’ it, then travel times significantly increase. For example, to
cause gravity to pull to the centre of the disc: the fly from Australia, which is on one side of the flat Earth map, to a
North Pole. The further away from the North Pole, the part of Antarctica that lies on the other side, you’d need to fly
more horizontal the gravitational tug. This would across the whole Arctic, as well as North and South America. You
wreak havoc worldwide, but at least the world long can also forget about trips across Antarctica – which has been
jump record would be easily beaten – as long as you achieved – as it’d be impossible due to that pesky ice wall.
orientated yourself northwards before taking off.

77

SCIENCE

WHAT ARE
ANTIOXIDANTS?
The protective chemicals found in fruit, vegetables

and other foods are lifelines to our health

WORDS JENN HALWEIL & SKYLAR WALTERS

A ntioxidants are substances – body’s cells and tissues. In doing so,
artificial or natural – that antioxidants ward off or slow oxidative stress,
prevent and slow cell and tissue preventing serious illnesses.

damage by attacking free radicals, Oxidative stress has been associated with
illnesses such as cancer, heart disease and
which are molecules that have an unpaired some neurodegenerative diseases, including
Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. The best
electron. Free radicals are natural by- way to increase antioxidants in the body and
maintain a healthy balance of free radicals is
products of our metabolism and are also to incorporate antioxidant-rich foods into
your diet.
generated in response to environmental Generally, the darker
the chocolate, the higher
stressors, such as exposure to pollution,
the antioxidant level
X-rays or cigarette smoke.

In high quantities, free radicals can cause

oxidative stress, which is when the body has

too many free radicals that start to destroy

DNA, fatty tissue and proteins. This is where

antioxidants can save the day. Unlike free HOWSTDAOBTIHLIESSEEOMTOHLEERCSU?LES
Our bodies depend on donations from antioxidants
radicals, antioxidants have extra electrons.

This means that they can pass their surplus

electrons to free radicals, stabilising the free

radicals so they can no longer damage the

PAIRED
ELECTRONS
Paired electrons are
less reactive than
single electrons.

STABLE CELL ANTIOXIDANT

The outermost shell of These molecules have extra

an atom determines its electrons in the outer shell.

reactivity. The second shell They ‘fix’ unstable atoms

holds eight electrons before they cause damage

when complete. to vital molecules.

78

DID YOU KNOW? Blueberries have the highest antioxidant level of all commonly consumed fruit and vegetables

COMMON ANTIOXIDANTS that regulate blood pressure and repairing Nuts and whole grains provide
muscles after exercise.
The term ‘antioxidant’ is often used to describe valuable antioxidants
different foods, but it more accurately describes Carotenoids – a class of compounds found in
a chemical property. Any substance that can fruits and vegetables that are red, orange and WHERE CAN THEY
strip free radicals of their damaging properties is yellow – are also well-known antioxidants. BE FOUND?
considered an antioxidant. Researchers have Antioxidant carotenoids include beta-carotene,
discovered hundreds of substances that fit the lycopene, lutein and zeaxanthin. However, taking Antioxidants are most often in fruits,
antioxidant description, and there are bound to high doses of some carotenoid supplements, vegetables and legumes, although
be thousands more. such as beta-carotene, can increase health risks, they can be found in almost every
such as an increased chance of lung cancer in food group. Fruits contain essential
Vitamin C and vitamin E are two of the most smokers. Other antioxidants include selenium, nutrients such as potassium, fibre and
common antioxidants found in food. In addition allicin, glutathione, flavonoids and curcumin – all folate – nutrients that help maintain
to fighting free radicals, vitamin C supports the found naturally in foods such as turmeric, apples blood pressure, lower cholesterol and
immune system and helps repair bones, teeth and even wine. repair body tissues. Blueberries,
and cartilage. Vitamin E is a powerful tool in cranberries, apples, strawberries and
maintaining eye health, producing hormones more are all filled with antioxidants.
Dried fruits – although often high in
Antioxidant iTshpereasnetinotxiindamnatnayntrheodc, yanin processed sugars – have a higher
supplements are purple and blue plants antioxidant ratio than fresh fruits,
available, but since they lose mass from water. They
natural sources are act as quick antioxidant fuel due to
safer as an excess their high concentration of
can become antioxidants. Carotenoids are found in
damaging red, orange or yellow vegetables.
Many green vegetables such as kale,
broccoli and spinach are excellent
sources of antioxidants, namely
quercetin and lutein.

ELECTRON DONATION UNSTABLE CELL NORMAL CELL
Antioxidants can release electrons When a molecule has MOLECULE ELECTRONS
an unpaired electron,
to pair with free radicals while its highly reactive state BAD MOLECULE
remaining stable themselves.
causes damage to INNER ORBIT
proteins, DNA and OUTER ORBIT
lipids in the body.

Did FREE RADICAL © Getty / Alamy
you know? These are oxygen-
containing molecules
Each antioxidant that have an odd
has a unique number of electrons.
health benefit
79

SCIENCE AR ZONE

THE
OZONE Three oxygen atoms create
the blue gas ozone

LAYER
EXPLAINED Ozone can be found in the
troposphere in the form of smog
Learn about the layer of gas that
POLLUTING THE
EARTH’S SURFACE

When ozone is present down near the

surrounds and protects our planet ground, it can be harmful. Such ozone,
also called smog, is created from

oxides of nitrogen (NOx) – emitted by

WORDS ADAM MANN cars, power plants, industrial boilers,
refineries and chemical plants –

O zone is a pale-blue gas composed of refrigeration and are used in fire suppression and combining with other organic
three bonded oxygen atoms. It foam insulation, among other applications. molecules in the atmosphere.
occurs naturally high up in Earth’s
Scientists were able to find that ozone Breathing in ozone can cause
atmosphere, where it protects the depletion wasn’t just occurring over the South chest pain, throat irritation, coughing
Pole, but also in areas over North America, and damage to lung tissue. It’s most
surface from harmful ultraviolet rays – unless Europe and Asia and much of Africa, Australia dangerous to children and the elderly
and South America. In 1987, countries around and those with pulmonary issues like
dissipated by natural or human phenomena. It’s the world signed the Montreal Protocol on asthma, emphysema and bronchitis. It
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, an is also harmful to vegetation and
also considered a pollutant, with adverse effects affects forests, parks and wilderness

for humans and other creatures when present

closer to the ground. Ozone is a relatively

unstable substance and can be destroyed by international document committing areas. Ground-level ozone can be

molecules containing nitrogen, hydrogen, Did signatories to addressing the ozone reduced by limiting pollutants from
chlorine or bromine, which rip ozone’s you know? hole. People have been trying to cars and factories.
third oxygen atom away from its two phase out CFCs and other harmful
The ozone layer industrial pollutants ever since.
partners. Starting in the 1950s, is 10 to 25 miles
above Earth’s
scientists began measuring ozone surface A GROWING PROBLEM
concentrations above Antarctica,
giving them the first hints that there

was a problem with the ozone layer.

By the 1980s, researchers were able to How the ozone hole has shifted over time

map a yearly hole that opened in the ozone layer

over Antarctica in the spring, though nobody

knew its cause. In 1987, aircraft observations

provided unassailable evidence that the ozone

hole was being created by human-made

pollutants called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

Chlorine and bromine, which are present in

chlorofluorocarbons and related compounds,

are highly destructive to ozone. A single chlorine

atom can rupture more than 100,000 ozone 1980 1986 1991
molecules before it leaves the stratosphere.
CFCs come from industrial processes like

80

DID YOU KNOW? In 2021, the hole in the ozone layer was roughly the size of North America OXYGEN VS OZONE

THE HOLE OVER ANTARCTICA Molecular oxygen (O2) is the normal
The ozone layer is much thinner at the poles oxygen that we breathe, present
throughout the atmosphere. It can be
SEASONAL CHANGES AVERAGE split apart by the Sun’s rays into two
The ozone hole usually THICKNESS single oxygen atoms, and one of these
appears in August and is The average thickness can then recombine with an O2
recovered by November, of the ozone layer is molecule to form O3 – ozone.
when warmer weather 300 Dobson units,
prevents damage. equating to three The gas has a distinctive and sharp
odour, reminiscent of chlorine, and
millimetres. can sometimes be smelled after a
thunderstorm, when lightning zaps
oxygen molecules apart. This
property is what gives ozone its
name, after the Greek word ozein,
meaning ‘to smell’.

The vast majority of ozone sits in
the stratosphere. Ozone makes up
roughly 0.00006 per cent of the
atmosphere, and peak concentrations
of it are present around 20 miles
above the surface in an area known as
the ozone layer. At that height, ozone
absorbs intense ultraviolet radiation
streaming in from the Sun.

220 DOBSON Without the ozone layer, the ground on
UNITS Earth would be sterilised and life as we
know it wouldn’t be possible
Areas of the
ozone layer TOTAL OZONE (Dobson units)
that are less 110 220 330 440 550

than 220
Dobson units
are considered
to be holes.

WIDENING GAP CREATED BY COLD ARzone SCANHERE
In 2021 the The ozone hole occurs
over Antarctica because
ozone hole was low temperatures are
measured at 11.1 needed to form polar
million square miles. stratospheric clouds

– those that form in
the stratosphere.

1997 2002 2008 2012 2020 © Getty / Alamy / AR by Adrian Mann

81



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BRAINDUMP Did
you know?
Amazinganswerstoyourcuriousquestions
Wolves can eat
nine kilograms
of meat in one

sitting

SEND YOUR QUESTIONS TO: HOW IT WORKS MAGAZINE @HOWITWORKSMAG [email protected] HOWITWORKSMAG MEET THE
EXPERTS

Who’s answering your
questions this month?

Jo Why don’t dogs dtiDfhfoeergaesbnhitliathvyuetmoeavunennedmeevrosottlivaoenndds
Elphick act like wolves?

History and Riaz Hood
forensic Humans first formed a relationship with wolves more than 30,000
science years ago. That’s the blink of an eye in normal evolutionary terms,
but selective breeding has sped up the process. Over generations
Andy we’ve chosen the calmest, friendliest dogs, slowly breeding out
Extance the most wolfish behaviours. We’ve changed everything from
where they live to what they eat. Dogs are also dependent on
Chemistry, people, rather than a pack. They lack a wolf’s problem-solving
tech and skills because they don’t need them for survival. VW
science

Andrew
May

Space,
transport
and science

Victoria
Williams

Animals, the
environment
and science

84

Will
computers keep
getting faster?

Marc Nichols

Historically, the main driver for the constant increase in
computer speed has been ‘Moore’s law’, effectively
cramming more and more processing power into a

single microchip. This particular trend will have to stop
eventually, when individual processing elements get
down to atomic scales, but there are other
developments – such as parallel computing, smart
algorithms and even the prospect of quantum
computers – that mean speeds will continue
to increase for the foreseeable
future. AM

CAN PEOPLE
REALLY
‘WHISPER’ TO
ANIMALS?

Elora Mendoza

There’s no evidence that

‘animal whisperers’ have

any sort of psychic or

telepathic abilities.

However, it’s possible to

gauge how some animals

are feeling – and to

communicate with Did
them – using body you know?
language. VW
NASA thinks the

first human will

set foot on Mars

in the 2030s

Emerging technologies like quantum computing will
mean that processing speeds continue to rise

WHY DO Who © Getty / SpaceX
ROCKETS invented the
LAUNCH IN
STAGES? alphabet?

Kaci Sullivan Jess O’Brian

A rocket has to lift its own 4,000 years ago, a group of Semitic miners, who were sent
weight as well as the by the Egyptian elite to look for turquoise, began scratching
payload it carries. This a simple form of writing into the rock walls. Rather than
weight can be reduced by using complex images in the form of hieroglyphics as the
jettisoning stages when Egyptians had done, the Middle Eastern miners created 22
the fuel in them has simple symbols that could be combined in different ways to
been used up. AM represent the words in their language – in other words, a
basic alphabet. JE
Thanks to ancient Semitic miners,
we now have our own alphabet

85

BRAINDUMP

SEND YOUR QUESTIONS TO: HOW IT WORKS MAGAZINE @HOWITWORKSMAG [email protected] HOWITWORKSMAG WHAT IS THE WORLD’S The odour from a test tube of thioacetone WHY DO
SMELLIEST SUBSTANCE? can cause nausea half a mile away SOME STARS
TWINKLE IN
Heather Curran DIFFERENT
COLOURS?
This question isn’t as subjective as it sounds
because scientists can quantify the Abdi Shah
‘smelliness’ of a chemical by how few Stars appear to twinkle
molecules are needed for the human nose to because light from them
detect it. In these terms, a group of sulphur is bent in different
compounds called thiols are way out in front. directions as it passes
In fact, tiny amounts of methanethiol are through the Earth’s
deliberately added to natural gas, which is turbulent atmosphere.
otherwise odourless, so people can detect This bending effect, called
gas leaks. But the smelliest thiol of all is refraction, acts differently
thioacetone, which caused widespread on different colours of
fainting and vomiting when a small amount light, so it can sometimes
was accidentally released in the German city look as if a star is
of Freiburg in 1889. AM changing colour. AM

If you can be HOW MANY
‘underwhelmed’ ATOMS ARE
and ‘overwhelmed’, THERE IN THE
can you simply be UNIVERSE?

‘whelmed’? Max Hall
Scientists have actually
WHY DO I GET Did Dennis Bailey calculated that number:
BLISTERS IN you know? Yes, you can! The word ‘whelm’ is there are between 1078
MY MOUTH? a verb meaning to submerge or and 1082 atoms in the
The best known engulf, and is generally used to universe. That’s ten
Rufus Tobias thiol is ‘rotten egg denote somewhere between quadrillion vigintillion
being underwhelmed and atoms to a hundred
gas’, hydrogen overwhelmed. It originally thousand quadrillion
sulphide referred to boats being capsized, vigintillion atoms. That’s
but today we tend to use it in an insane number, but
A blister can occur on any soft area of the mouth, from the relation to our emotions. JE unbelievably it’s trumped
lip to the oesophagus, and there are many things that cause by the number of possible
them. The most common way to get a blister is through Be careful when you take a bite. You legal and illegal moves in
injury. If you accidentally bite your lip or scratch your cheek could end up with a nasty blister a game of chess, which is
while eating crispy food, you can easily cause a blister to up to 10123. BB
form. They can also appear if the skin inside your mouth is
irritated by strong toothpaste or mouthwash. Some acidic
foods, such as oranges or pineapples, can trigger them,
while others find that they get blisters if they are particularly
stressed or generally feeling poorly. JE

86

Why are
roads

covered in
tarmac, not

cement?
Juliet Phillips

Actually, some roads are made of concrete. How
many varies from place to place, from about one
road in 20 to nearly half. There were 172 miles of
concrete trunk roads in 2019 in the UK. You can
usually tell because they are much noisier than
tarmac. Concrete roads are slightly cheaper to
maintain than tarmac, but driving on them feels
much worse. You hear regular bumps because of
how road builders lay them in sections that don’t
quite fit together perfectly. In the US, concrete
roads sound better because road builders grind

them to smooth them out. AE

Tarmac roads are MOXIE being © Alamy / Getty / NASA
more common lowered into the
than concrete Perseverance rover
ones in the UK prior to its launch

CAN OXYGEN BE SYNTHESISED ON MARS? in July 2020

@iamtheredzone 87
NASA is currently testing the Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization
Experiment (MOXIE) on Mars. It’s designed to produce oxygen from the
Martian atmosphere and works by taking in carbon dioxide, which makes
up 96 per cent of the planet’s gas, then splitting it electrochemically to
create breathable oxygen and propellant for rockets and vehicles.
However, this is just a stepping stone to a far-flung goal of having a human
habitat on Mars. Martian habitats are still a huge technological leap to a
self-sufficient Martian colony on a terraformed planet. This kind of
advanced technology is several generations away from when we think the
first human will set foot on Mars. BB

BRAINDUMP

SEND YOUR QUESTIONS TO: HOW IT WORKS MAGAZINE @HOWITWORKSMAG [email protected] HOWITWORKSMAG Cdhisiamgpresewmilel tnatkweiathcolotsheerfrgieronudp’smsiedme ibnears

Do any
other
animals
have
friends?

Connie Tierney
Lots of species are social and hang out in groups,
but that doesn’t necessarily mean they’re pals.
Relationships between animals are often
transactional; groups form because there’s
safety in numbers, or because it’s more efficient
to hunt or collect food together. Scientists think
it takes a lot of brainpower to form and maintain
‘human-like’ friendships based on affection.
Species they think are capable of this type of
relationship include primates, elephants,
camelids (like camels and alpacas), cetaceans
(like whales and dolphins), bats, bears, parrots
and members of the horse family. VW

88

WHAT WAS IS THERE A GAS THAT Helium raises pitch Did
THE FIRST DOES THE OPPOSITE you know?
INTERNET TO HELIUM IF YOU
SEARCH INHALE IT? Hydrogen is
ENGINE? the lightest gas
Bryan Cleveland
Millie Hayward and element
Helium makes your voice sound
In 1990, a tool called squeaky when you breathe it in
Archie helped to search because it’s less dense than air –
internet sites for files. the same reason helium balloons
JumpStation was the first float. That changes how your throat
world wide web search resonates when you speak. Gases
engine that behaved like denser than air, such as sulphur
modern search engines, hexafluoride, instead change your
launching in 1993. AE throat’s resonance to make your
voice deeper. AE

WHY DON’T YOU ‘Gushers’ are rare today
SEE OIL ‘GUSHING’
OUT OF OIL WELLS
ANYMORE?

Annabel Cartwright

An oil well has a blowout, or
‘gushes’, when crude oil is
accidentally released too
quickly. Modern wells are
equipped with pressure release
systems which make incidents
far less likely to occur. JE

WHAT ARE Clothes smell damp because of chemicals What is © Getty / alamy / wiki: Ecoplug Sweden
THE PLASTIC released by fabric-eating bacteria the ‘damp’
PLUGS YOU smell you
SOMETIMES sometimes
SEE IN TREE
STUMPS get on
IN PARKS? clothes?

Leonard Parrish Akeem Guest

They contain a herbicide It comes from chemicals produced by bacteria
called glyphosate, which and fungi in your clothes. There are many such
travels through the stump chemicals, but common ones are ammonia,
to the roots. It prevents hydrogen sulphide and short-chain fatty acids.
new growth – useful for Bacteria and fungi thrive in damp, warm places,
invasive species – and growing and multiplying, forming new bacteria.
causes the stump to rot They even eat the material in your clothes. The
away. Releasing the smell is what the bacteria and fungi release after
chemical directly into munching on damp fabric, be it drying laundry,
the stump minimises or clothes that have gotten wet. AE
the risk of it harming
wildlife or getting into 89
waterways. VW

THE LIBRARY

Thelatestbookreleasesforcuriousminds

THE SPACE fiction: we’ve already landed a probe on a The Space Business
BUSINESS speeding comet and have another spacecraft is easy to read,
targeting giant space rocks in the asteroid belt at detailed and
FROM HOTELS IN ORBIT the time of writing. extremely
well-researched
TO MINING THE MOON The point that science writer and astronomer
Dr Andrew May makes in The Space Business is From extraterrestrial tourism, to heavy
AUTHOR ANDREW MAY that in just the last couple of decades, the private industries like lunar mining for rare minerals and
PUBLISHER ICON BOOKS space industry has really taken off. It has rocket fuel, or harnessing the power of the Sun
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Now that Bezos, Musk and Branson now the door is open to further private space don’t forget the booming private industry
have each put billions into private space ventures. Businesses can count the financial risk surrounding those lucrative government space
ventures, sending wealthy tourists to in the millions of dollars even for a small project, agency contacts.
the Kármán line in bespoke space planes and but the universe is their oyster. May walks the
supplying NASA with rockets, the future’s pretty reader through the science of a myriad of space As an established author with several
clear to the rest of us Earth-bound mortals. industries, many of which are analogous to what non-fiction books to his name and a regular
We can all imagine a future where we, as a we have on Earth. contributor to How It Works, this is May’s area
spacefaring species, will be able to jump on a of expertise. The Space Business is easy to
sightseeing tour around Mars, or stay in a read, detailed and extremely well-researched
lunar resort with the family and don a spacesuit, – and fascinating to boot. It’s a no-brainer for
exiting the dome habitat and visiting a UNESCO anyone who enjoys the odd Brian Cox
space heritage site like the 1969 Apollo 11 landing documentary, and really for anyone who’s
zone in the Sea of Tranquillity. interested in space, technology or business.
Or, if that’s still too science fiction for you to
swallow, low-orbit trips around Earth that are
actually affordable to the average earner. Maybe
some remote asteroid mining – and before you
roll your eyes, that prospect is far from science

RSPB NATURE GUIDE:
WILDLIFE
wildlife to discover and identify within the
TAKE A WALK ON pages of this guide. Its bitesize format and
THE WILD SIDE vibrant illustrations make this a great
introduction to wildlife for any budding
AUTHOR CATHERINE BRERETON ecologist. This book is also a great
ILLUSTRATOR KATE MCLELLAND transitional guide for a younger audience
PUBLISHER BLOOMSBURY before they grow up and start using the
PRICE £8.99 / $15.35 RSPB’s classic, more detailed field guides.
RELEASE OUT NOW
Along with being a useful guide to the wild
From woodlice and wildflowers to outdoors, this book also includes species
polecats and pike, this field guide that you might find in your back garden and
covers all kinds of potential British offers tips on how you can best help to
wild encounters. There are more than 195 protect them. For example, cutting
different animals, plants and other forms of hedgehog holes in your fence allows these
small mammals to travel from garden to
garden safely.

90

BUGS FOR
BREAKFAST
HOW EATING INSECTS COULD
HELP SAVE THE PLANET

AUTHOR MARY BOONE Boone serves up an alternative view on OCEANARIUM
PUBLISHER CHICAGO REVIEW PRESS eating insects and reveals their nutritional
PRICE £13.99 / $14.99 value, their culinary prevalence around WELCOME TO THE
RELEASE OUT NOW the world and how they may offer a
sustainable source of food – you might be AQUATIC MUSEUM
Sustainability and the human surprised to discover the amount of
impact on the environment have insect content that’s already allowed in AUTHOR LOVEDAY TRINICK
never before been so heavily packaged food. This book challenges why ILLUSTRATOR TEAGAN WHITE
discussed among politicians, business we find insects so unappetising. Although PUBLISHER BIG PICTURE PRESS
moguls and the general public. An you might not be convinced to switch out PRICE £25.00 / £37.99
example of these damaging impacts is rump steaks for roasted crickets, it will RELEASE OUT NOW
our eating habits and the negative effects certainly open the reader’s mind to a
of food production and agriculture. But more environmentally friendly potential For anyone who loves the
could farming insects offer a solution? world hidden under the sea,
Oceanarium is the book for
ALBERT you. Designed as a virtual museum,
EINSTEIN there are eight sections to explore:
plankton, cnidaria, molluscs and
LITTLE PEOPLE, BIG echinoderms, arthropods, fish,
DREAMS mammals, birds and reptiles.
You will also learn about the
AUTHOR MARIA ISABEL SANCHEZ VEGARA importance of the ocean as a
ILLUSTRATOR JEAN CLAUDE resource to humans. From the life the
PUBLISHER FRANCES LINCOLN CHILDREN’S ocean supports at the surface to the
PRICE £9.99 / $15.99 multitude of ecosystems in the deepest
RELEASE OUT NOW reaches, you are welcomed in to
explore this paper museum. Whichever
This is the story of a quiet boy with a As Vegara takes the reader smoothly through section you stumble upon as you
passion for science and maths. the most notable events of Einstein’s life, she open up this book, the diverse shapes
When he was just a teenager, explains some of the scientist’s most complex and details of ocean life are a marvel
Einstein wrote his first scientific paper, going theories in a way that young readers can as seen through the informative
on to become one of the world’s most famous and understand. From his successes and awards to annotated illustrations.
inspirational scientists. As the 69th book in the facing wartime discrimination and his drive for Author and marine biologist Trinick
‘Little People, Big Dreams’ series, this biography acceptance and peace, this version of Einstein’s and illustrator White combine their
dissects Einstein’s life and turns it into an life teaches children positive takeaway lessons. It talents to focus on the elaborate details
illustrated tale. It’s written for children of primary inspires young readers to be curious about the of nature. Each sentence is carefully
school age, who benefit from picture books. While world around them while always considering the worded to incorporate a mesmerising
the events of the story are faster paced than the bigger picture. fact or stat, with a 50/50 split of
average children’s book – in order to pack in the information and imagery beautifully
main events of a fascinating life – the warm complementing each other. It’s a
illustrations that cover every page provide the wonderful substitute for a visit to a
perfect intervals. Claude captures Einstein’s iconic real oceanarium.
look and expressions from childhood through to
old age, with each chapter of his life cleverly 91
illustrated in captivating detail.

BRAIN GYM

Giveyourbrainapuzzleworkout

:RUGbVHDUFK

Find the following words

Sudoku WEBB CAMEL GRAVITY
TELESCOPE POISON POLLUTED
Complete the grid so that each KNIGHTS MAYAN BATH
row, column and 3x3 box CRYPTO FLAT RIG
contains the numbers 1 to 9
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97 2 5 S QWE B B C RY I MKN I L
3 47 T E F E SCAERVOPURL

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6 459287 V I MKNONC LMO E R I D
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1 8 69 KN E G H F WUMA I O N Y T
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17 2 48 ONXUBAH T CRY P T I N
67 KENDO F LAT CHAZ T E

9 26 5
2 18

6 15
3 92 7 4

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6 43 28 LV LW"
76
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HARD the world’s
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2 81

387 16
2

2 51 3
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98 2 A
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92

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QUESTIONS
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$QVZHUV Find the solutions to last issue’s puzzle pages Q1 :KLFK RI WKHVH LV WKH PRVW
SRWHQW JUHHQKRXVH JDV"
Q1 ROSWELL, NEW MEXICO :KDW 6SRW WKH GLIIHUHQFH
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To hold water in
As defence against insects
To reflect sunlight
To deflect woodcutter axes

4 :KLFK RI WKHVH LV WKH PRVW
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93

HOW TO… KIT LIST

Practicalprojectstotryathome Two water bottles
Two stools or chairs
CUT ICE WITH A WIRE 45 centimetres of wire

Watch as an ice cube divides under pressure before healing itself Tray
Felt
1 GATHER YOUR EQUIPMENT Ice cube
For this experiment, make sure that your
SEND YOUR IDEAS TO: HOW IT WORKS MAGAZINE @HOWITWORKSMAG [email protected] HOWITWORKSMAG bottles are the same size and material. Fill
them both up with water to make them heavy.

2 MAKE YOUR
WEIGHT

Cut your wire so that

you have a piece about

45 centimetres long.

Twist and tie one end

tightly around the neck

of one bottle and the

other around the

second bottle.

3 BUILD A BRIDGE 4 POSITION THE CUBE
Place the stools Cover the tray with a piece
about 15 centimetres away of felt to catch any melted water.
from one another on a flat Take an ice cube from the freezer
surface. Then balance the and place it on top of the felt.
tray face down across the
gap between them.

5 BALANCE 6 OPTIMAL
AND HANG POSITIONING

Hold the two weights If you want to watch the

either side of the tray. progress of the wire as it

Lower them so that makes its way through the

they hang, with the cube, place the wire further

wire crossing the top towards one side of the ice

of the ice cube. – but not at the very edge.

94

DON’T DENFBEYAXLGTARISNASCVIUINTEGYFWOIRTKHS
DO IT
ALONE!

If you’re under 16, make
sure you have an adult

with you

7 SEE THE SLICE SUMMARY
Viewing the cube from
the side, you can watch as The ice cube melts where the wire
the wire cuts through the ice presses down on it due to the applied
and the bottles hang lower. pressure. As the wire is pulled
downwards by the weight of the water
bottles, it creates localised pressure
and localised melting. When this
pressure is removed, after the wire
has passed below the melted parts of
the ice cube, it refreezes in a process
called regelation. This happens
because only a small section has been
melted into denser water. When the
pressure is gone, the temperature of
the surrounding ice makes the water
freeze back into its solid form.

In nature, this melting process can
be observed in glaciers. Just as the
weight of the bottles increases the
pressure on the ice cube, glacial ice
experiences the highest pressures at
the bottom of the block. This is due to
the accumulative weight of the ice
above. As the bottom of glaciers melt
under pressure, the entire block of ice
can become mobile and slide across
the surface below.

8 HEALING Had a go? © Illustrations by Ed Crooks
POWERS Let us know!

In the time it takes If you’ve tried out any of
our experiments – or
for the wire to pass
conducted some of your
fully through the ice own – let us know! Share
your photos or videos with
cube, the ice at the
us on social media.
top will freeze back
DISCLAIMER
together again. Neither Future Publishing nor its employees can accept any liability for any adverse
effects experienced during the course of carrying out these projects or at any time after.
Always take care when handling potentially hazardous equipment or when working with

electronics, and follow the manufacturer’s instructions.

95

SEND YOUR QUESTIONS OR COMMENTS TO: HOW IT WORKS MAGAZINE @HOWITWORKSMAG [email protected] HOWITWORKSMAG INBOX WIN! ZIP LINE
TESTING
Speakyourmind AN AMAZING PRIZE FOR
LETTER OF THE MONTH! Dear HIW,
NIGHT-TIME I went on a zip line for the
TALKING THE SPACE first time, which was so
BUSINESS scary but amazing. I had
Dear HIW, never been on one before,
Why do I sleep talk? 20th-century space exploration may have but my friend has been on
P.S. I read my first HIW magazine at seven belonged to state-funded giants like NASA, a few. It made me wonder
years old. I love HIW. but with hotels in orbit to mining the Moon, when the first zip lines
Jason Thomas in Australia (11 years old) were made. Are they
today private enterprise is setting the relatively new?
template for the future Annabel Sword

Sleep talking is common in people Zip lines have been
used through history
of all ages, though it seems to LMEoTfOtTNhEeTRH About five per cent of adults sleep talk as a method of
affect fewer adults than transport across
children. Doctors don’t know Scientists have discovered that mountainous areas, for
too much about the causes of sleep talking can take place in example in the Nujiang
sleep talking, but it can be more all stages of sleep. Valley of China. This
likely to occur when you’re remote area once had
many zip lines that
excited or worried. It can range Regular sleep talking may be people used to cross
its rivers. Many have
from full conversational speech to genetic, but if it only occurs as a now been replaced with
bridges as safer, more
mumbling and nonsensical words. Most of one-off, this could be caused by other permanent methods.

the time, episodes will only last for 30 factors. These include sickness, stress The first zip line as a
form of entertainment
seconds or less. While talking in your and sleep deprivation. Making sure you dates back to 1739, but
modern zip lines rose
sleep can be linked to the dreams you are take time to relax before bed can reduce in popularity in the
1970s. Biologists used
having, this isn’t always the case. your chances of chatting. them as tools to
suspend themselves
CAFFEINE IMMUNITY above jungle canopies
and research the
Dear HIW, gene that makes them Some people build up environment around
I used to drink huge amounts of hyposensitive to caffeine. a tolerance to caffeine them, but the design
tea and coffee. It never stopped This means that they can was soon picked up by
me sleeping though. I used to drink lots of tea and entrepreneurs and
sleep like a log with it. How did coffee, like yourself, with converted to rides for
my body do it? little effect. adrenaline seekers.
Stephen Conn
It takes around 45 minutes In the US there are over 400
Caffeine affects each person for your body to absorb the commercial zip lines
differently. For some, it can caffeine in a cup of coffee.
be frustrating when a cup of Caffeine molecules bind to
coffee keeps them up all receptors on the ends of
night, while others miss the nerve cells in the brain to
boost of energy that others block the neurotransmitter
experience. If caffeine adenosine. Adenosine
doesn’t create stimulating usually encourages sleep,
effects, this may be due to but caffeine prevents this. In
your genetics. Around ten your case, these receptors
per cent of people carry a may be less effective at
binding to the caffeine.

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Dear HIW, Staff Writer ³ƬȒɎɎ (ɖɎˡƺǼƳ
What is the smallest country in the world and you: Which of the Staff Writer Ailsa Harvey
how many people live there? world’s famous
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Andrew May, Andy Extance, Jo Elphick, Mark Smith, Victoria
Although its name has the word ‘city’ in it, landmarks do you Williams, Adam Mann, Joanna Wendel, Martyn Conterio,
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landmass, is the Vatican City. Landlocked
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it, this country is home to 800 people. The Getty, ESO, ESA, NASA
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is hot enough to kill a
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