Orientalist Aesthetics_ Art, Colonialism, and French North Africa, 1880-1930 ( PDFDrive )

early Madame Stora in Algerian Costume, his 1875 copy of Delacroix’s Jewish Wedding, a palm-
studded Jardin d’Essai, and several figures from the 1881–82 voyages, as well as two monumental
paintings of Oriental dancers produced in 1909 for the industrialist Maurice Gangnat. The general
revisionist flavor of Bernheim’s exhibit continued, as it had at the National Colonial Exposition of
Marseille in 1906, with the inclusion of historically questionable but visually ravishing works by
Cézanne (Le nègre Scipione), Corot (Femme orientale), Degas (Cotton Traders in New Orleans), Manet
(the Louvre Odalisque, in Chinese ink), and Rodin (with his 1906 drawings of the Cambodian dancers
of King Sisowath). Gauguin was also there in force, as we shall see.

Lyautey’s administration had assigned responsibility for the contemporary colonial arts at the Palace
of Fine Arts to the twin exhibiting societies, the Society of French Orientalist Painters and the Colo-
nial Society of French Artists (or Coloniale). That assignment proves the continuing relevance of the
Orientalist Painters, with which much of the first half of this book is concerned. The society’s first
president, Léonce Bénédite, the leading theoretician and historian of the movement as well as its most
active promoter in the museums, had died in 1925. The society’s own exhibitions had been sporadic
since 1920, but its new president, Baron Arthur de Chassériau, made sure its leading members were
well represented in 1931. By then, however, the Coloniale was the preponderant force, with some three
hundred members on its books, and with Bernheim de Villers as its influential treasurer.

The diet of contemporary painting and sculpture selected by these societies for the Palace of Fine
Arts includes the usual group of academic Orientalists, but also School of Algiers artists, discussed
in earlier chapters, who had become prominent in the 1920s: Cauvy, the Carrés, Dufresne, Suréda,
and Migonney, as well as numerous recipients of Villa Abd-el-Tif and other scholarships in the 1920s.
Among these Jeanne Thil, an Ecole-trained cubist of considerable originality, and Paul-Elie Dubois,
the talented figure painter of the Touareg of the Hoggar Plateau in remote southern Algeria, were
given a variety of decorative and didactic commissions in other pavilions. Indigenous Algerian artists
were present, with two landscapes by Lyautey’s favorite, Azouaou Mammeri, as well as two crys-
talline miniatures by Mohammed Racim and books he had decorated (illustrated by Dinet and Léon
Carré) for the publisher Piazza. And here the first generation of indigenous painters, sculptors, and
lacquer artists trained at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts at Hanoi (established by the French in 1925) was
introduced—but exhibited primarily in the Indochinese pavilion, not the Palace of Fine Arts.4

Notable by his absence, however, was Henri Matisse, whom one might reasonably expect to have
been present. Matisse ’s Moroccan works had been ignored by the colonial art establishment before
the 1920s, presumably because they were too radical visually and had also been quickly dispersed
among private collections (see Chapter 7). It is nevertheless significant that when a Matisse was finally
purchased for the Luxembourg Museum in 1923, it had an Orientalizing subject, and the purchaser
was Léonce Bénédite himself.5 The Odalisque aux culottes rouges (Odalisque in Red Trousers) had ex-
emplified Matisse ’s version of the “return-to-order” visual language that few artists escaped after

278 Conclusion

the 1914–18 war. When Matisse used a language of comparatively meticulous visual description, it
was indeed a “return” after years of experiment in non-normative color, the simplifying draftsman-
ship of expressive distortion, and decorative abstraction. The decorative remains crucial in Matisse ’s
odalisques of the 1920s, but his realism is heightened by a new sense of tangible, rational space; the
use of local color; and a mellifluous descriptive brushwork.

That visual language cemented Matisse ’s popularity with a much broader art public than previ-
ously. Just as Picasso’s “neoclassical” nudes of the early 1920s reassured a generation skeptical of his
cubist experiments (a skepticism shared by two French Algerian aficionados of Orientalism, Victor
Barrucand and Jean Alazard), so Matisse ’s Nice-period pictures brought him closer to mainstream
aesthetics. Matisse ’s run-of-the-mill odalisques of the twenties di¤er little (apart from his virtuosity
and sometimes bizarre palette) from versions of that stock subject by solid School of Algiers painters
like Jean Bouchaud and Marius de Buzon. But Matisse ’s style around 1920 was inspired by Gustave
Courbet, Renoir, and Ingres, whereas Bouchaud and de Buzon are academic painters touched by late
impressionism. Like most Orientalist and colonial artists, they had never had a fauve or cubist bap-
tism of fire: there never was a “return” to the academic order of their work, for it was a feature they
had never abandoned. Matisse ’s backtracking in the twenties was exceptional: in his long career, it
was a temporary swerve away from decades of pictorial research, which began again with his mu-
rals for the Barnes Foundation after 1930.

In the aftermath of Matisse ’s three highly successful one-man retrospectives of 1930 and 1931 (the
last was at the Galerie Georges Petit), it is all the more surprising that the Palace of Fine Arts at Vin-
cennes lacked even one picture by this distinguished leader of French art. There were numerous oda-
lisques in French collections (including that of the prominent dealer Paul Guillaume) that exemplified
Matisse ’s new quietism. The electrifying sensations of the early Moroccan Triptych or the Riffian and
Moroccan Café of 1912–13 remained in the obscurity of Soviet museums (which had impounded Ivan
Morosov’s and Sergei Shchukin’s collections in 1917). Surely Senator Henri Bérenger (fine arts com-
missioner at Vincennes) could have borrowed the two Tangier pictures from the late Marcel Sem-
bat’s collection at the Grenoble museum. That neither he nor the curators from the two Orientalist
exhibition societies did confirms that even a mild version of fauvist graphic dissolution and pleni-
tude of color in 1931 was o¤ the agenda for official views of Orientalism. The nearest comparable
works, by Charles Dufresne, Raoul Dufy, Maurice Denis, and René Piot, were shown, however, with
equanimity.

The relationship between progressive and mainstream versions of the exotic was played out at
Vincennes during a dispute about the relative status of Paul Gauguin and Etienne Dinet. That dis-
pute encapsulates historical constructions of French exoticism, suggesting how pro-modernist schol-
arship, in favoring an artist like Gauguin, has caricatured the breadth of the Orientalist movement.
This book serves in part to redress that imbalance.

Conclusion 279

The behind-the-scenes dispute reveals how colonial museology could align conservative criticism
with the North African colonial lobby, against a more moderate metropolitan criticism that supported
the modernist canon. Nineteen-thirty-one was the second year in which Paul Gauguin was included
in a retrospective of the Orientalist movement. In Chapter 4, I briefly consider Gauguin’s “nativist”
painting from Tahiti and the Marquesas in apposition to the comparable venture of Etienne Dinet,
who lived as a religious convert among the Berbers of Bou-Saâda. Dinet was not actually excluded
from the Vincennes retrospective: three large works from French collections were selected by his sis-
ter. He was slighted rather by placement, especially in comparison with Gauguin: Bernheim, expanding
his gesture of 1906 at Marseille, assembled thirteen Gauguin canvases drawn from private collec-
tions and one from the Louvre. He added woodcuts and a carved head—eighteen works in all. The
largest of them—the monumental Who Are We? Where Do We Come From? Where Are We Going?—
was shipped from the Stang collection of Oslo.6

The day following the gala opening at the Museum of the Colonies, the prominent conservative
critic Camille Mauclair wrote to Marshal Lyautey, protesting in “astonishment and chagrin” the place-
ment of Dinet. His three paintings, according to Mauclair (a longtime supporter of the artist), were
“relegated to the staircases and isolated when highly questionable works [i.e. Gauguin’s] were fa-
vored.” Mauclair argued that Dinet, “knowing and expressing to the full the Arab soul, . . . merits
better.” Recalling that this was Lyautey’s own view, Mauclair called on him to improve the place-
ment of the late Nasr’Edine Dinet.7

Lyautey acted on the complaint, forwarding the letter to the exhibition organizers and engender-
ing a fractious reply from Bernheim, who protested that he was being asked “to do the impossible.”
Dinet’s large canvases “were unable to find a place among all these great masterpieces,” he said, nam-
ing Delacroix and Gauguin. “If we agreed to include any Dinets in our retrospective,” Bernheim
continued, “it was at the request of M. Camille Mauclair, to whom we have already made this first
concession.”8 Ultimately, Bernheim shifted one Dinet to a better position, but Jeanne Dinet Rollince’s
vehement protest to the director of fine arts continued the fray. (It no doubt helped that Jeanne Dinet
Rollince was married to a French general.)9

Ultimately a separate retrospective for the deceased Orientalist was organized for the colonial ex-
position, housed in the Palace of Fine Arts. Lyautey’s attendance at the opening, along with that of
French President Gaston Doumergue himself, “gave rise to a touching ceremony in the presence of
Mme Dinet Rollince, the sister of the artist.”10 The press welcomed the exhibition of sixty canvases,
the veteran Arsène Alexandre locating the “genius” of this “perfect artist,” “a ‘colonial’ in the very
best sense of the word,” precisely in the profundity of his participation in indigenous life: “This du-
ality made of him a personality full of gentleness, of gravity and elevation, and it gave an accent of
truth to his pictures, whose delicate and scrupulous métier ensures that they will last.”11

But Dinet’s works, rather than last, were relegated by Euro-American art scholarship and mu-

280 Conclusion

seum practice to the dustbin of history for the next sixty years. The 1931 exhibition confirmed Gau-
guin as the model for measuring French exoticism: one of limited visual experimentation in a pre-
cubist avant-garde. The mass of literature on Gauguin, Delacroix, and (more recently) Matisse as
traveler painters demonstrates that the model still holds. This book, however, moves away from the
paradigm (while still devoting chapters to the likes of Renoir and Matisse). It is the mass of less dis-
tinguished artists who most accurately characterize Orientalism as a cultural phenomenon; they are
the ones who must be reintroduced into art history. That is why Dinet is an iconic figure. This is not
in virtue of his aesthetics, which play directly into the hands of a cultural conservative like Mauclair.
Dinet’s rainbow-palette realism has just enough color to seem modern to a Mauclair or an Alexan-
dre, and more than enough tangibility to satisfy their memories of the French school and the return-
to-order agenda of the 1920s. Once again, it was an order Dinet had never left. Rather, his life and
the singular character of his subjects make him important. He mixes an unexampled concern for ethno-
graphic detail with a political sympathy in which he states, more explicitly and unambiguously than
Gauguin or Matisse, his admiration for—and partial identification with—the Other.

Dinet is the product par excellence of the colonial cultural network. For someone interested in
mapping that network, as I have mapped it in this book, it is revealing to follow the tracks of a per-
son who moved smoothly between colonial and metropolitan worlds, crisscrossing the Mediterranean,
acting as liaison with curator-writers like Bénédite, indigenous artists like Racim, storytellers like
Sliman ben Ibrahim, even governors-general like Violette. The case of Gauguin, who ended up flee-
ing and fighting the colonial authority in the Marquesas, is fascinating because it rubbed both against
and with the colonial grain. Renoir and Matisse were peintres d’escale, who scarcely engaged with
that authority or its politics and moved with relative ease along lines largely determined by the tourism
of the day.

Dinet, on the contrary, sympathetic to the Algerians but understanding officialdom, worked with
colonial authority. He furthered indigenous interests with more tangible success during his life, and
he was posthumously appointed the quasi-official artist of independent Algeria. The imponderable,
however, is this: that still earlier than he, Gauguin (with respect to Oceanian sculpture) and then Ma-
tisse (with respect to Islamic decorative art and African sculpture) promoted the taste for those arti-
facts as art. In particular, Matisse ’s assimilation of such arts into his own painting and sculpture, in
heterogeneous aesthetic solutions that have proved enormously popular, has promoted and furthered
those non-Western arts to a bourgeois Western audience. Hence his continuing relevance to the his-
tory of cross-cultural exchanges, quite apart from the specific interest of the case studies in Orien-
talism that Matisse ’s ventures in Biskra and Tangier richly provide.

Conclusion 281



Notes

Introduction tion of Culture (London and New York: Rout-
ledge, 1994).
1. See for example texts like Elisabeth Cazenave, 5. Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism’s Culture: An-
La Villa Abd-el-Tif: Un demi-siècle de vie thropology, Travel, and Government (Cam-
artistique en Algérie, 1907–1962 (Paris: Asso- bridge: Polity Press, 1994), 60.
ciation Abd-el-Tif, 1998); and Visions de l’Al- 6. Ary Renan, “La peinture orientaliste,” Gazette
gérie heureuse, ed. David Darmon et al. for des Beaux-Arts, 3d ser., 11 (January 1894): 43.
the Cercle algérianiste, exh. cat. (Versailles: Unless otherwise stated, all translations in this
Editions Galion, 1992). book are my own.
7. Gwendolyn Wright, The Politics of Design in
2. See my “Post-colonial Taste? Non-Western French Colonial Urbanism (Chicago: Univer-
Markets for Orientalist Painting,” in Roger sity of Chicago Press, 1991).
Benjamin, ed., Orientalism: Delacroix to Klee,
exh. cat. (Sydney: The Art Gallery of New Chapter One
South Wales, distributed by Thames and Hud-
son, 1997), 32–40. 1. See Charles Baudelaire, Les fleurs du mal, ed.
Antoine Adam (Paris: Garnier Frères, 1961),
3. I have in mind two texts of the 1980s, Linda nos. 22, 23, 53. Baudelaire had made a six-
Nochlin’s deservedly influential essay “The month voyage as a teenager to the island of
Imaginary Orient,” Art in America 71, no. 5 Réunion o¤ the Madagascar coast; as an adult
(May 1983): 118–31, 187–91; and Rana Kab- he seldom left the city of Paris.
bani’s Europe’s Myths of Orient (London: Pan-
dora, 1986); the Edward Said text is Oriental-
ism (1978; London: Penguin, 1995), with an
afterword.

4. See the essays in Homi K. Bhabha, The Loca-

283

2. Claudine Lacoste-Veysseyre, La critique d’art 3 vols. (Paris: Collection du centenaire de
de Théophile Gautier (Montpellier: Université l’Algérie/Plon, 1929), 1: plate CCCIX.
Paul Valéry, 1985), n.p. [1]. Gautier’s critical 11. For discussions linking this Fromentin to the
production over four decades, covering later avant-garde, see Gary Tinterow and
painting, sculpture, architecture, drama, and Henri Loyrette, The Origins of Impression-
music, was “astonishingly large, even granted ism, exh. cat. (New York: Metropolitan Mu-
his well-known facility,” as Michael Cli¤ord seum of Art, 1994), 386–88; and Benjamin,
Spencer writes in The Art Criticism of Théo- ed., Orientalism: Delacroix to Klee, 72.
phile Gautier (Geneva: Droz, 1969), 2. Dur- 12. Meyer Schapiro, “Fromentin as a Critic,”
ing the Second Empire a positive review Partisan Review 16, no. 1 (January 1949): 50.
from Gautier could launch a career. 13. Un été dans le Sahara was published in in-
stallments in 1854 and as a volume in 1857;
3. Gautier, “Exposition de 1859,” in Voyage en Une année dans le Sahel was published in in-
Algérie, ed. Denise Brahimi (Paris: La Boîte stallments in 1858 and as a volume in 1859;
à documents, 1989), 196. both were republished with a preface by
Fromentin in 1874; see Eugène Fromentin,
4. See Said, Orientalism, 100. Oeuvres complètes, ed. Guy Sagnes (Paris:
5. Gautier, “Salon de 1849,” in Voyage en Al- Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, Gallimard, 1984),
13–183 and 187–365.
gérie, 183. 14. Théophile Gautier, “ ‘Un été dans le Sahara,’
6. For details, see Zeyneb Çelik, Urban Forms and par Eugène Fromentin,” L’Artiste (1 March
1857), in Voyage en Algérie, 150.
Colonial Confrontations: Algiers under French 15. On Salzmann, see Abigail Solomon-Godeau,
Rule (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University “A Photographer in Jerusalem, 1855: Au-
of California Press, 1998), chap. 1. guste Salzmann and His Times,” October,
7. “It was here that Bab-Azoun stood in former no. 18 (fall 1981): 90–106.
time, with its jagged battlements, its 16. Elisabeth Cardonne, introduction to Eugène
machicolations, its barbicans, its mouchara- Fromentin, Une année dans le Sahel, ed. Car-
biehs, its hooks for planting the heads or im- donne (Paris: Flammarion, 1991), 10, 11–12.
paling the bodies of victims. . . . One cannot 17. Fromentin, Sahel, in Oeuvres complètes,
too strongly deplore these aimless, useless 320–21.
demolitions, which deprive a city of its phys- 18. See Erwin Panofsky, Idea: A Concept in Art
iognomy” (Théophile Gautier, “Alger extra- Theory (1924), trans. Joseph J. S. Peake (New
muros” [1846], in Voyage en Algérie, 65). York: Harper and Row, 1968), esp. chap. 6.
8. Gautier, “Exposition de 1859,” in Voyage en 19. Sahel, in Oeuvres complètes, 322.
Algérie, 193. 20. Ibid., 321.
9. Bandelaire wrote of Vernet’s vast Battle of Isly 21. Gautier, “Salon de 1849,” in Voyage en Al-
(Bataille d’Isly): “I hate an art which is im- gérie, 176.
provised to the roll of the drum, I hate can- 22. See Han F. Vermeulen, “Origins and Insti-
vases splashed over at the gallop, I hate paint- tutionalization of Ethnography and Ethnol-
ing manufactured to the sound of pistol-shots, ogy in Europe and the USA, 1771–1845,” in
since I hate the army, the police-force— Fieldwork and Footnotes: Studies in the History
everything, in fact, that trains its arms in a of European Anthropology, ed. Vermeulen
peaceful place” (Baudelaire, “The Salon of and Arturo Alvarez Roldan (London and
1846,” in Art in Paris, 1845–1862: Salons and New York: Routledge, 1995), 43–44.
Other Exhibitions, trans. and ed. Jonathan
Mayne (Oxford: Phaidon, 1965), 185.
10. See Gabriel Esquer, Iconographie historique de
l’Algérie depuis le XVIe siècle jusqu’en 1871,

284 Notes to Pages 12–19

23. As quoted in ibid., 50. pasie and Delacroix’s Massacres of Chios,”
24. Emile Galichon, “M. Gérôme, peintre ethno- Art History 22, no. 5 (December 1999): 676–
704.
graphe,” Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 1st ser., 24, 35. Fromentin, Sahel, in Oeuvres complètes, 199–
no. 2 (February 1868): 150; Galichon, while 200.
praising “the myriad details of costume or 36. See Charles-Robert Ageron, L’anticolonia-
furnishing by which the artist interests us in lisme en France de 1871 à 1914 (Paris: Presses
his toiles ethnographiques,” holds that the key Universitaires de France, 1973).
is the artist’s knack for capturing “the true 37. The significance of Castagnary’s critique of
physiognomy of a people.” See the brief but Orientalism was suggested in the first book-
useful discussion of “l’art ethnographique” length study of the movement, Jean Alazard,
in Christine Peltre, L’atelier du voyage: Les L’Orient et la peinture française au XIXe siècle,
peintres en Orient au XIXe siècle (Paris: Gal- d’Eugène Delacroix à Auguste Renoir (Paris:
limard, 1995), 58–61. Plon, Collection du centenaire de l’Algérie,
25. Encyclopaedia Brittanica, 11th ed., s.v. “eth- 1930), 79–84.
nology and ethnography.” See also Geza de 38. Jules-Antoine Castagnary, “Année 1857,” in
Rohan-Csermak, “Ethnographie,” in Ency- Salons 1, 1857–1870 (Paris: Charpentier et
clopaedia Universalis 8 (Paris, 1993), 992–95. Fasquelle, 1892), 1:31.
26. Patricia M. E. Lorcin, Imperial Identities: 39. Gustave Courbet, letter of 25 December 1861,
Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Race in Colonial Le Courier du dimanche, trans. in Linda Noch-
Algeria (London and New York: I. B. Tau- lin, ed., Realism and Tradition in Art, 1848–
ris, 1995). 1900: Sources and Documents (Englewood
27. Fromentin, Sahara, in Oeuvres complètes, 176. Cli¤s, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966), 35.
28. For a systematic study of rapports between 40. Castagnary, “Année 1857,” in Salons 1:31–32.
Fromentin’s painting and his narratives, see 41. Castagnary, “Année 1863,” in Salons 1:153.
James Thompson and Barbara Wright, La vie 42. Said, Orientalism, 2–3; see also 210 and 261
et l’oeuvre d’Eugène Fromentin, Les Orien- (on the congress).
talistes, 6 (Paris: ACR Edition, ca. 1987). 43. Castagnary, “Année 1864,” in Salons 1:210.
29. Cardonne, introduction to Fromentin, Sahel, 44. Ibid., 211. Castagnary is referring, not to the
26, quoting Sahel and Fromentin’s personal Almeh illustrated, but to one in the Dayton
correspondence. Museum of Art.
30. Fromentin, Sahel, in Oeuvres complètes, 323. 45. For an extensive discussion, see Castagnary,
31. See Malcolm Warner, “The Question of “Année 1868,” in Salons 1:292–94.
Faith: Orientalism, Christianity, and Islam,” 46. On Regnault’s Execution of a Janissary, see
in The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse, ed. Geneviève Lacambre, Les oubliés du Caire:
MaryAnne Stevens (London: Royal Acad- Ingres, Courbet, Monet, Rodin, Gauguin.
emy of Arts, 1984), 34. Chefs-d’oeuvre des musées du Caire, exh. cat.
32. Fromentin, Sahara, in Oeuvres complètes, 47. (Paris: Association Française d’Action Artis-
33. Ibid., 48. tique, Musée d’Orsay, and Réunion des
34. Lorcin, Imperial Identities. For a sense of Musées Nationaux, 1994), 167.
how complex issues of race can be in the 47. Gautier, quoted in Benjamin, ed., Oriental-
reading of Orientalist painting, see the ex- ism: Delacroix to Klee, 120. On this phase of
emplary Darcy Grimaldo Grigsby, “‘Whose Regnault’s work, see Hollis Clayson, “Reg-
colour was not black nor white nor grey, but nault’s Wartime Orientalism,” in Oriental-
an extraneous mixture, which no pen can ism’s Interlocutors, ed. Mary Roberts and Jill
trace, although perhaps the pencil may’: As-

Notes to Pages 19–27 285

Beaulieu (Durham, N.C.: Duke University 55. Ibid.
Press, 2002). 56. On the emperor’s visit and the events of the
48. In 1879 Castagnary was appointed state coun-
cillor to the Conseil des Beaux-Arts; in 1881 later 1860s in Algeria, see Annie Rey-
he became a committee member of the Mo- Goldzeiguer, “La France coloniale de 1830 à
numents historiques and was appointed 1870,” in Jean Meyer et al., Histoire de la
director-general of cults by Gambetta in France coloniale, vol. 1, Des origines à 1914
1882; see Jean-Paul Bouillon et al., eds., La (Paris: Armand Colin, 1990), chaps. 16–17;
promenade du critique influent: Anthologie de and Lorcin, Imperial Identities, 76–92.
la critique d’art en France, 1850–1900 (Paris: 57. One admirer of Fromentin, the duc d’Aumale
Hazan, 1990), 61. (King Louis-Philippe ’s son and the victor
49. Castagnary, “Année 1876,” in Salons 2, 1872– against Abd-el-Kader) collected images of
1879, 348. “traditional” Arabs as well as topographical
50. Ibid., 249–50. images of his Algerian campaigns. Aumale’s
51. Guy Sagnes is satisfied that the authorship is collection also encompassed Delacroix (two
properly ascribed to Fromentin; see Fromen- of the great Moroccan Albums), Alexandre
tin, Oeuvres complètes, 1220–28 and 1727–28. Decamps (ten oils), and many works by Dau-
52. Fromentin, Les maîtres d’autrefois, in Oeuvres zats, Prosper Marilhat, and Vernet. See Nicole
complètes, 716. Garnier, Delacroix au Maroc: L’orientalisme
53. Zola’s indi¤erence to Orientalism had a neg- au Musée Condé (Chantilly: Musée Condé,
ative slant, as might be expected of the nat- 1992); and Lara Nicholls, “Nineteenth Cen-
uralist writer and fervent supporter of Manet. tury Orientalism at the Musée Condé: The
In 1866 Zola had criticized Fromentin’s Duc d’Aumale ’s Taste for an Algerian Past
wooden manner and his failure to stand in Second Empire France,” master’s thesis,
comparison with Delacroix: “He has been University of Melbourne, 1999.
to Africa and has brought back delightful 58. Duranty, “The New Painting:” in Mo¤ett et
mantelpiece subjects. One could eat o¤ his al., The New Painting, 38.
Bedouins’ plates, they are so clean” (Emile 59. See Carol Armstrong, Odd Man Out: Read-
Zola, “Salon de 1866,” L’Evénement, in Fro- ings in the Work and Reputation of Edgar De-
mentin, Oeuvres complètes, 1594). In 1876 he gas (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
protested Fromentin’s critique of the im- 1991), chap. 2, for a dense yet nuanced dis-
pressionists and reproached the artist for cussion of Duranty’s text.
himself painting “a false Orient, adapted to
bourgeois taste. His Orient is banal and his Chapter Two
Arabs resemble those at the carnival” (Emile
Zola, “Lettres de Paris,” Le Messager de l’Eu- 1. I base this section on a lecture I presented in
rope, in ibid., 1595). Brisbane in conjunction with the exhibition
54. Fromentin, as quoted by Louis Emile Ed- Renoir: Master Impressionist (exh. cat. by John
mond Duranty in La nouvelle peinture: A pro- House et al. [Brisbane: Queensland Art
pos du groupe d’artistes qui expose dans les Ga- Gallery; and Sydney: Art Exhibitions Aus-
leries Durand-Ruel (Paris: E. Dentu, 1876), tralia, 1994]). My thanks to John House,
trans. as “The New Painting” in Charles S. Kathy Adler, and Colin Bailey for their ex-
Mo¤ett et al., The New Painting: Impression- pertise on Renoir. For more detail on Renoir’s
ism, 1874–1886 (San Francisco: Fine Arts Algerian pictures, see Roger Benjamin, with
Museums of San Francisco, 1986), 38. an essay by David Prochaska, Renoir and Al-

286 Notes to Pages 27–33

geria (Williamstown, Mass.: Sterling and 8. Quoted in Jean Renoir, Renoir, My Father,
Francine Clark Art Institute; and New trans. Randolph Weaver and Dorothy
Haven: Yale University Press, 2003). Weaver (London: Collins, 1962), 211 (as
cited in The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse,
Roger Marx, once Castagnary’s protégé ed. Stevens, 222).
at the Directorate of Fine Arts, became an in-
fluential critic, curator, and arts administra- 9. See Prosper Ricard, Les merveilles de l’autre
tor. He was an early defender of Gauguin France: Maroc, Algérie, Tunisie (Paris: Ha-
and the Nabis and promoted the new deco- chette, 1924), 16.
rative arts; see Bouillon et al., eds., La prome-
nade du critique influent, 357–59. 10. Illustrated in Léonce Bénédite, Albert Lebourg
2. Cézanne to Joachim Gasquet, quoted in (Paris: Editions Georges Petit, 1923), 64.
Christine Peltre, Orientalism in Art, trans.
John Goodman (New York, London, Paris: 11. Roger Marx, “Artistes contemporains. Albert
Abbeville Press, 1998), 241 n.7. Lebourg,” Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 3d ser., 30
3. On the pre-Algerian Renoirs, see Werner (December 1903): 461.
Schnell, “Renoirs Versuch, über den Orient
in den Salon zu kommen,” in Begegnungen: 12. Camille Pissarro, letter of 15 March 1887, in
Festschrift für Peter Anselm Riedl zum 60. Pissarro, Letters to His Son Lucien, ed. John
Geburtstag, ed. Klaus Geuthlein and Franz Rewald (London: Kegan Paul, 1943), 102.
Matsche (Worms, 1993), 216–31.
4. Claude Monet, quoted in François Thiébault- 13. Alazard, L’Orient et la peinture française,
Sisson, “Claude Monet: An Interview,” trans. 195–96.
from Le Temps, 27 November 1900, in
Monet: A Retrospective, ed. Charles F. Stuckey 14. Renoir is in fact encouraging the patron, Mme
(Sydney and London: Bay Books, 1985), Béraud, to visit him: “The Arabs are charm-
204–5. ing people,” he continues. “I confess I am
5. “Naturally he had taken his color box with very happy and that when one has seen Al-
him, and, during his two years of garrison in geria one loves it. . . . I will find you a house
Algeria, he brushed as many studies as he in Paradise, at Mustapha Inférieur” (Renoir,
mounted guard duty. Africa completed his letter to Mme Béraud, Café du Helder, Champ
education as a colorist. It taught him to ‘see de manoeuvres à Mustapha, Algiers, from
into the shadows,’ to follow in them the vivid Archives Durand-Ruel [Drouot sale 11 June
decomposition of light, to make that trem- 1980, lot 92], courtesy John House).
bling atmosphere float around objects, and to
circle them like an aureole” (Hughes Le 15. Samuel Cox, Search for Winter Sunbeams in
Roux, “Silhouettes Parisiennes: L’Exposi- the Riviera, Corsica, Algiers, and Spain (Lon-
tion de Claude Monet,” Gil Blas, 3 March don and New York: Sampson Low and Ap-
1889). pleton, 1869), 140.
6. See David Prochaska, “History as Literature,
Literature as History: Cagayous of Algiers,” 16. Ibid., 139.
American Historical Review 101, no. 3 (June 17. Roughly translatable as “a feather-duster gar-
1996): 703.
7. S. A., “Petites expositions: Les peintres ori- den by a plume-hatted painter”: Draner,
entalistes à la Galerie Durand-Ruel,” Chroni- “Une visite aux impressionnistes,” Le Chari-
que des Arts, no. 10 (9 March 1895): 83. vari, 9 March 1882, illustrated in Mo¤ett et
al., The New Painting, 387.
18. Renoir, letter to Paul Bérard, Algiers, 1881,
trans. in Barbara Ehrlich White, Renoir: His
Life, Art, and Letters (New York: Abrams,
1984), 105.
19. Renoir, letter to Paul Durand-Ruel, Algiers,
March 1882, in Lionello Venturi, Les archives
de l’impressionnisme: Lettres de Renoir, Monet,

Notes to Pages 34–43 287

Pissarro, Sisley, et autres, vol. 1 (New York: ited Works, 210, 211); for reviews, see idem,
B. Franklin, 1968), 124–25; cf. the translation The New Painting, 1:382, 385.
in White, Renoir, 125. 31. Marx, “Albert Lebourg,” 458, 461.
20. Ibid. 32. Ibid., 460.
21. Renoir, in Ambroise Vollard, Renoir: An In- 33. See Bénédite, Albert Lebourg, 74– 76.
timate Record, trans. Harold L. van Doren 34. On Seignemartin, see ibid., 70– 73, where
and Randolph T. Weaver (New York, 1934), Bénédite cites Lebourg’s own testimony on
109, as quoted by Rebecca Moholt, “Images the Lyonnais’s influence; Peltre concurs with
of Childhood,” in A Passion for Renoir: Ster- this view of events (Orientalism in Art,
ling and Francine Clark Collect, 1916–1951 241–42).
(New York: Abrams; and Williamstown, 35. The gift of sixty-six works by Manet, Degas,
Mass.: Sterling and Francine Clark Art In- Monet, Renoir, Pissarro, Sisley, and others
stitute, 1996), 66. dates to 1893. After long negotiations be-
22. This account of the néo-Français draws upon tween officials like Bénédite and Director of
Lorcin, Imperial Identities, chap. 9. Fine Arts Henri Roujon, Caillebotte ’s heirs,
23. Albert André, Avant-propos to Renoir’s and the executor of his will (Auguste
Atelier/L’Atelier de Renoir (1931), rev. and Renoir), a total of thirty-eight works were
trans. ed. (San Francisco: Alan Wofsy Fine accepted in late 1896 and put on display at
Arts, 1989), xxxvii. the Luxembourg Museum in 1897 (thereby
24. Alazard, L’Orient et la peinture française, 196. inciting an official protest from the Académie
25. Jean Renoir, Renoir, My Father, 212. des Beaux-Arts). Recent scholarship shows
26. See Bernard Smith, European Vision and the that Bénédite, contrary to previous accounts
South Pacific, 2d ed. (Melbourne: Oxford that presented him as an obstructing force,
University Press, 1989), 55, 62, 76. was the one official who tried to retain the
27. In 1880, when five Algerian subjects by entire bequest. His failure to do so was
Lebourg complemented his landscapes of linked to exiguities of space, to the Luxem-
Normandy and Paris, Roger Marx observed, bourg’s policy of hanging only three works
“It was the privilege of these works, once per artist, and to his (and his colleagues’)
returned to Paris, to establish the artist’s considering certain works too minor for dis-
reputation” (Marx, “Albert Lebourg,” 461). play in the national museum. (That view was
28. See Jean de Tarade, “Deuxième visite aux shared by some of the impressionists con-
peintres indépendants,” L’Europe artiste, cerned, notably Renoir and Sisley.) See
4 May 1879, 1–2, trans. from Ruth Berson, Pierre Vaisse, “Le legs Caillebotte,” Bulletin
ed., The New Painting: Impressionism, 1874– de la Société de l’histoire de l’art française
1886. . . . Documentation, vol. 1, Reviews (San (1983): 201–8; and Marie Berthaut, “Le legs
Francisco: Fine Arts Museums of San Fran- Caillebotte: Vérités et contre-vérités,” in
cisco, 1996), 245. Bulletin, ibid., 209–39.
29. Elie de Mont., “Cinquième exposition des 36. See Léonce Bénédite, “La collection Caille-
impressionnistes, 10, rue des Pyramides,” La botte et l’école impressionniste,” L’Artiste
Civilisation, 20 April 1880, in Berson, ed., 64, no. 8 (August 1894): 124–33, his unsigned
302; George Japy, “Les impressionnistes,” Le “Legs Caillebotte,” La Chronique des Arts,
Soir, 3 April 1880, in ibid., 294. no. 16 (18 April 1896): 144–45, “Musées
30. Catalogue of 1882, nos. 157 and 143 (see nationaux: Musée du Luxembourg,” Revue
Berson, ed. The New Painting, vol. 2, Exhib- encyclopédique 7 (28 August 1897): 729–32,

288 Notes to Pages 43–52

and his “Collection Caillebotte au Musée du 46. E. Durand-Gréville, “Gustave Guillaumet,”
Luxembourg,” Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 3d L’Artiste 57, no. 1 (May 1887): 351.
ser., 17 (1 March 1897): 249–58.
37. Bénédite, “La collection Caillebotte au Musée 47. Roger Marx, “Le Salon de 1889,” Le Voltaire,
du Luxembourg,” 255. 1 May 1889.
38. Bénédite, “La collection Caillebotte et l’école
impressionniste,” 129. 48. Léonce Bénédite, “Avertissement,” in So-
39. Léonce Bénédite, “Art et Orient: L’oeuvre ciété des peintres orientalistes français (Paris:
d’Etienne Dinet,” Art et décoration 14 (1903): Galeries Durand-Ruel, 21 January–12 Feb-
308. ruary 1895), 16.
40. It is unlikely so meticulous a technician as
Dinet, trained by the academicians Tony 49. Bénédite, “Art et Orient,” 310.
Robert-Fleury and William Bouguereau and 50. Antoine de La Rochefoucauld, “Exposition
inspired by Jules Bastien-Lepage, would
have wholly approved of the impressionists, d’art musulman,” Le Coeur, September–
even though the colorism of his mature October 1893, n.p.
palette would be unthinkable without their
example; his cynical perceptions of the Chapter Three
avant-garde are pursued in François Pouil-
lon, Les deux vies d’Etienne Dinet, peintre en 1. See Pierre Vaisse, “Salons, expositions, et
Islam: L’Algérie et l’héritage colonial (Paris: sociétés d’artistes en France, 1871–1914,” in
Balland, 1997), 141–49. Saloni, gallerie, musei e loro influenza sullo
41. Gustave Guillaumet, Tableaux algériens: Ou- sviluppo dell’arte dei secoli XIX e XX, ed.
vrage illustré de douze eaux-fortes de Guil- Francis Haskell (Bologna: Comité interna-
laumet (Paris: Plon-Nourrit, 1888). The es- tional d’histoire de l’art, 1979), 141–55.
says were published in the Nouvelle revue
between October 1879 and November 1884; 2. The broad inspiration for my approach is the
paperback editions appeared after 1888. work of Pierre Bourdieu, not only in his Dis-
42. Léonce Bénédite, “Exposition rétrospective: tinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of
Guillaumet (Gustave),” Société des peintres Taste, trans. Richard Nice (Cambridge: Har-
orientalistes français (Paris: Galeries Durand- vard University Press, 1984), but also his
Ruel, 15 February–4 March 1899), 16; in his Homo academicus (Paris: Editions du Minuit,
earlier “Peinture orientaliste et Gustave 1984). A brief study of the Orientalist Painters
Guillaumet,” La Nouvelle revue 50 (15 Janu- may be found in Lynne Thornton, “La Société
ary 1888): 333–34, Bénédite quoted the des peintres orientalistes français et la Villa
Tableaux algériens extensively. Abd-el-Tif,” in Nicholas Bancel et al., Images
43. Bénédite, “Exposition rétrospective: Guil- et colonies: Iconographie et propagande coloniale
laumet,” in Société des peintres orientalistes sur l’Afrique française de 1880 à 1962 (Paris:
français, 1899 catalogue, 16. Association de connaissance de l’histoire de
44. Illustrated in Benjamin, ed., Orientalism: l’Afrique contemporaine, 1993), 48–49.
Delacroix to Klee, 19.
45. Guillaumet, Tableaux algériens, 48 (an etch- 3. On the issue of belatedness and colonial nos-
ing of the work from the Luxembourg Mu- talgia, see Chris Bongie, Exotic Memories:
seum appears opp. 46). Literature, Colonialism, and the Fin de Siècle
(Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press,
1991); and Ali Behdad, Belated Travellers:
Orientalism in the Age of Colonial Dissolution
(Durham, N.C., and London: Duke Univer-
sity Press, 1994).

Notes to Pages 52–58 289

4. The case of the scholar Champollion, the Jessup (Toronto: University of Toronto
driving force behind the Musée d’Egypte es- Press, 2001), 50–70, on Gauguin’s experience
tablished at the Louvre in 1826, is an exam- at the 1889 exposition and his use of colonial
ple; see Todd B. Porterfield, The Allure of photography.
Empire: Art in the Service of French Imperial- 12. Léon Dussert, “Le palais algérien,” La Revue
ism, 1798–1836 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton de l’Exposition universelle de 1889 1 (1889):
University Press, 1998), chap. 1. 205.
13. “Groupe I: Oeuvres d’art,” in Exposition de
5. Léonce Bénédite, “La chinoiserie en France 1889: Section de l’Algérie. Catalogue officiel
au XVIIIe siècle,” Revue des arts décoratifs 7, des exposants (Paris and Algiers, 1889), 17.
no. 8 (February 1887): 245–53; 8, no. 6 (De- 14. Point’s trajectory from Orientalist exoti-
cember 1887): 180–83; and 8, no. 12 (May cism to symbolist mythography links him to
1888): 370–82. other painters, like Lucien Lévy-Dhurmer
(also Algerian-born) and Emile Bernard,
6. See Bénédite, “La peinture orientaliste et who sensed a common ground in both gen-
Gustave Guillaumet,” and Léonce Béné- res’ avoidance of the “painting of modern
dite, “La peinture orientaliste aux salons de life.” Both painters are examined further in
1890,” L’Artiste 60, no. 2 (August 1890): Chapter 4.
81–90. 15. Léonce Bénédite, “Première exposition rétro-
spective et actuelle des peintres orientalistes
7. Léonce Bénédite, “A Etienne Dinet,” preface français,” in Exposition de l’art musulman,
to Etienne Dinet and Sliman Ben Ibrahim, catalogue officiel, Palais de l’Industrie (Paris:
Tableaux de la vie arabe (Paris: Henri Piazza, Bellier, October–December 1893), 156–95.
1908), n.p. [ii]. In his essay (156–68) Bénédite adapts his
1888 article on Guillaumet.
8. Ibid. 16. Léonce Bénédite, “Avertissement,” in Société
9. For bibliography, see André Dezarrois, des peintres orientalistes français (Paris: Ga-
leries Durand-Ruel, 21 January–12 February
“Léonce Bénédite,” Bulletin de l’art ancien et 1895), 3; reprinted as “Les peintres oriental-
moderne, no. 719 (June 1925): 177–80; and istes français,” L’Artiste 65, no. 10 (Decem-
Constance Naubert-Riser, “Léonce Béné- ber 1895): 421–24.
dite,” in Bouillon et al., La promenade du cri- 17. Paul Mantz, “Exposition universelle de
tique influent, 408–10. 1889—la peinture française,” 4 parts, Gazette
10. See Zeynep Çelik, Displaying the Orient: des Beaux-Arts (July–November 1889); Roger
Architecture of Islam at Nineteenth-Century Marx, Exposition centennale de l’art français,
World’s Fairs (Berkeley and Los Angeles: 1800–1900 (Paris: E. Lévy, 1902).
University of California Press, 1992), esp. 18. Bénédite, “Première exposition . . . des pein-
75– 78; and Caroline Mathieu, 1889: La Tour tres orientalistes,” in Exposition de l’art musul-
Ei¤el et l’Exposition universelle (Paris: Réu- man, 159.
nion des Musées Nationaux, 1989). 19. Léonce Bénédite, “Les peintres orientalistes
11. See Pol-Neveu, “Le village canaque,” La Re- français,” Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 3d ser., 21,
vue de l’Exposition universelle de 1889 1 (1889): no. 501 (March 1899): 241.
250–56; more generally, see Stephen Eisen- 20. See Raymond F. Betts, The “Scramble” for
man, Gauguin’s Skirt (New York and Lon- Africa: Causes and Dimensions of Empire
don: Thames and Hudson, 1997), on the (Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1966).
artist’s amateur ethnography and social ac-
tivity in Tahiti; and Elizabeth C. Childs, “The
Colonial Lens: Gauguin, Primitivism, and
Photography in the Fin de Siècle,” in Anti-
modernism and Artistic Experience, ed. Lynda

290 Notes to Pages 58–62

21. Bénédite, “Premier exposition . . . des pein- and Laura Rice (San Francisco: City Lights
tres orientalistes,” 167. Books, 1994), 73– 77.
27. On ethnographic collecting and museology in
22. See Georges Marye, “Première exposition Britain at this time, see the exemplary Annie
d’art musulman,” in Exposition de l’art musul- E. Coombes, Reinventing Africa: Museums,
man (1893), 9–15. The exhibition was of more Material Culture, and the Popular Imagination
moment than Jean Soustiel and Lynne Thorn- in Late Victorian and Edwardian England
ton suggest in their “Influence des miniatures (New Haven and London: Yale University
orientales sur les illustrateurs et les peintres, Press, 1994).
en France au début du XXe siècle,” Art et 28. Tamar Garb, Sisters of the Brush: Women’s
curiosité, January–February 1974, 29–34, Artistic Culture in Late Nineteenth Century
where they dismiss it as unscholarly com- Paris (New Haven and London: Yale Uni-
pared with the 1903 Pavillon de Marsan exhi- versity Press, 1994).
bition curated by Gaston Migéon. The 1893 29. As quoted in Société des peintres orientalistes
exhibition may have been less scholarly, but français (Paris: Grand Palais, 2–28 February
its massive scale and the press it garnered gave 1913), 4.
it considerable public impact. 30. See Said, Orientalism, 2–3, 210, 261–62; see
also “Congrès des Orientalistes,” Chronique
23. Gonse ’s miniatures are detailed in the cata- des arts et de la curiosité, no. 30 (18 Septem-
logue, 146–48, and discussed in Pauline ber 1897): 287.
Savarini, “L’Exposition d’art musulman,” 31. Bénédite, “Les Peintres orientalistes fran-
Nouvelle revue 85 (1 December 1893): 611. My çais” (1899), 244; Bénédite lists thirteen orig-
thanks to Karyn Esielonis for this and other inal members (Maurice Bompard, Paul and
references. Amadée Bu¤et, Charles Cottet, Adolphe
Chudant, Etienne Dinet, L. A. Girardot, Paul
24. Eugène Etienne, letter to Raymond Poincaré, Leroy, Alexandre Lunois, Joseph de la Né-
minister of public instruction and fine arts, 10 zière, Marius Perret, Maurice Potter, and
June 1893, Archives Nationales F17 13064. Henri Vollet) in his Great Painters of the Nine-
teenth Century and Their Paintings (London:
25. Thomas Grimm, “La Conquête d’Orient,” Pitman and Son, 1910), 204–5.
Petit Journal, 6 November 1893, lamented 32. André Cariou, “Bande Noire,” in The Dictio-
that France had lost the initiative to the British nary of Art (New York: Grove, 1996), 3:156.
(whose Indian Museum had opened in 1879), 33. See Gabriel Bonvalot, De Paris au Tonkin à
the Austro-Hungarians (whose Oriental travers le Tibet inconnu (Paris, 1892).
Museum dated to 1873), and even Bosnia- 34. Léonce Bénédite, “Avertissement,” in Société
Herzegovina, where fruitful e¤orts had been des peintres orientalistes français, 1895 cata-
made to organize new decorative arts pro- logue, 7.
duction around Islamic models and master 35. See “La Mission Bonvalot,” L’Illustration,
craftsmen. no. 2830 (22 May 1897): 412.
36. On Fashoda, see James J. Cooke, New French
26. Marye, “Première exposition d’art musul- Imperialism, 1880–1910: The Third Republic
man,” 10, cf. Marye ’s unsigned manuscript and Colonial Expansion (Hamden, Conn.:
“Note sur l’exposition de l’art musulman,” Archon Books, 1973), 81–97; see also Charles
Arch. Nat. F17 13064. For a contemporary Michel, “Notice sur Maurice Potter,” in So-
snapshot of the antagonism of the petty ciété des peintres orientalistes français (Paris:
French colonists and the Algerian local press
toward the “bicots” (a derogatory slang term
for indigenous Algerians) see Isabelle Eber-
hardt, “Native Exploits,” in Departures: Se-
lected Writings, trans. and ed. Karim Hamdy

Notes to Pages 62–67 291

Galeries Durand-Ruel, 15 February–3 March 45. François Pouillon has assessed the role of Sli-
1900), 7–8. man in Dinet’s life (deciding that Dinet had
37. See Bénédite, “Avertissement,” in Société des inflated Sliman’s contribution to his books) in
peintres orientalistes français, 1900 catalogue, his masterly Deux vies d’Etienne Dinet, pein-
4; see also Bénédite, “Un peintre explorateur: tre en Islam, 55–62, 108–10. See also my re-
Maurice Potter,” Revue de l’art ancien et mo- view of that book in Art History 22, no. 1
derne 7 (1900): 267–80. (March 1999): 151–53.
38. Salons were held annually until 1914; after
World War I, Salons were held only sporad- 46. Bénédite, “Avertissement,” in Société des pein-
ically. The society further declined with the tres orientalistes français, 1899 catalogue, 4.
death of Bénédite in 1925 and the success in
the 1920s of the rival Société Coloniale des 47. Ibid.
Artistes Français; it exhibited every two or 48. The Orientalist Painters’ emblem was later
three years during the 1920s and 1930s. The
latest catalogue I have found is dated 1943. explained by a member as a “hand with
39. See Bénédite, “La peinture orientaliste aux fingers outstretched and joined [the Hand of
salons de 1890,” 90. Fatma], the amulet preferred by Muslim
40. See Benjamin, ed., Orientalism: Delacroix to people, who believe it wards o¤ malevolent
Klee, cat. nos. 59, 60; see also Gabriel djinns, while the crescent moon and the star
Séailles, “Alfred Dehodencq,” in Société des accompanying it would attract, to our group
peintres orientalistes français, 1895 catalogue, and those around it, the blessing of Allah and
19–24; Séailles, Alfred Dehodencq: Histoire of his holy Prophet” (José Silbert, “Le Palais
d’un coloriste (Paris: Librairie Ollendorf, des Beaux-Arts,” in Le livre d’or: Exposition
ca. 1890). nationale coloniale [Marseille, 1922], 52).
41. See Léonce Bénédite, “Exposition rétro- 49. Les peintres-lithographes: Album spéciale, les
spective,” in Société des peintres orientalistes peintres orientalistes, ed. Léonce Bénédite et
français (Paris: Galeries Durand-Ruel, 16 al. (Paris: L’Artiste, 1898), Département des
February–13 March 1897), 15–17; see also Estampes, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris.
Léonce Bénédite, Théodore Chassériau: Sa 50. See Jean Fargès, “Adolphe Chudant (1860–
vie et son oeuvre (Paris: Braun, 1931); and 1929),” Franche-Comté, Monts Jura et Haute
Marc Sandoz, Théodore Chassériau: Catalogue Alsace, no. 21 (August 1929): 152–53. Chu-
raisonné des peintures et des estampes (Paris: dant founded the Union Comtoise des Arts
Arts et Métiers graphiques, 1974). Décoratifs in 1893 and later established and
42. The full list of posthumous displays includes decorated the Musée des Arts appliqués
Potter (1900), Perret (1902), Gérôme (1904), de Besançon. From 1909 he was director of
Cordier (1906), Eugène Girardet (1908), the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and curator of the
Charles Landelle (1909), and Gasté (1913); Musée des Beaux-Arts at Besançon. My
on Cordier, see La sculpture ethnographique, thanks to Matthieu Pinette of the Musée des
Les dossiers du Musée d’Orsay (Paris: Réu- Beaux-Arts et d’Archéologie of Besançon
nion des musées nationaux, 1994). for the information on Chudant.
43. Roger Shattuck, The Banquet Years: Origins
of the Avant-Garde in France, 1885 to World Chapter Four
War I (New York: Vintage, 1968).
44. Léo Clarétie, “La vie et les moeurs,” Revue 1. Arsène Alexandre, “La vie artistique: Les
encyclopédique 6 (29 February 1896): 101. orientalistes,” Figaro, 2 February 1914.

2. See, for example, L’Assiette au beurre, no. 110
(9 May 1903). This material was first con-

292 Notes to Pages 67–79

sidered in Patricia Leighton, “The White Chronique des arts, no. 8 (19 February 1898):
Peril and l’Art nègre: Picasso, Primitivism, 66.
and Anti-Colonialism,” Art Bulletin 72, no. 4 13. Félicien Fagus, “Petite gazette d’art: Les ori-
(December 1990): 609–30. entalistes,” Revue blanche 18, no. 138 (1 March
3. Raymond Bouyer, “Expositions diverses: So- 1899): 390–91.
ciété des peintres orientalistes français,” Bul- 14. Fontainas, “Art moderne,” 942.
letin d’art ancien et moderne, no. 491 (11 Feb- 15. See Benjamin, ed., Orientalism: Delacroix to
ruary 1911): 46. Klee, 166–67.
4. The literary work that best treats this pa- 16. Henri Eon, “Expositions: Orientalistes,” La
thology of Orientalism is André Gide ’s Im- Plume, no. 188 (15 February 1897): 159; see
moraliste (1902), whose protagonist is a also Maurice Denis, “La définition du néo-
young tuberculosis patient sent to Biskra to traditionnisme” (1890), in Théories, 1890–
recover in the dry desert air (see further 1910 (Paris: Rouart et Watelin, 1920), 4–5.
Chapter 7). 17. Ary Renan, “La peinture orientaliste,” Gazette
5. “Petites expositions: Les Orientalistes,” des Beaux-Arts, 52; see also his “Gustave
Chronique des arts et de la curiosité, no. 8 Guillaumet,” Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 2d ser.,
(19 February 1898): 66. 35, no. 5 (May 1887): 404–22.
6. Maillet, “Les orientalistes,” La Lanterne, 3 18. Henri Eon, “Expositions: Orientalistes,” La
March 1899. Plume, no. 188 (15 February 1897): 159.
7. In every case, however, edulcorated expo- 19. Arsène Alexandre, “Les Orientalistes,” Fi-
nents of these tendencies did exhibit with the garo, 22 January 1896; this view is echoed by
society: thus, Lévy-Dhurmer rather than Henri Matisse in reminiscences dating to the
Moreau (symbolists), René Piot rather than same period, discussed in Chapter 7.
Edouard Vuillard (Nabis), Georgette Agutte 20. Adolphe Dervaux, “Les expositions: Les
rather than Paul Signac (neo-impression- peintres orientalistes au Grand Palais,” La
ists), Albert Marquet rather than Henri Ma- Plume, no. 337 (1 May 1903): 541.
tisse (fauves), Charles Dufresne rather than 21. See E. D., “A travers les Salonnets,” Bulletin
Georges Braque (cubists). de l’art ancien et moderne, no. 210 (5 March
8. Thadée Natanson, “Petite gazette d’art,” Re- 1904): 78.
vue blanche 12, no. 90 (1 March 1897): 247. 22. Louis Vauxcelles, “La vie artistique,” Gil
9. Charles Baudelaire, the section titled “Du Blas, 15 February 1910.
chic et du poncif,” in “The Salon of 1846,” 23. Le Marocain is illustrated in Benjamin, ed.,
Art in Paris, 92–93. Orientalism: Delacroix to Klee, 158–59.
10. André Fontainas, “Art moderne: Les orien- 24. On Emile Bernard’s Egyptian work, see
talistes français,” Mercure de France 25, no. 99 Peter Rudd’s entries in Benjamin, ed., Ori-
(March 1898): 941–42. entalism: Delacroix to Klee, 152–53, and his
11. On Bretonism, see Griselda Pollock and Emile Bernard: The Unwilling Modern, Ph.D.
Fred Orton, “Les Données bretonnantes: diss., University of Sydney, 1998.
La prairie de la représentation,” Art History 25. Henri Ghéon in L’Ermitage (1901), quoted
3, no. 3 (September 1980): 314–44; and in Aquarelles orientales d’Emile Bernard,
Michael Orwicz, “Criticism and Repre- 1893–1904, exh. cat. (Saint-Germain-en-
sentations of Brittany in the Early Third Laye: Musée départemental du Prieuré, 1983),
Republic,” Art Journal 46, no. 4 (1987): 86.
291–98. 26. Julius Meier-Graefe, Modern Art, Being a
12. See “Petites expositions: Les Orientalistes,” Contribution to a New System of Aesthetics,

Notes to Pages 81–89 293

vol. 2, trans. F. Simmmonds and G. W. 34. The sketch that follows draws on Bengt Dan-
Chrystal (London: Heinemann, 1908), 68. ielsson, Gauguin in the South Seas, trans. R.
My thanks to Peter Rudd for this citation. Spink (London: George, Allen and Unwin,
27. Book illustration did much to further popu- 1965); Abigail Solomon-Godeau, “Going
larize texts like the Thousand and One Nights, Native,” Art in America 77 (July 1989): 119–
with spectacular editions by Edmond Dulac 28, 161; Griselda Pollock, Avant-Garde Gam-
and by Léon Carré and Mohammed Racim. bits, 1888–1893: Gender and the Colour of Art
See Le livre des mille nuits et une nuit, trans. History (London: Thames and Hudson,
Jospeh Mardrus, 12 vols. (Paris: Henri Pi- 1992); and Eisenman, Gauguin’s Skirt.
azza, 1924–32). The Orientalist Painters’ ex-
hibitions regularly included books illustrated 35. Bénédite, “Les peintres orientalistes fran-
by its members. cais” (1899), 246–47.
28. Adolphe Dervaux, “Les Expositions: Les
peintres orientalistes au Grand Palais,” La 36. Eisenman, Gauguin’s Skirt, 147. For a set of
Plume, no. 337 (1 May 1903): 541–43. trenchant critiques of Eisenman by an art his-
29. Ary Renan, “La peinture orientaliste,” 43. torian (Elizabeth C. Childs), a Pacific an-
30. René Jean, “Petites expositions: Les peintres thropologist (Margaret Jolly), and a Maori
orientalistes français,” Chronique des arts, no. scholar (Teresia K. Teaiwa) and Eisenman’s
7 (15 February 1913): 50. response, see “Book Review Forum,” Pacific
31. François Monod, “La 13e exposition des ori- Studies 23, nos. 1–2 (March–June 2000): 75–
entalistes,” supplement to Art et décoration 17 128.
(April 1905): 2.
32. For a good account of how theories of race 37. See Denise Brahimi and Koudin Benchikou,
in the nineteeth-century French context were La vie et l’oeuvre de Etienne Dinet, Les orien-
played out in colonial representations, see talists, 2 (Paris: ACR Edition, 1984), cat.
Eisenman, Gauguin’s Skirt, esp. 48–53; and nos. 381, 382, 389, 395; see also 116–27.
more generally Lorcin, Imperial Identities.
33. Gauguin eventually became an activist against 38. The English edition is Etienne Dinet and
the French administration of the Marquesas. Sliman Ben Ibrahim, The Life of Mohammed,
In the magazine Les Guêpes for 12 June 1899 the Prophet of Allah, illustrated by E. Dinet;
he wrote: “To colonize means to cultivate a re- ornamental pages by Mohammed Racim
gion, to make a hitherto uncultivated country (Paris: Paris Book Club, 1918). For a discus-
produce things which are useful primarily for sion of this much-reprinted book, see Pouil-
the people who inhabit it: a noble goal. But to lon, Les deux vies d’Etienne Dinet, 120–24,
conquer that country, raise a flag over it, set 137–40.
up a parasitical administration, maintained at
enormous cost, by and for the glory of the 39. Brahimi and Benchikou, Dinet, cat. nos. 406–
mother country alone—that is barbarous 10; plate 124.
folly, that is shameful!” (translated and quoted
in Eisenman, ibid., 159). Similarly, Pierre Loti 40. Ibid., cat. nos. 424–39; see Etienne Dinet and
campaigned against the evils of Europeaniza- Sliman Ben Ibrahim, Pélerinage à la Maison
tion that from 1890 threatened the integrity of Sacrée d’Allah (Paris: Hachette, 1930).
Turkish culture; see Alain Quella-Villéger,
Pierre Loti, l’incompris (Paris: Presses de la 41. Etienne Dinet and Sliman Ben Ibrahim,
renaissance, 1986), 296–98. Tableaux de la vie arabe (Paris: Henri Piazza,
1908), 13. In a few pictures, Dinet’s illustra-
tions of the supernatural are comparable to
Gauguin. These are scenes of the sultan of
Djinns’s daughters, winged beauties drawn
from the tales of the desert. They are the least
successful of Dinet’s oeuvre as their heavy
physicality militates against a sense of the di-

294 Notes to Pages 90–95

vine. See Brahimi and Benchikou, Dinet, cat. ed., Orientalism: Delacroix to Klee, 43–44,
nos. 303–5, and Dinet and Ibrahim, Tableaux 129–30.
de la vie arabe, 69– 73. 54. Bénédite, “Art et Orient: L’oeuvre d’Etienne
42. Bénédite, “La peinture orientaliste aux Salons Dinet,” 313–14.
de 1890,” 83. 55. See François Pouillon, “L’ombre de l’Islam:
43. Bénédite, “Guillaumet,” Société des peintres Les figurations de la pratique religieuse dans
orientalistes français, 1899 catalogue, 18. la peinture orientaliste du 19e siècle,” Actes
44. Christine Peltre has traced variants of this de la recherche en sciences sociales, no. 75 (No-
thesis back at least as far as Horace Vernet’s vember 1988): 33.
campaign of painting in Algeria in 1836; see 56. Dinet and Ibrahim, Tableaux de la vie arabe,
Peltre, L’atelier du voyage, 56–58. 22.
45. Gautier, quoted in Séailles, “Alfred Deho- 57. For discussions of Eberhardt’s persona and
dencq,” in Peintres orientalistes, 1895 cata- work informed by postcolonial theory, see
logue, 22. Hedi Abdel-Jaouad, “Isabelle Eberhardt:
46. See Bongie, Exotic Memories. Portrait of the Artist as a Young Nomad,”
47. See Pierre Clastres, “On Ethnocide,” Art and Yale French Studies 83 (1993): 93–117; and
Text 28 (March–May 1988): 51–58; for a co- Emily Apter, Continental Drift: From Na-
gent survey of the shortcomings of such ar- tional Characters to Virtual Subjects (Chicago:
guments, see Thomas, Colonialism’s Culture, University of Chicago Press, 1999), 131–48.
chap. 1. 58. Camille Mauclair, “Etienne Dinet,” L’Action
48. Bénédite, “Les peintres orientalistes français” africaine 1, no. 3 (March 1912): 5–6; reprinted
(1899), 240. in Pouillon, Les deux vies d’Etienne Dinet,
49. On the controversial nature of Dinet’s con- 163– 67.
version, see Pouillon’s chapter “Dans l’ombre 59. Camille Mauclair, “Les peintres de l’Afrique
chaude de l’Islam,” Les deux vies d’Etienne du Nord, à l’exposition des orientalistes,”
Dinet, 111–37. On the limits to the “ethno- L’Action africaine 2, no. 16 (April 1913):
graphic dream” of the participant observer, 77– 78.
see Greg Dening, “The Theatricality of Ob- 60. Bénédite, “A Etienne Dinet,” in Dinet and
serving and Being Observed: Eighteenth- Ibrahim, Tableaux de la vie arabe, iii.
Century Europe ‘Discovers’ the ? Century 61. The enthusiastic taking up of Dinet’s art in
‘Pacific,’” in Implicit Understandings, ed. Stu- the independent Algerian republic from the
art B. Schwartz (Cambridge: Cambridge 1960s and its remaining in vogue in Algeria
University Press, 1991), 451–82. are inscribed in the history of the Musée
50. Bénédite, “Etienne Dinet,” L’Art et les artistes Dinet. (Finally opened in 1993, it was put to
10, no. 58 (January 1910): 163. the torch by Islamic fundamentalists soon
51. Ibid., 168. For a thorough assessment of Sli- after.) See François Pouillon, “Legs colo-
man’s role, see Pouillon, Les deux vies d’Eti- nial, patrimoine national: Nasreddine
enne Dinet, 55–62, 108–10. Dinet, peintre de l’indigène algérien,”
52. Bénédite, “Etienne Dinet” (1910), 168. Cahiers d’études africaines 30, no. 3 (1990):
53. Bénédite, “La peinture orientaliste au Salons 329–63, and Les deux vies d’Etienne Dinet,
de 1890,” 84–85; further on this picture, pur- chaps. 9–10.
chased by the Art Gallery of New South 62. See Roger Benjamin, “Postcolonial Taste:
Wales at the Paris Salon of 1890, see Ursula Non-Western Markets for Orientalist Art,”
Prunster, “From Empire’s End: Australians in Benjamin, ed., Orientalism: Delacroix to
as Orientalists, 1880–1920,” in Benjamin, Klee, 32–40. There are parallels in Aotearoa

Notes to Pages 95–102 295

New Zealand today, where Maori have re- (Paris: Galeries Durand-Ruel, 15 February–3
claimed realist portraits of Maori elders done March 1900), 4.
at the turn of the twentieth century as mon- 6. See Narriman El-Kateb-Ben Romdhane, “La
uments to a “dying” race. See Roger Black- Peinture de chevalet en Tunisie de 1894 à
ley, Goldie, exh. cat. (Auckland: Auckland 1950,” in Lumiéres tunisiennes (Paris: Paris-
Art Gallery Toi o Tamaki, 1997). Musées and Association française d’action
artistique, 1995), 14; the pamphlet “Exposi-
Chapter Five tion artistique de 1897, Institut de Carthage,”
Arch. Nat. F17 13064; and Léonce Bénédite,
1. The literature on the universal exposition is “Une tentative de rénovation artistique: Les
vast; books on colonial precincts prior to ‘peintres orientalistes’ et les industries colo-
World War I include Philippe Jullian, The niales,” Revue des arts décoratifs, no. 4 (April
Triumph of Art Nouveau: Paris Exhibition, 1899): 101–2.
1900 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974); 7. Bennett, The Birth of the Museum, 86.
L’Orient des provençaux: Les expositions colo- 8. Herbert E. Butler, “The Colonial and For-
niales, exh. cat. (Marseille: Vieille Charité, eign Buildings,” in The Paris Exhibition,
1982); Sylviane Leprun, Le théâtre des colonies: 1900, ed. D. Croal Thomson (London: Art
Scénographie, acteurs, et discours de l’imagi- Journal, 1901), 22.
naire dans les expositions, 1855–1937 (Paris: 9. See Çelik, Displaying the Orient, 129.
L’Harmattan, 1986); Paul Greenhalgh, 10. Paris Exposition, 1900 (Paris: Librairie Ha-
Ephemeral Vistas: The Expositions Univer- chette, 1900), 339.
selles, Great Exhibitions, and World’s Fairs, 11. L’Illustration (20 July 1867), quoted in Çelik,
1851–1939 (Manchester: Manchester Univer- Displaying the Orient, xvi.
sity Press, 1988); Zeynep Çelik, Displaying 12. Ibid., 130, 215n.80.
the Orient; Tony Bennett, The Birth of the 13. See Th. Lambert, ed., L’Art décoratif moderne:
Museum: History, Theory, Politics (London: Exposition universelle de 1900 (Paris, 1900),
Routledge, 1995); and Annie Coombes, Rein- plate 35, fig. 4.
venting Africa. 14. Paris Exposition, 1900 (Hachette), 340.
15. Philippe Hamon, Expositions: Literature and
2. A recent book (received after this chapter was Architecture in Nineteenth-Century France
finalized) by Patricia A. Morton, Hybrid Mo- (1989), trans. Katia Sainson-Frank and Lisa
dernities: Architecture and Representation at the Maguie (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univer-
1931 Colonial Exposition, Paris (Cambridge sity of California Press, 1992), 67.
and London: MIT Press, 2000), treats the re- 16. Bennett observes that this hierarchy estab-
lated issue of interior architectural decor in lished “a progressivist taxonomy . . . lami-
chap. 6, on the 1931 Musée des Colonies. nated on to a crudely racist teleological con-
ception of the relations between peoples
3. The term is taken from Ralph Hyde, Panora- and races which culminated in the achieve-
mania! The Art and Entertainment of the “All- ments of the metropolitan powers, invariably
Embracing” View, exh. cat. (London: Trefoil, most impressively displayed in the pavilions
in association with the Barbican Art Gallery, of the host country” (Bennett, The Birth of
1988). the Museum, 95).
17. B. de L., “Le Jury des Beaux-Arts,” La Dé-
4. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th edition, s.v. pêche coloniale, 27 July 1900.
“exhibition.” 18. See Catalogue général officiel, Exposition In-

5. See Léonce Bénédite, “Avertissement,” in
Société des Peintres Orientalistes Français

296 Notes to Pages 105–109

ternationale Universelle de 1900, vol. 2, Oeu- 27. Dioramas in this twentieth-century sense
vres d’art (Paris: Lemercier, 1900), 249–56. di¤ered from the installations originally
19. The Salle des Beaux-Arts also featured sculp- bearing that name, the first of which, con-
ture, architecture, renderings of Islamic structed by Daguerre, seated an audience in
monuments, and plans for new buildings, front of large diaphanous screens that could
such as the “Project for an Algerian Eden” be moved to establish di¤erent scenes; see
by a designer with the fitting name of Con- Oetterman, The Panorama, 69–83.
testable; see Catalogue général officiel . . . 1900,
2:256. 28. Paris Exposition, 1900 (Hachette), 320.
20. Paris Exposition, 1900 (Hachette), 340. 29. Paris Exposition, 1900 (Hachette), 317.
21. On this issue (in the context of Algerian pub- 30. Charles Lemire, “L’Exposition Coloniale du
lic buildings, not expositions), see François
Pouillon, “La peinture monumentale en Al- Trocadéro,” L’Exposition des colonies et la
gérie: Un art pédagogique,” Cahiers d’études France coloniale, 5 May 1900, 4.
africaines 141–42, no. 36 (1996): 183–213. 31. Catalogue général officiel . . . 1900, 257. For an
22. The monument, later transferred to the Mala- illustrated obituary, see Léonce Bénédite,
gasy capital of Tananarive, is illustrated in “Figures d’Extrême-Orient: A propos de
Jules Charles-Roux and Scellier de Gisors, l’Exposition posthume des oeuvres de Marius
Exposition universelle de 1900, section des Perret,” Art et décoration 11 (January–June
colonies et pays de protectorat: Album Com- 1902): 69–74.
memoratif (Paris, 1900), plate 31. 32. See Catalogue général officiel . . . 1900, 257–58.
23. Ibid., 263. 33. Alfred Picard, Le bilan d’un siècle (1801–
24. Stephan Oettermann, The Panorama: History 1900): Exposition universelle internationale de
of a Mass Medium (1980), trans. Deborah 1900 à Paris 1 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale,
Lucas Schneider (New York: Zone Books, 1906), 433–34. For another view of the stere-
1997), 5. orama, see Rhonda Garelick, “Bayadères,
25. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., s.v. “pano- Stéréoramas, and Vahat-Loukoum: Techno-
rama”; See further Oetterman, 5–97; and logical Realism in the Age of Empire,” in
Jonathan Crary, Techniques of the Observer: Spectacles of Realism: Gender, Body, Genre,
On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth ed. Margaret Cohen and Christopher Pren-
Century (Cambridge and London: MIT Press, dergast (Minneapolis: University of Min-
1990), 112–14. nesota Press, 1995), 294–319.
26. In the Panorama Marchand the painter 34. Paris Exposition, 1900 (Hachette), 340.
Charles Castellani, a member of the expedi- 35. De Natuur (1900), 257, quoted in Leonard
tion, devised an installation of twelve small de Vries, ed., Victorian Inventions, trans. Bart-
dioramas stressing both exotic and political hold Suermondt (London: John Murray,
aspects of events: an elephant hunt, the burn- 1971), 123–24.
ing of a “rebel” village, impassable rapids and 36. The Diorama de l’Algérie by Charles Ga-
threatening hippopotami on the Oubanghi land and Maxime Noiré had seven com-
River, the interview with the Ethiopian ne- partments, including “the Hill of Sfa, with
gus Ménélik at the journey’s end. The vast Biskra in the distance and the immensity of
ring painting of the panorama itself showed the desert, . . . a view of the famous Ravine
optimistic beginnings: the Embarcation of the of Constantine, . . . [and finally] the pan-
Mission on the Oubanghi. See Paris Exposi- orama of Algiers seen from Upper Musta-
tion, 1900 (Hachette), 320. pha” (Paris Exposition, 1900 [Hachette],
340). Noiré was the best-known French
painter permanently resident in Algeria. He

Notes to Pages 110–114 297

exhibited from time to time with the Orien- 46. See Jules Antoine, “Exposition Louis Du-
talists in Paris and was a stalwart of the Al- moulin,” Art et Critique, 28 December 1889,
giers-based Société des Artistes algériens et 497–98; my thanks to Karen Esielonis for this
orientalistes. A friend of Isabelle Eberhardt’s reference.
(he illustrated the Fasquelle edition of her
Notes de Route), Noiré has a reputation that 47. See Fernand Blum, “Tableaux et études de
seems hard to credit now in view of his trea- Louis Dumoulin, peintre du Ministère de la
cly vistas in which human figures are absent; marine rapportés d’une mission en Extrême-
see Marius-Ary Leblond, “Maxime Noiré,” Orient en 1888,” in Notices coloniales, pub-
Peintres de races (Brussels: G. Van Oest, liées . . . à l’occasion de l’Exposition universelle
1909), 185–96. internationale et coloniale de Lyon (Lyon,
37. On the Maréorama, see De Natuur, in de 1894), xli–xlii.
Vries, Victorian Inventions, 125–26; and Pi-
card, Le bilan d’un siécle, 434; on the Cinéo- 48. Joseph Dancourt, “L’Andalousie au temps
rama, see “Les Attractions: Trocadéro,” Re- des Maures,” in Le livre d’or de l’Exposition de
vue universelle 10 (1900): 298–99; and de 1900, vol. 2 (Paris: Edouard Cornély, 1900),
Vries, Victorian Inventions, 126–27. 239. I treat this subject at greater length in a
38. For reflections on the global collecting of forthcoming essay, “Andalusia in the Time of
sites and peoples in the most extensive colo- the Moors: Regret and Colonial Presence in
nial exposition, that of 1931, see the chapter Paris, 1900.”
“Le tour du monde en un jour,” in Morton,
Hybrid Modernities, 16–69. 49. “Les Attractions: Trocadéro,” Revue uni-
39. Le Panorama, 1900: Exposition universelle verselle 10 (1900): 298.
(Paris: Ludovic Baschet, 1900), 163.
40. “Panoramas et dioramas: Décoration théâ- 50. I owe this suggestion to Adrian Rifkin.
trale,” in Picard, Le bilan d’un siècle, 434. 51. Guide Armand Silvestre de Paris et de ses
41. This work, conserved at Waterloo, Belgium,
is illustrated in the multipage frontispiece to environs et de l’Exposition de 1900 (Paris: Sil-
Oettermann, The Panorama. vestre, 1900), 140.
42. See Leprun, Le théâtre des colonies, 17. 52. Le Panorama, 1900, 207.
43. The caption continued: “To people this de- 53. John Frederick Lewis, Sketches and Drawings
cor, charming creatures have come. They are of the Alhambra (London, 1835); and Owen
twelve Geishas, singers and instrumental- Jones and Jules Gourey, Plans, Elevations,
ists. They have left Tokyo and will return and Sections of the Alhambra (London, 1836–
there as soon as the Parisian festival is fin- 45), are discussed in Michael Danby, The Is-
ished” (Le Panorama, 1900, 172– 73). lamic Perspective (London: World of Islam
44. “M. Louis Dumoulin introduces us to a sa- Festival Trust, 1983), 27, 43.
cred place, to the cemetery where Aziyadé 54. Dancourt, “L’Andalousie,” 239.
was entombed, and of which M. Pierre Loti 55. Guide Armand Silvestre, 141.
has traced such ravishing descriptions” 56. See Zeynep Çelik and Leila Kinney, “Ethno-
(ibid., 167). graphy and Exhibitionism at the Expositions
45. See Philippe Burty, preface to Exposition Louis Universelles,” Assemblage, no. 17 (December
Dumoulin: Tableaux et études de l’Extrême- 1990): 35–59.
Orient, Japon, Chine, Cochinchine, Malaisie 57. Dancourt, “L’Andalousie,” 240.
(Paris: Galerie Georges Petit, 20 December 58. Marius-Ary Leblond, “Les expositions:
1889), 3. L’Exposition des orientalistes,” La Grande
revue 47 (March 1908): 381.
59. See Jules Charles-Roux, Souvenirs du passé: Le
cercle artistique de Marseille (Paris: Lemerre,
1906).
60. Pamphlet entitled “No. 1037, Chambre des

298 Notes to Pages 114–122

Députés . . . Projet de Loi relatif à la con- members’ works were shown alongside
cession de décorations . . . de l’Exposition those of the Society of Orientalists, the
coloniale nationale de Marseille” (10 July Coloniale in 1931 had some three hundred
1907), Arch. Nat. F12 7577. For a brief dis- members. It continued to exhibit up to
cussion of the Marseille expositions, see World War II.
Morton, Hybrid Modernities, 71– 72, 286–87. 70. Charles-Roux et al., Notice officielle, xxii, xxvi.
61. See Henri Malo, “L’Exposition coloniale na- 71. “Exposition rétrospective des orientalistes
tionale de Marseille,” La Nouvelle revue, n.s. français,” in Charles-Roux et al., Notice offici-
43 (1906): 43, 53–54, 56–57. elle, xlii, cat. no. 45, Négresse, property of
62. Gaston Deferre, preface to Les orientalistes Prince Alexandre de Wagram.
provençaux: L’Orient des provençaux (Mar- 72. Ibid., xlii, cat. nos. 52, Tête d’Algérienne; 53,
seille: Musée des Beaux-Arts de Marseille, Fête au camp (property of Claude Monet);
1982), viii. 54, Tête d’Algérienne (property of Jules
63. Jules Charles-Roux, “Nos expositions des Strauss).
Beaux-Arts,” in Charles-Roux et al., Notice 73. Ibid., cat. nos. 31 and 32.
officielle et catalogue illustré des expositions des 74. Eugène Charabot and Georges Collot, “Or-
Beaux-Arts, Exposition coloniale nationale de ganisation et description de l’Exposition colo-
Marseille (Paris: Moderne imprimerie, 1906), niale nationale de 1907: Rapport générale,”
xix. Revue coloniale, n.s. 8 (1908): 705–7.
64. See the floor plan in Album commemoratif, 75. See the pamphlet “Exposition nationale
Exposition coloniale nationale de Marseille, d’agriculture coloniale, ouverte du 20 juin au
1906 (Marseille, 1906), n.p. 20 juillet 1905 au Jardin Colonial à Nogent-
65. See Charles-Roux, in Charles-Roux et al., sur-Marne” (Paris: Société française de
Notice officielle, xx–xxi. colonisation et d’agriculture, 1905); Arch.
66. Malo, “L’Exposition . . . de Marseille,” 48. Nat. F12 7576.
67. Léonce Bénédite, “L’Exposition de la So- 76. Charabot and Collot, “Organisation et de-
ciété des Peintres Orientalistes Français,” in scription de l’Exposition coloniale nationale
Charles-Roux et al., Notice officielle, li–liv, de 1907 . . . Suite,” Revue coloniale, n.s. 9
lv–lix. (January 1909): 49.
68. Exhibited as Charmeur de perroquets; see 77. Charabot and Collot, “Organisation et de-
Charles-Roux et al., Notice officielle, lviii. scription de l’Exposition coloniale nationale
Today it is in the Musée des Beaux-Arts de de 1907,” 719.
Marseille, at Longchamp. 78. See in particular the argument of Leighten in
69. This society merits a study in its own right: her “White Peril and L’Art nègre.”
it was forming by the time the seventeen 79. Léon Werth, “Les Nègres au Jardin d’accli-
Marseille scholarship holders returned to matation,” La Grande Revue 74 (August
Paris to exhibit in February 1908 at the Ga- 1912): 609–12.
leries Bernheim-Jeune, which hosted a se-
ries of Salons up to 1914. The travel schol- Chapter Six
arships the Coloniale attracted (allied as it
was to the Société des Artistes Français) ex- 1. The account of government traveling schol-
ceeded those managed by the Orientalists. arships that follows is based largely on Ar-
Its heyday was the 1920s, when Bernheim, mand Dayot’s “Salon des boursiers de voy-
as treasurer, documented its activities in his age,” Art et décoration 11 (1902): 115–16;
Bulletin de la vie moderne. Highly visible at “Boursiers de voyage,” Le Journal, 24 Febru-
both the 1922 and 1931 exhibitions, where its

Notes to Pages 123–130 299

ary 1902; and his unsigned “Prix du Salon et French missions in East Africa (Lagarde,
bourse de voyage,” Le Temps, 6 June 1891. Bonvalot, Bonchamps, Marchand), see G. L.,
2. See Arrêté, signed by Minister for Public In- “Les Missions sur Faschoda,” L’Illustration,
struction and Fine Arts Jules Ferry, and dated no. 2912 (17 December 1898): 390–93.
10 May 1881, Arch. Nat. F 21 4109. 11. Charles Nicholl, Somebody Else: Arthur Rim-
3. This plotting of routes is based on the sub- baud in Africa, 1880–1891 (London: Jonathan
stantial records of the one hundred and sixty Cape, 1997). My thanks to Peter Hulme for
boursiers who left France between 1881 and this citation.
1901, Arch. Nat. F21 4115–F 21 4120. 12. Note from the office of the Travaux d’art, 24
4. On the wider activities of the inspectors, see September 1896, Arch. Nat. F 21 4118.
Daniel J. Sherman, Worthy Monuments: Art 13. The account that follows is drawn from
Museums and the Politics of Culture in Nine- Bu¤et’s letters to the Director of Fine Arts,
teenth-Century France (Cambridge and Lon- 28 December 1896 and 27 March, 27 August,
don: Harvard University Press, 1989), chap. 2. and 14 September 1897, Arch. Nat. F 21 4115.
5. See Dictionnaire de la biographie française 10 14. G. G., “M. Lagarde en Abyssinie,” L’Illus-
(Paris: Letouzey & Ané), 402–3. Dayot de- tration, no. 2818 (27 February 1897): 160.
scribes himself as “a former ‘Algerian’ (mar- 15. Dayot, note of 3 December 1899, Arch. Nat.
ried to an Oranaise and former chef de cabi- F 21 4118; catalogue of Salon des Artistes
net of M. Petrelle)” in a letter to the Français 1898, no. 355. The work was de-
governor-general of Algeria, dated 24 April posited at the French Senate in 1904, but I
1929, Centre des Archives d’Outre-Mer, have been unable to trace it; see Isabelle
Aix-en-Provence, 64.S.30. Compin et al., Catalogue sommaire illustré
6. Jules Ferry was twice minister of public in- des peintures du musée d’Orsay, vol. 2, Ecole
struction and fine arts: February 1879–No- française, annexes et index (Paris: Réunion de
vember 1881 and February 1883–March 1885; musées nationaux, 1986), 217.
his colonial work included the Bardo Treaty 16. See Brahimi and Benchikou, La vie et l’oeu-
of 1881 (Protectorate of Tunisia), and the vre de Etienne Dinet, 20–21; Lynne Thorn-
start of colonization in Madagascar and the ton indicates that it took ten days to travel
lower Congo. by coach from Algiers to Laghouat; see her
7. Manuscript letter from Armand Dayot to sale catalogue, L’Orientalisme (Paris: Gros &
Minister of Fine Arts, 19 November 1888, Delettrez, 12 March 1999), cat. 170.
Arch. Nat. F 21 4115. 17. Dinet’s river landscape was acquired in 1886
8. From 1895 the artists instituted an annual by the museum of Pau; see the illustration in
banquet, and two years later an “Association Brahimi and Benchikou, La vie et l’oeuvre de
amicale des Prix du Salon et boursiers de Etienne Dinet, 265 (cat. 453).
voyage,” which ended up with a pension 18. See Jeanne Dinet Rollince, La vie de E. Dinet
fund, a considerable library, and so on; see (Paris: Maisonneuve, 1938), 38.
Association amicale des Prix du Salon et bour- 19. Ibid., 46.
siers de voyage (Paris: Ministère de l’Instruc- 20. Ibid., 47.
tion publique et des Beaux-Arts, 1908), Arch. 21. Ibid.; see Brahimi and Benchikou, La vie et
Nat. F 21 4109, for a full list of prizewinners l’oeuvre de Etienne Dinet, 185 (cat. 101).
from 1874 to 1908. 22. On the wells, see Prosper Ricard and J. Dal-
9. Félix Soulés, letter to Director of Fine Arts, banne, Les Guides bleus: Algérie, Tunisie,
19 November 1889, Arch. Nat. F 21 4115. Tripolitaine, Malte (Paris: Hachette, 1930),
10. For an illustrated account of the various 300–301; and The Journals of André Gide,

300 Notes to Pages 130–136

vol. 1 (1889–1913), trans. and ed. Justin 32. Victor Prouvé, letter to his mother, dated
O’Brien (New York: Knopf, 1947), 63. Tunis, 29 January 1888, in ibid.
23. Dinet Rollince, La vie de E. Dinet, 48.
24. Ibid., 50. 33. See Victor Prouvé et la Tunisie, 1889–1890
25. Bénédite, “Etienne Dinet” (1910), 166. Ac- (Lunéville: Musée de Lunéville, 1977), n.p.
quired for one thousand francs for the Lux- My thanks to Pierre Chanel for this pam-
embourg, it was transferred in 1951, at Jean phlet.
Alazard’s request, to the Algiers Museum;
see Brahimi and Benchikou, La vie et l’oeu- 34. See the illustrated entry by Françoise-
vre de Etienne Dinet, 265. Thérèse Charpentier in Gallé, exh. cat.,
26. Dinet Rollince, La vie de E. Dinet, 52. Musée du Luxembourg (Paris: Réunion de
27. See Armand Dayot, “Le Salon des Boursiers musées nationaux, 1985), 262–64.
de voyage,” Art et décoration 11 (1902):
113–22; and the catalogues (with text by 35. Victor Prouvé, letter to the Director of Fine
Dayot) Prix du Salon et boursiers de voyage . . . Arts, Tunis, 11 November 1889, Arch. Nat.
IIIe exposition quinquennale (Paris: Ministère F 214115.
de l’Instruction Publique et des Beaux-Arts,
1912), and Exposition du cinquantenaire de la 36. Ricard and Dalbanne, Guides bleus, 444–47.
fondation des Prix du Salon et bourses de voy- 37. Prouvé, letters to Director of Fine Arts,
age (Paris: Albert Morancé, Grand Palais, 20
February–15 March 1926), BN Estampes. Gabès, 12 March and 9 April 1890, Arch. Nat.
28. For a richly illustrated account of these jour- F 214115.
neys, see Emmanuel Hecre et al., Victor 38. De Gabès à Douïreth, notes de voyage, texte et
Prouvé: Voyages en Tunisie, 1888–1890. Des- croquis de V. Prouvé (Nancy: La Lorraine
sins, aquarelles, huiles, exh. cat. (Metz: Edi- artiste and Crépin-Leblond, 1890).
tions Serpenoise, 1999), which came to my 39. Prouvé, journal entry for 20 January 1890,
attention too late to be considered here. in Victor Prouvé et la Tunisie, n.p.
29. See Michael Spens, “Victor (-Emile) Prouvé,” 40. Journal entry, 21 October 1889, in ibid.,
Dictionary of Art, vol. 25, 662–63; and where the curator notes that Prouvé doubt-
Debora L. Silverman, Art Nouveau in Fin-de- less knew the writings of his friend the Lor-
Siècle France: Politics, Psychology, and Style raine impressionist Charles de Meixmoron de
(Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of Dombasle.
California Press, 1989), 237–38, 253–54. 41. Jules Rais, “Victor Prouvé et ses plus ré-
From 1919 to 1940 Prouvé was director of centes inspirations,” Revue des arts décoratifs
the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Nancy. 21 (1901): 312–13.
30. Madeleine Prouvé, Victor Prouvé (Paris: 42. Prouvé, De Gabès à Douïreth, 5–6.
Berger-Levrault, 1958), 25. 43. Ibid., 12, 14–15.
31. Guillaumet’s Tableaux algériens first ap- 44. Madeleine Prouvé, Victor Prouvé, 47.
peared in L’Artiste in 1886 and in book form 45. Société des peintres orientalistes français, 1893
in 1888; Prouvé mentioned Guillaumet in his catalogue, 387. La plaine à ksar Médénine
letters home to his mother. See Françoise- (Sud Tunisien)—p[einture], 388; Etude de
Thérèse Charpentier, Orient romanesque, cavalier en tenue de fantasia (Ksar-Médénine),
Orient pittoresque dans l’oeuvre de jeunesse de 389–94; Un cadre contenant 6 études: Ksar-
Victor-Prouvé (Nancy: Musée de l’Ecole de Médénine, Tunis, Oasis à Gabès. The Na-
Nancy, 1977), n.p. tionale works were entitled Chemin creux
dans l’oasis de Gabès and L’Oued Gabès à
Menzel.
46. Société des peintres orientalistes français, 1895
catalogue, 137–39; Sud Tunisien, 140; 2
Cadres avec croquis du Sud Tunisien, 141; A

Notes to Pages 136–143 301

la fontaine de Menzel: Lithographie pour Eugène Angeli, “Une maison algérienne des
L’Album spécial. artistes, La Villa Abd-el-Tif,” Algéria, spe-
47. The Committee for Old Algiers is discussed cial issue Christmas 1957, 18.
further in Chapter 8. From the early 1900s 55. Jean Alazard, “La Villa Médicis algérienne:
this committee organized regular walking ‘Abd el Tif,’” with watercolors by Jean
tours of historic sites and visits to buildings Bouchaud, L’Illustration, no. 4490 (25 March
of interest in Algiers and its environs. 1929): 297.
48. Sabine Fazekas, “La Villa Abd-el-Tif et ses 56. Barrucand, in Alexandre, Réflexions sur les
peintres, 1907–1962,” master’s thesis, Uni- arts . . . en Algérie, 31n.1.
versité Panthéon-Sorbonne (Paris 1), 1987, 58. 57. “L’Echo des arts: Une Villa Médicis à Alger,”
This thesis was kindly made available to me L’Art et les Artistes 3, no. 26 (May 1907): 110.
by Mme Malika Bouabdellah at the National 58. Alazard, “La Villa Médicis algérienne,” 298.
Museum of Fine Arts of Algiers. On Jonnart, 59. See Cazenave, La Villa Abd-el-Tif, 309–10.
see also Elizabeth Cazenave, La Villa Abd-el- 60. The initial jury’s four members were Béné-
Tif: Un demi-siècle de vie artistique in Algérie, dite, the director of the Office of Algeria (in
1907–1962 (Paris: Association Abd-el-Tif, Paris), and two appointees of the governor-
1998), 25–27, a richly researched book (half general, being “amateurs . . . particularly in-
of which is a dictionary of Abd-el-Tifians) terested in the arts inspired by countries of
that is nevertheless flawed by errors in docu- oriental civilization” (ibid.).
mentation. And see Chapter 8 of this book. 61. See Fazekas, “La Villa Abd-el-Tif,” 84–85,
49. Arsène Alexandre, Réflexions sur les arts et les and Cazenave, La Villa Abd-el-Tif, 31–33.
industries d’art en Algérie (1905; Algiers: 62. Cazenave, La Villa Abd-el-Tif, 37–55.
L’Akhbar, 1907). 63. See Société des peintres orientalistes français,
50. See Victor Barrucand, M. Drumont et l’Algérie 1909 catalogue, nos. 46–96, which includes
(Mustapha: Imprimerie algérienne, 1902), several studies of the Abd-el-Tif building
which consists of articles first published in itself.
Les Nouvelles. 64. See Fazekas, “La Villa Abd-el-Tif,” 82. The
51. Christine Drouot and Olivier Vergniot, “Vic- Villa Abd-el-Tif collection is still held, in
tor Barrucand, un undésirable à Alger,” in Le lamentable conditions indicative of a low es-
Maghreb dans l’imaginaire français: La colonie, teem for colonial art, at the Musée National
le désert, l’exil, ed. Jean-Robert Henry (Saint- des Beaux-Arts d’Alger.
Etienne: Edisud, 1985), 32. 65. Jean-Marie Carré, “L.-G. Carré,” L’Art et les
52. Alexandre, Réflexions sur les arts . . . en Al- artistes, no. 110 (May 1914): 263–64.
gérie, 30–32. 66. Le thé dans le jardin, inscribed “Algiers
53. Ibid., 39–40. Barrucand claimed that he him- 1910,” was exhibited at the Salon of the So-
self and the prominent local landscapist ciété Nationale des Beaux-Arts in 1911 and
Maxime Noiré suggested the location of the purchased by the state in 1915. See Isabelle
artists’ residence; see Barrucand, “Les Abd- Compin, Catalogue sommaire illustré des
el-Tif,” 3. peintures du musée d’Orsay, vol. 1, Ecole
54. See Henri Klein, “Abd-el-Tif, Villa des pein- française; see also Visions de l’Algérie
tres orientalistes” (1910), in Klein, Feuillets heureuse, 41.
d’El-Djezaïr (Algiers: L. Chaix, 1937), 242– 67. Carré, “L.-G. Carré,” 264. On this realist
43; Edmond Gojon, “La Villa Abd-el-Tif,” phase of his work, see also “Léon Carré et
in Gojon, En Algérie avec la France (Paris: l’Algérie populaire,” L’Akhbar, 13 February
Charpentier, 1927), 168–84; and Louis- 1910.

302 Notes to Pages 144–149

68. See Carré, “L.-G. Carré,” 267; this work is Benjamin, ed., Orientalism: Delacroix to Klee,
illustrated in Cazenave, La Villa Abd-el-Tif, cat. nos. 114–16.
116, but misdated to 1919. 79. J. D’Aoust, “L’Afrique du Nord aux Salons
de 1913,” L’Action africaine, no. 19 (July 1913):
69. Carré, “L.-G. Carré,” 268. Several of Bar- 126.
rucand’s literary works of the 1890s had 80. René Jean, “Petites expositions: Les peintres
Buddhist and Indian themes. orientalistes français,” La Chronique des arts
et de la curiosité, no. 7 (15 February 1913): 50.
70. See Thornton, L’Orientalisme (8 December For Mauclair’s critique (“panels of a rude
1997), nos. 76, 77. Camille Mauclair com- primitivity” inspired by Cézanne and Gau-
pared the best Carré miniatures to Edmond guin), see his “Peintres de l’Afrique du Nord”
Dulac’s for the Thousand and One Nights in (1913), 77.
his “Peintres de l’Afrique du Nord à l’expo- 81. See Waldemar George, “Les grandes inva-
sition des orientalistes,” L’Action africaine 2, sions. Charles Dufresne,” La Renaissance de
no. 16 (April 1913): 78. l’art français et les industries de luxe 10 (Oc-
tober 1931): 292–96.
71. Victor Barrucand, “Abd-el-Tif et ses amis,” 82. Jacques Busse, 1966, quoted in Philippe Cha-
La Dépêche algérienne, 9 January 1920. bert et al., Charles Dufresne, 1876–1938. Ré-
trospective (Troyes: Musée d’Art moderne,
72. Jean Alazard, “Le Palais d’Eté du Gouver- 1987), n.p. [5].
neur Général de l’Algérie,” Art et décoration
44, no. 261 (September 1923): 87–96; text Chapter Seven
amplified in Alazard, Le Palais d’Eté: Rési-
dence du Gouverneur-Général d’Algérie (Al- 1. The phrase is from Marius-Ary Leblond’s di-
giers: Direction de l’Intérieur et des Beaux- atribe against young boursiers of the Société
Arts, 1951). On painting at the Palais d’Eté, Coloniale, whom he calls “stupid daubers
see François Pouillon, “La peinture monu- sent o¤ to sow the wild oats of their medioc-
mentale en Algérie,” 190–92. rity” (Leblond, “Les expositions. L’exposi-
tion des orientalistes,” 382).
73. The Palais d’Eté has been in continuous use
since the 1962 revolution, initially as the pres- 2. Exposition Albert Besnard (Paris: Galerie
ident’s palace; when a new presidential resi- Georges Petit, 20 April–20 May 1912); see
dence was built, the old one was o¤ered to also Roger Benjamin, “The Colonial Mirage:
the people in 1987, the twenty-fifth anniver- Besnard in India, Matisse in Morocco,” Uni-
sary of the revolution. It has been used for versity of Melbourne Fine Arts Society Bulletin
exhibitions and for public gatherings like 6, no. 3 (December 1994): 3–5.
weddings.
3. Claude Duthuit, Rémi Labrusse, et al. Ma-
74. Alazard, Le Palais d’Eté, 41. See also Eliza- tisse: “La révélation m’est venue de l’Orient,”
beth Cazenave, Marius de Buzon (Paris: Edi- (Rome: Musei Capitolini; and Florence:
tions Les Abd-el-Tif, 1996). Artificio, 1997). See also Isabelle Monod-
Fontaine et al., Le Maroc de Matisse, exh. cat.
75. Pouillon, “La peinture monumentale en Al- (Paris: Institut du Monde Arabe and Galli-
gérie,” 192. mard, 1999).

76. See Louis Vauxcelles, “Notes d’Art: Cer- 4. This chapter expands on my “Matisse in Mo-
tains,” Gil Blas, 10 March 1905; see also rocco: A Colonizing Esthetic?” Art in Amer-
Cazenave, La Villa Abd-el-Tif, 212.

77. See Bernard Dorival, “La donation Lung au
Musée national d’art moderne,” La Revue du
Louvre et des Musées dé France 11, no. 3 (1961):
148–58, esp. 156.

78. For color reproductions and discussion, see

Notes to Pages 150–160 303

ica 78, no. 11 (November 1990): 156–65, 211– Center for the History of Art, Los Angeles,
13, and “Orientalist Excursions: Matisse Calif., 100; trans. in Spurling, The Unknown
in North Africa,” in Matisse, ed. Caroline Matisse, ibid.
Turner and Roger Benjamin (Brisbane: 10. Prosper Ricard, Les merveilles de l’autre
Queensland Art Gallery; and Sydney: Art France,123.
Exhibitions Australia, 1995), 70–83. In a re- 11. Ibid., 127.
visionist spirit, see also Jean-Claude Leben- 12. Ricard and Dalbanne, Guides bleus, 286–89.
sztejn, “Matisse à Tanger,” in Tanger: Espace For a wonderful analysis of Biskra as de-
imaginaire (Rabat: Université de Mohammed scribed in nineteenth-century guidebooks
V; and Tangier: Université Abdelmalek Es- and literature, see Gareth Stanton, “The
Saâdi, 1992), 113–19; Abelali Dahrouch, Oriental City: A North African Itinerary,”
“The Neglected Side: Matisse and Eurocen- Third Text 3–4 (spring–summer 1988):
trism,” Third Text, no. 24 (autumn 1993): 3–38.
13–24; and Deepak Ananth, “Frames within 13. In Robert Hichens’s Garden of Allah (Lon-
Frames: On Matisse and The Orient,” in The don: Methuen, 1904) an adventurous young
Rhetoric of the Frame, ed. Paul Duro (Cam- English aristocrat visits Biskra with her maid-
bridge and New York: Cambridge Univer- servant, takes a young Arab poet as her
sity Press, 1997), 153– 77. guide, encounters an Italian count who keeps
5. See Hubert Coenen, “Evenepoel et la pein- a magnificent garden, and flees into the desert
ture orientaliste belge du XIXe et du début with a mysterious Russian. While hardly
du XXe siècle,” in Elaine de Wilde et al., high literature, The Garden of Allah presages,
Henri Evenepoel, 1872–1899 (Brussels: in the mystery it ascribes to the desert, Paul
Musées Royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Bowles’s Sheltering Sky (New York: New
1994), 125–52. Directions, 1949).
6. For the visit to Marseille, see Hilary Spur- 14. Ricard, Les merveilles de l’autre France,
ling, The Unknown Matisse: A Life of Henri 122–25.
Matisse, vol. 1, The Early Years, 1869–1908 15. Matisse, quoted in Kasper Monrad, ed., Henri
(London: Hamish Hamilton, 1998), 355; on Matisse: Four Great Collectors, exh. cat.
Camoin, see Judi Freeman, “Chronology,” (Copenhagen: Statens Museum for Kunst,
in The Fauve Landscape, exh. cat. (Los An- 1999), 284. My thanks to John Klein for this
geles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art; reference.
and New York: Abbeville Press, 1990), 16. Maurice Denis, “Le soleil,” L’Ermitage, 15
91–92. December 1906, reprinted in Denis, Théories,
7. See Freeman, ibid., 90; and Spurling, ibid. 1890–1910, 218–24.
Details of travel routes are confirmed by 17. Matisse, letter to Henri Manguin, undated,
Grand tourisme en Algérie et en Tunisie (Paris: quoted in Freeman, “Chronology,” 213n.37.
Touring-Club de France [ca. 1908]), 37. 18. See Franck Baudoin, letter of 18 August 1891
8. Matisse, postcard to Derain, quoted in Do- to Director of Fine Arts, Arch. Nat. F 21
minique Fourcade and Isabelle Monod- 4116.
Fontaine, Henri Matisse, 1904–1917 (Paris: 19. Matisse, quoted in Freeman, “Far from the
Centre Georges Pompidou, 1993), 76; the Land of France: Fauves Abroad,” in The
text of the postcard is translated in Spurling, Fauve Landscape, 213n.38.
The Unknown Matisse, 358. 20. “As for Fromentin’s book, it is certain that he
9. Matisse to Pierre Courthion, in “Conversa- put into it what he was unable to put into his
tions avec Henri Matisse,” typescript, Getty painting” (Henri Matisse, “Lettre à Tériade”

304 Notes to Pages 161–164

[1947], in Matisse, Ecrits et propos sur l’art, ed. J. Huguet, “Les Ouled-Naïl,” Revue ency-
Dominique Fourcade [Paris: Hermann, clopédique 10 (1900): 621–29; and Guy de
1973], 311). Maupassant, Au soleil (1884), with illustra-
21. Letter from Le Glay to Matisse, Algiers, 12 tions by André Suréda (Paris: Albin Michel,
June 1906, quoted in Spurling, The Unknown 1945), 95–103.
Matisse, 360. 30. Dinet and Ibrahim, ibid., 128–29.
22. Henri Evenepoel, letter to his father, Al- 31. See further Roger Benjamin, “Expression,
giers, 17 November 1897, in Henri Evenepoel Disfiguration; Matisse, the Female Nude,
à Paris: Lettres choisies, 1892–1899, ed. Fran- and the Academic Eye,” in InVisible Touch:
cis E. Hyslop (Brussels: La Renaissance du Modernism and Masculinity, ed. Terry Smith
livre, 1971), 162. (Sydney: Power Publications; and Chicago:
23. Matisse, letter to Henri Manguin, undated, University of Chicago Press, 1997), 75–106.
quoted in Freeman, “Fauves Abroad,” 208 32. See Marcel Sembat, Henri Matisse, Les pein-
and 213n.39. tres français nouveaux, 1 (Paris: Nouvelle re-
24. Matisse, letter to Henri Manguin, undated, vue française, 1920), 350; and Brenda Rich-
quoted in Pierre Schneider, Matisse, trans. ardson, Dr. Claribel and Miss Etta: The Cone
Michael Taylor and Bridget Strevens Romer Collection of the Baltimore Museum of Art
(London: Thames and Hudson, 1984), 158. (Baltimore: Baltimore Museum of Art, 1985),
25. On the literary precedent of Gustave Flau- 159n.45.
bert, see Richard Terdiman, “Ideological 33. James D. Herbert, Fauve Painting: The Mak-
Voyages: Concerning a Flaubertian Dis- ing of Cultural Politics (New Haven, Conn.,
Orient-Ation,” in Europe and Its Others, ed. and London: Yale University Press, 1992),
Francis Barker et al., 2 vols. (Colchester: Uni- 158.
versity of Essex, 1985), 1:28–40; and Said, 34. For the sale of works, with color illustrations,
Orientalism, 186–87. see Jack Cowart et al., Matisse in Morocco:
26. See The Journals of André Gide, vol. 1, 1889– Paintings and Drawings, 1912–1913 (Wash-
1913; although there are no entries for the ington: National Gallery of Art, 1990).
1893 venture, Gide does describe his 1896 trip 35. See Guillaume Apollinaire, L’Intransigeant,
to Biskra and Touggourt; of particular in- 17 April 1913, reprinted in Apollinaire,
terest are his notes on Ouled-Naïl dance (64), Chroniques d’Art, 1902–1918, ed. L.-C. Breu-
on the value of “Negro” music as opposed nig (Paris: Gallimard, 1960), 394. Two other
to the vulgar ceremonies performed for reviews of this short-lived exhibition not
tourists (67), and the beauty of Arab love previously noticed are worth quoting in full
songs (69– 70). here. René Jean, in “Petites expositions,”
27. Jack D. Flam, Matisse: The Man and His Art Chronique des beaux-arts et de la curiosité, no.
(Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 16 (19 April 1913): 125, wrote:
1986), 167.
28. Joseph Boone, “Vacation Cruises, or, the M. Henri Matisse is a colorist of remarkable
Homoerotics of Orientalism,” PMLA, no. subtlety and refinement, sensitive to the
110 (January 1995): 101–2. least nuances, who boldly juxtaposes the
29. Etienne Dinet and Sliman ben Ibrahim, most violent and the sweetest of tones, to
Khadra, danseuse Ouled-Naïl (1906), illus- the point where he attains a sort of colored
trated by E. Dinet, ornamental pages by Mo- music that goes to the extreme limits of
hammed Racim (Paris: Henri Piazza, 1926); the pictorial domain. The canvases he has
further contemporary views may be found in brought back from Morocco are expressive

Notes to Pages 165–168 305

and evocative. They accompany pen 40. Literary set pieces like Loti’s account of the
sketches in a sure and synthetic line and sultan’s emergence from his palace in Fez de-
some sculptures whose systematic and liberately rivaled Delacroix’s famous canvas
willful distortion aims to emphasize the in Toulouse; see Brahimi, introduction to
expression of the face or the body. Loti, Au Maroc, 10–11.

Louis Vauxcelles, in “Exposition Matisse,” 41. E. Tériade, “Matisse Speaks” (1951), in Jack
Gil Blas, 20 April 1913, wrote: D. Flam, Matisse on Art, 2d ed. (Oxford:
Phaidon, 1978), 133.
Matisse is a difficult artist. He is execrable
and delightful from one canvas to the 42. Loti, Au Maroc, 23.
next. . . . All this vagabond art, this chaos, 43. See John Elderfield, “Matisse in Morocco: An
is conscious, premeditated. Thus Matisse
went o¤ to Morocco in 1912 like Eugène Interpretive Guide,” in Cowart et al., Matisse
Delacroix, embarking in 1832 on the sloop in Morocco, 226–28.
of war La Perle, in Count de Mornay’s 44. See James Cli¤ord, “On Ethnographic
entourage. Authority,” in The Predicament of Culture:
Twentieth Century Ethnography, Literature,
He—not Delacroix! Matisse—brings and Art (Cambridge: Harvard University
us back a dozen paintings, a job lot of draw- Press, 1988), 21–54, for a discussion of
ings, and various pieces of sculpture. . . . self-consciousness in the discourse of
The croquis have an amusing freedom, they ethnography.
are intelligent résumés. Among the paint- 45. Three young, apparently observant, Islamic
ings there are several, in particular the Café women provided material for Loti’s novel,
marocain, that teach us nothing new about inviting the aging novelist to meet with them
our hero: color patches and flat areas in the in Istanbul. They were in fact two proto-
manner of the Capucines of the 1912 Salon feminists and the French feminist journalist
d ’Automne. Marc Hélys, who used the veil to dupe the
writer and publicize their cause. The case
Others, the finest of which is the Porte calls for a modification of Said’s thesis, in that
de la Casbah, take e¤ect through ravishing the conditions of Orientalism also contain
harmonies of blues, pinks, and greens. My the possibility of a reversal of power. On Les
gravest objection to all this is that the essen- Désenchantées, see Lesley Blanch, Pierre Loti,
tial theme of a picture is light, while three- the Legendary Romantic: A Biography (New
quarters of Matisse ’s pictures are nothing York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983),
but exercises in color. Matisse is an eye. 271– 79; Quella-Villéger, Pierre Loti, l’in-
compris, 243–55; see also Marc Hélys, Le
36. Pierre Schneider, “The Moroccan Hinge,” Secret des “Désenchantées” (Paris: Perrin &
in Cowart et al., Matisse in Morocco, 201–39. Cie, 1924).
46. Malek Alloula, The Colonial Harem: Images
37. Pierre Loti, Au Maroc (1890), ed. Denise of a Sub-Eroticism (Minneapolis: University
Brahimi (Paris: La Boîte à documents, 1988), of Minnesota Press, 1986); see Barbara Har-
268. low’s introduction for a discussion of the
veil.
38. Ibid., 26 (entry dated 26 March 1889). 47. For example, in a letter dated Tangier, 31
39. See William A. Hoisington, Jr., Lyautey and March 1914, the Australian artist Hilda Rix
wrote to her mother of painting “an Arab
the French Conquest of Morocco (New York: girl—of about 18 yrs—a ‘naughty one ’ I
St. Martin’s Press, 1995); and C. R. Pennell,
Morocco since 1830 (New York: New York
University Press, 2000).

306 Notes to Pages 168–172

guess—for no self-respecting Arab woman 53. “Entretien avec Tériade” (1929), in Matisse,
would pose—Today she brought a friend & Ecrits et propos sur l’art, 99.
Oh they were queer & eastern & ‘let-go’—
One was playing my Arab lute & both 54. Ary Renan, “Une nouvelle illustration des
singing the weirdest things in harsh sad Evangiles par M. James Tissot,” Gazette des
voices—She didn’t pose very well but you’ll Beaux-Arts, 3d ser., 17 (1 May 1897): 421–28,
like the thing I got. . . . If I hadn’t kept back and 18 (1 July 1897): 61–68. Renan welcomed
her pay till today I’m sure she wouldn’t have this correction of the “phantasmagoria” of
appeared again. Their eyes are so weird & two millennia of religious painting that had
long & thick black lashes & brows” (see precious little to do with what was known of
John Pigot, Capturing the Orient: Hilda Rix Palestine, ancient or contemporary.
Nicholas and Ethel Carrick in the East (Wa-
verley, Victoria: Waverley City Gallery, 55. See Duthuit, Labrusse, et al., Matisse, 148.
1992), 18. 56. After many of the small number of Euro-
48. See Elderfield, “Matisse in Morocco,” in Cow-
art et al., 216 and 236 nn.66–67. peans living in the royal city of Fez were
49. “The hotel with its terraces standing on top massacred in 1912, the French moved in
of the hill in its big lovely garden is a joy— forces sufficient to suppress opposition there
& from the window of my room I look down and in the lowlands and establish the protec-
on a courtyard which is an unending source torate under General Lyautey.
of interest to me—Silent footed be-tur- 57. Matisse, in a letter of early 1912, expressed
banned servants move about their duties— a desire to see Fez but noted that it was un-
Just now this morning early they were load- safe to do so; see Schneider, “The Moroc-
ing many mules with interesting huge can Hinge,” in Cowart et al., Matisse in Mo-
packages in preparation for the departing rocco, 19.
caravan of three stout Germans[,] a cele- 58. Howard Ince, “A Reference to the Coast
brated financier, a diplomat and their doctor” Towns of Morocco,” Art Journal (1903): 239.
(Hilda Rix, Hôtel Villa de France, Tangier, My thanks to John Pigot for this reference.
5 February 1912, reprinted in Pigot, Captur- 59. Matisse, postcard to his son Jean from Tan-
ing the Orient, 14). Further on Rix, see John gier with printed inscription “Tipo de la Ka-
Pigot, “Les Femmes orientalistes: Hilda Rix bila de Raisuli,” 10 January 1913, quoted in
Nicholas and Ethel Carrick in the East,” in Monrad, ed., Matisse: Four Great Collectors,
Strange Women: Essays in Art and Gender, ed. 238, illustrated Duthuit, Labrusse, et al., Ma-
Jeanette Hoorn (Melbourne: Melbourne Uni- tisse, 148.
versity Press, 1994), 155–68. 60. Ricard, Les merveilles de l’autre France, 268.
50. Matisse also mentioned Amido of the Hotel 61. Matisse, letter to Marguerite Matisse, 21 No-
Valentina as a potential model in a letter of vember 1912 (Archives Matisse), quoted in
April 1912; see Cowart et al., Matisse in Mo- Schneider, “The Moroccan Hinge,” in Cow-
rocco, 74. art et al., 56n.147.
51. Hilda Rix, letter to Elizabeth Rix, Tangier, 62. Marcel Sembat, “Henri Matisse,” Cahiers
25 March 1914, in Pigot, Capturing the Orient, d’Aujourd’hui, no. 4 (April 1913): 194.
18. 63. For the political biography of Marcel Sem-
52. See the entries in Matisse in Morocco, 74, 88, bat (1862–1922), see Dictionnaire des parle-
and 90; Amido and Zorah Debout were sold mentaires français (Paris: Presses Universi-
to Shchukin. taires de France, 1977), 2990–92.
64. Sembat’s parliamentary speeches are recorded
in the Journal officiel de la République fran-
çaise . . . Chambre des députés; on the Beni-

Notes to Pages 172–179 307

Snassen, see (1907): 2572– 73; on the Indo- 75. Thus Groves wrote: “In Tangier my wife and
chinese question, see (1910): 1014; on the Mo- I felt the irritation of too much that was Eu-
roccan crisis (1911): 4042–46 (the quotation ropean; but this is one of the instances . . .
is from 4042). With the unification of the where the artist with his brush and pencil
French socialists in 1905 under Jean Jaurès, scores over the photographer. Discordant
the line on French colonial adventures mod- and disturbing European notes are elimi-
erated: while colonialism might be deplored nated from the otherwise harmonious East-
on humanitarian grounds, it was above all ern picture” (“Morocco as a Winter Sketch-
feared as the most likely flash point for a war ing Ground,” 25).
between the European powers. See Sembat’s
book against bellicose Republicans, Faites un 76. See André Suréda, “Soirées dans la Cas-
roi, sinon faites la paix (Paris: Figuière, 1913); bah”; and Jean Vignaud, “Souvenirs de la
and R. Thomas, “La politique socialiste et le Kasbah,” L’Action africaine 3, no. 26 (Feb-
problème colonial de 1905 à 1920,” Revue ruary 1914): 21–28. Vignaud describes the
française d’histoire d’outre-mer 47 (1960): 238. Casbah of Algiers as a “court of every mir-
65. “Discours de Sembat,” in Parti socialiste (sec- acle, a cloaca where every vice hides, at once
tion française de l’Internationale ouvrière), 9e a coup-gorge and a prison for the roumis [Eu-
Congrès national (Paris, 1912), 124. ropeans] who dare to go there unarmed. . . .
66. In the Chamber of Deputies, however, Sem- Friends who have lived in Algiers for thirty-
bat forcefully promoted public cultural ini- five years . . . have never visited the Arab
tiatives and defended the controversial Salon quarter.”
d’Automne and the Salon des Indépendants.
67. I borrow the term “aestheticist” from Peter 77. It is unclear how much Matisse actually
Bürger, Theory of the Avant-Garde (Minnea- painted in the Casbah. In 1890 Loti had re-
polis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984). ported Tangier was secure, “no more need
68. For such an approach to nineteenth-century for guards to move about the streets, no more
Orientalism, see Nochlin, “The Imaginary need to look out for oneself ” (Au Maroc,
Orient.” 267–68). Although small canvases like The
69. Matisse to Camoin, Tangier, ca. October Marabout and View of Tangier were probably
1912, first published in Danièle Giraudy, begun in the open, Casbah Gate and the Mo-
“Correspondance Henri Matisse–Charles roccan Café, in view of their size and their fre-
Camoin,” Revue de l’art 12 (1971): 13. quent reworking, probably were not.
70. Clara T. MacChesney, “A Talk with Ma-
tisse” (1912), in Flam, Matisse on Art, 52. 78. Théophile Gautier in La Presse (1839),
71. The best source is Die Tunisreise: Klee, quoted in Philippe Jullian, The Orientalists:
Macke, Moilliet, ed. Ernst-Gerhardt Güse, European Painters of Eastern Scenes (Oxford:
exh. cat. (Münster: Westfälisches Landes- Phaidon, 1977), 58.
museum für Kunst und Kulturgeschichte;
and Stuttgart: Hatje, 1982). 79. Sembat, in “Henri Matisse” (1913), gave
72. See Robert E. Groves, “Morocco as a Winter evidence that originally the men’s faces had
Sketching Ground,” Studio 45 (1908–9): 25. “lines, eyes, and a mouth,” that the figures
73. Ricard, Les merveilles de l’autre France, 351. were painted di¤erent colors (red, blue, yel-
74. Matisse, postcard to Gertrude Stein, 16 March low), and that one even smoked a pipe; the
1912, illustrated in Benjamin, “Matisse in passage is translated in Cowart et al., Matisse
Morocco: A Colonizing Esthetic?” 158. in Morocco, 104–6.

80. See Roger Benjamin, “The Decorative Land-
scape, Fauvism, and the Arabesque of Ob-
servation,” Art Bulletin 75, no. 2 (June 1993):
307–16.

308 Notes to Pages 179–186

81. See Schneider, “The Moroccan Hinge,” in 7. Ali Merad, Le réformisme musulman en Al-
Cowart et al., 36–38, for Matisse ’s response gérie de 1925 à 1940: Essai d’histoire re-
to the gardens of the Villa Brooks. ligieuse et sociale (Paris and The Hague:
Mouton, 1967), 43n.1; on Jonnart’s cultural
82. Pierre Courthion, interview with Matisse, policies, see Cazenave, La Villa Abd-el-Tif,
1941, trans. in Cowart et al., 68. 26–27.

83. See Laura Coyle ’s entry in Cowart et al., 70, 8. Charles Jonnart, unidentified 1900 text,
and the infrared photo on 276. Archives départmentales du Pas-de-Calais,
quoted in Cazenave, F. Marius de Buzon, 12.
84. Schneider, “The Moroccan Hinge,” 27.
9. Merad, Le réformisme musulman, 43n.1.
Chapter Eight 10. See Marçais, L’art en Algérie, 152, describing

1. The story is told in detail in Savarini, “L’Expo- the “recent circular” as “the personal e¤ort
sition d’art musulman,” 606–12. of M. Jonnart.”
11. François Béguin, Arabisances: Décor archi-
2. See Dalila Orfali, “Un musée en péril,” Re- tectural et tracé urbain en Afrique du Nord,
vue du Musée National des Beaux-Arts (Al- 1830–1950 (Paris: Dunod, 1983), 1. (This
giers) 2 (December 1988): 14; see also “Le book is richly illustrated.) See also Çelik,
Musée national d’Alger,” Chronique des beaux- Urban Forms and Colonial Confrontations,
arts et de la curiosité, no. 17 (24 April 1897): 214n.2.
155. 12. Béguin, Arabisances, 20–21.
13. For detailed discussions of three of these
3. See Raymond F. Betts, Assimilation and Asso- Jonnart style buildings, see Henri Klein,
ciation in French Colonial Theory, 1890–1914 Feuillets d’El-Djezaïr 7 (1914): 36, 60–68,
(New York: Columbia University Press, 92–96; for illustrations, see Çelik, Urban
1961). Forms and Colonial Confrontations, 70; and
Béguin, Arabisances, 6, 85.
4. Whether one model was preferable in an eth- 14. Marçais, L’art en Algérie, 151. With some
ical sense is debatable: Lorcin argues that “as- show of cultural sensitivity, the medersa
similation” was based on the idea of the po- was dedicated to the memory of Sidi Abd-
tential perfectability of the indigenous, Er-Rahman’s Tsalibi clan, which had dom-
whereas “association” tacitly suggested inated the Mitidja region before the arrival
their inferiority (Imperial Identities). Prac- of the Turks; see Ricard and Dalbanne,
tically, however, the French transforma- Guide bleu: Algérie, Tunisie, 16.
tions in Morocco must be preferred to those 15. Lyautey is quoted to this e¤ect in Béguin,
in Algeria. Arabisances, 61.
16. Marius Vachon, “Les industries d’art in-
5. See Georges Marçais, L’art en Algérie, Ex- digènes de l’Algérie,” Revue des arts décora-
position Coloniale de Marseille (Algiers: Im- tifs 21 (1901): 387–94, and 22 (1902): 21–27;
primerie Algérienne, 1906), 148. On the mil- the quotation is from 21 (1901): 394.
itary reuse of Roman forts and roads, see 17. Alexandre, Réflexions sur les arts . . . en Al-
Michael Greenhalgh, “The New Centurions: gérie, 10.
French Reliance on the Roman Past during 18. Ibid.
the Conquest of Algeria,” War and Society 19. On Ben-Aben, see Henri Klein, “Evocation
16, no. 1 (May 1998): 1–28. d’art arabe: L’Ecole de broderie Ben Aben”
(1909), in Klein, Feuillets d’El-Djezaïr (1937),
6. M. Elisabeth Crouse, Algiers (London: Gay
and Bird, 1907), 184–85; on French urbanism
in Algiers, see Çelik, Urban Forms and Colo-
nial Confrontations.

Notes to Pages 187–197 309

305– 7; see also C. Bayet, “L’art arabe à Al- sociation, 113–20; on Chailly-Bert, 47–51 and
ger,” Revue de l’art ancien et moderne 18 147–52.
(July–December 1905): 22–23; Alexandre, 29. For detailed descriptions of these campaigns,
Réflexions sur les arts . . . en Algérie, 14–15; see Hoisington, Lyautey and the French Con-
Crouse, Algiers, 154–55; and Marçais, L’art en quest of Morocco; and Pennell, Morocco since
Algérie, 158–59. 1830.
20. Marçais, L’art en Algérie, 158. On the school 30. Wright, The Politics of Design in French Colo-
of Mme Luce as described by the British nial Urbanism; and Janet Abu-Lughod, Ra-
feminist Barbara Bodichon, see Deborah bat: Urban Apartheid in Morocco (Princeton,
Cherry, Beyond the Frame: Feminism and N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1980).
Visual Culture, Britain, 1850–1900 (London: 31. See Wright, Politics of Design, 141–43; for a
Routledge, 2000), 71– 72. record of Moroccan sites listed for preserva-
21. Bayet, “L’art arabe à Alger,” 22. tion, see Historique de la direction générale de
22. See John MacKenzie, Orientalism: History, l’Instruction publique, des Beaux-arts, et des
Theory, and the Arts (Manchester: Manches- Antiquités (1912–1930) (Rabat: Protectorat
ter University Press, 1995), chap. 5, “Orien- de la République française au Maroc, 1931),
talism in Design.” 272–82.
23. In 1905 a number of Luce ’s pieces had been 32. See Henri Klein, “L’Orientalisme au Maroc,”
given to the Mustapha Museum and others Feuillets d’El-Djezaïr 7 (1914): 24.
placed in a large exhibit of Muslim art at the 33. Rabinow, French Modern, 300, as quoted by
new medersa that was scheduled to coincide Emily Apter, Continental Drift, 210.
with the Congrès international des orien- 34. Wright, Politics of Design, finds for the pre-
talistes at Algiers (Bayet, “L’art arabe à Al- servationist intent and disputes the charge of
ger,” 18). apartheid by Abu-Lughod (147–49).
24. Vachon, “Les industries d’art indigènes,” 35. The phrases are quoted from Raymond
part 2, 27. Koechlin, “Les tapis marocains au Pavillon
25. A description of the office is given in Mus- de Marsan,” France-Maroc, no. 8 (15 August
tapha Orif, “Mohammed Racim, inventeur 1919): 208.
de la miniature algérienne,” in Mohammed 36. Henri Prost, “L’Urbanisme au Maroc,” La
Racim, miniaturiste algérien (Paris: Musée de Renaissance du Maroc (Poitiers, 1923), 391, as
l’Institut du Monde Arabe, 3–29 March quoted by Wright, Politics of Design, 112.
1992), 24. This essential essay is reprinted 37. Jean Gallotti’s report was reprinted as “Les
from Actes de la Recherche en sciences sociales industries d’art indigène en 1913” in four is-
75 (November 1988). sues of France-Maroc beginning with no. 82
26. Bayet, “L’art arabe à Alger,” 24: “Let us de- (September 1923) and ending with no. 87
fend [young Arab artisans] against the (February 1924).
zeal . . . of our drawing masters. Certain 38. “Le Service des arts indigènes,” in His-
‘artists’ have already been found who are torique . . . des Beaux-arts, 146.
ready to undertake the salvaging of Arab art 39. France-Maroc was published under the im-
and to provoke a renaissance by improving primatur of Lyautey in Paris and Casablanca
it as they see fit.” from 1917 to 1925 (when the War of the Rif
27. This account draws on Paul Rabinow, French forced Lyautey’s resignation). On Alfred de
Modern: Norms and Forms of the Social Envi- Tarde, see Wright, Politics of Design, 72, 87,
ronment (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1989), 113¤. 301.
28. On Gallieni, see Betts, Assimilation and As- 40. Alfred de Tarde, “Un renouveau des arts

310 Notes to Pages 197–203

marocains,” France-Maroc, no. 1 (15 January 49. Raymond Koechlin wrote that by the turn of
1917): 33. the twentieth century rug making in Mo-
41. Ibid., 35, 36. rocco was
42. “Le Service des arts indigènes,” Historique . . .
des Beaux-arts, 147. becoming debased, the style was losing
43. The early inspectors were Tranchant de its firmness, the art of the workers was no
Lunel, de la Nézière, Loth, Prosper Ricard, longer sustained by the taste of amateurs
and Jean Gallotti and Mmes Bel, Réveillaud, eager for pleasure. One could foresee the
and Pierrefitte; see Raymond Koechlin, “Une moment when (as had happened in Con-
exposition d’art marocain,” Gazette des Beaux- stantinople), Europe would be insidiously
Arts, 4th ser., 13, no. 692 (July–September introduced by favorites and businessmen in
1917): 311. the entourage of the sultans and would little
44. “Le Service des arts indigènes,” Histo- by little penetrate the art forms of the past
rique . . . des Beaux-arts, 148–49; on Safi ce- and complete their ruin—unless, that is, the
ramics and French intervention in the arts in- conquest, like that of Algeria, did not itself
dustries, see James Housefield, “Moroccan destroy the lived environment of the indige-
Ceramics and the Geography of Invented nous people. This evil has been avoided in
Traditions,” Geographical Review 87, no. 3 Morocco. [Koechlin, “Les tapis marocains
(July 1997): 401– 7. au Pavillon de Marsan,” 208.]
45. R. S., “Arts indigènes: Une exposition de
tapis marocains à Paris,” France-Maroc, no. 50. Ibid., 209.
7 (15 July 1919): 201. 51. Gallotti, “Les tapis de Rabat,” 29.
46. For the modernist view, see A. T. [Alfred de 52. R. S., “Art indigène: Une exposition de tapis
Tarde], “Les influences possibles du Maroc
sur l’art français,” France-Maroc, no. 5 (15 marocains à Paris,” 202.
May 1917): 39. For the view of an elderly 53. Prosper Ricard, Corpus de tapis marocains
Cherifian, see Prosper Ricard, “Les tapis de
Rabat,” France-Maroc, no. 80 (July 1923): (Paris: Gouvernement chérifien, Protectorat
125–26. de la République Française au Maroc, and Li-
47. See the eyewitness account of the household brairie orientaliste Paul Geunther), vols. 1,
industry: Marie-Louise Gallotti, “Les Tapis Tapis de Rabat (1923); 2, Tapis du moyen Atlas
de Rabat,” France-Maroc, no. 10 (15 October (1926); 3, Tapis du haut Atlas et du Haouz de
1917): 29–31. Marrakech (1927); and 4, Tapis divers (1934).
48. Gallotti, ibid. (30), mentions that the Office 54. Hoisington, Lyautey and the French Conquest
of Education, since the founding of the pro- of Morocco (64, 69), discusses the role of
tectorate, had funded in Rabat “a French- French army ethnographers and linguists in
woman converted to Islam, who had gath- assessing the strength and political complex-
ered young indigenous girls around her and ion of the Berber clans during the French
was teaching them to make carpets.” “Le pacification of the Middle Atlas.
Service des arts indigènes,” Historique . . . 55. Ricard, Corpus de tapis marocains, 1:ix–x.
des Beaux-arts (149), notes that in the late 56. Koechlin, “Les tapis marocains au Pavillon de
1920s one-third of the inspectors employed Marsan,” 211.
by the office (four out of twelve) were “lady 57. Ricard, Corpus de tapis marocains, 4:v.
technical agents especially charged with 58. For a trenchant survey of painting and dec-
overseeing feminine industries.” orative arts at colonial exhibitions in the
1920s, see Romy Golan, Modernity and Nos-
talgia: Art and Politics in France between the

Notes to Pages 204–210 311

Wars (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University 67. See Marcelle de Joannis, “La page de
Press, 1995), chap. 5. Madame,” France-Maroc, no. 12 (15 Decem-
59. Exposition des arts marocains, organisé au ber 1919): 356.
bénéfice des blessés marocains par l’Union des
arts décoratifs et la Société des peintres orienta- 68. See André Joubin, “Le Studio de Jacques
listes (Paris: Protectorate de la République Doucet,” L’Illustration, no. 4531 (4 January
Française au Maroc; and France-Maroc, Pavil- 1930): 17–20; and Lydia Puccinelli, African
lon de Marsan, May–September 1917), 1–17. Forms in the Furniture of Pierre Legrain, exh.
Raymond Koechlin’s article, “Une exposition cat. (Washington, D.C.: National Museum of
d’art marocain,” on traditional Moroccan ar- African Art, 1998); my thanks to Natalie
chitecture and art, compensates for this slim Adamson for this citation.
war-budget catalogue. It was published in the
better-funded Gazette des Beaux-Arts. 69. “Art colonial,” in Exposition internationale
60. Among the thirty painters were Tranchant de des arts décoratifs et industriels modernes: Rap-
Lunel and de la Nézière themselves; Albert port générale, vol. 4, Mobilier (Paris: Im-
Marquet (with four Tangier drawings from primerie nationale, 1925; reprinted New
1913); the elderly Georges Clairin; and the York: Garland, 1977), 52–53.
“schoolteacher at Fez,” Azouaou Mammeri,
making his continental debut. 70. “Section des colonies françaises,” Exposition
61. For a selection of views, see “La presse et le internationale des arts décoratifs: Catalogue
Maroc. I—L’Exposition d’art marocain,” officiel (Paris, 1925), 512.
France-Maroc, no. 7 (15 July 1917): 34–35.
62. Koechlin, “Les tapis marocains au Pavillon 71. Exposition internationale des arts décoratifs,
de Marsan,” 210. 4:54.
63. On this great exposition, which cannot be de-
tailed here, see Ludovic Nadeau, “L’Exposi- 72. [Victor Barrucand], “Aux arts décoratifs,”
tion coloniale de Marseille,” L’Illustration, L’Akhbar, 21 August 1925.
no. 4155 (21 October 1922): 371–98; and Ar-
sène Alexandre et al., Les richesses artistiques 73. Henri Gourdon, “Les colonies et les pro-
de la France coloniale, special issue of La re- tectorats à l’Exposition des arts décoratifs,”
naissance de l’art et les industries de luxe 5, no. Le monde colonial illustré 3, no. 24 (Septem-
4 (April 1922), esp. René Séguy, “L’Art ber 1925): 194; Gourdon was director-
marocain,” 193–207. general of public instruction in Indochina.
64. The quoted passages are from Nadeau,
“L’Afrique du Nord,” in “L’Exposition colo- 74. For arguments calling in question the mod-
niale de Marseille,” 393, 395. ern as a “Euroamerican monopoly,” see John
65. See Nancy Troy, Modernism and the Decora- Clark, Modern Asian Art (Sydney: Craftsman
tive Arts in France: Art Nouveau to Le Cor- House, 1998).
busier (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University
Press, 1991). 75. Gourdon, “Les colonies,” 196.
66. See Peter Wollen, “Fashion/Orientalism/the 76. See Exposition internationale des arts décora-
Body,” New Formations, no. 1 (spring 1987):
1–12, reprinted in Wollen, Raiding the Icebox: tifs: Rapport générale, 4: pl. 75; Exposition in-
Reflections on the Twentieth Century (London ternationale . . . : Catalogue officiel, 501–2; see
and New York: Verso, 1993), 1–34. also 508–9 on Moroccan and 510–11 on Al-
gerian displays, discussed below.
77. Gourdon, “Les colonies,” 196; [Barrucand],
“Aux arts décoratifs.”
78. R. S., “Le Maroc à l’Exposition des arts dé-
coratifs,” Le monde colonial illustré 3, no. 24
(September 1925): 213.
79. See Nikos Papastergiadis, “Tracing Hybrid-
ity in Theory,” in Papastergiadis, The Tur-
bulence of Migration: Globalization, Deterri-

312 Notes to Pages 210–216

torialization, and Hybridity (Cambridge: et littéraire,” in Ricard and Dalbanne, Les
Polity Press, 1999), esp. 170– 79. Guides bleus: Algérie, Tunisie, Tripolitaine,
80. Exposition internationale . . . des arts décora- Malte, lviii.
tifs, vol. 2, Architecture, 48. 7. This biographical sketch draws upon the fol-
81. Edmond Gojon, “L’Algérie à l’Exposition lowing: Jérôme Tharaud and Jean Tharaud,
des arts décoratifs et industriels modernes,” “Si Azouaou Mammeri, peintre de Rabat,”
Le monde colonial illustré 3, no. 24 (Septem- Art et décoration 39, no. 235 (July 1921):
ber 1925): 198. 21–24; Léonce Bénédite, Avant-propos to
82. See Exposition internationale . . . : Catalogue Exposition sous le haut patronage de M. le
officiel, 506–7; Herzig was awarded a diploma Maréchal Lyautey des dessins et peintures de Si
of honor by the jury at the exposition. Azouaou Mammeri (Paris: Galerie Feuillets
83. Gojon, “L’Algérie à l’Exposition des arts d’art, 2–21 May 1921), n.p. [1–8]; and Louis-
décoratifs,” 199. Eugène Angéli, “Les maîtres de la peinture
84. [Barrucand], “Aux arts décoratifs.” algérienne: Azouaou Mammeri,” Algéria 42
(May–June 1955): 40–44.
Chapter Nine 8. Tharaud and Tharaud, “Si Azouaou,” 21. On
the Tharaud brothers, see Apter, Continental
1. On indigenous involvement in photography, Drift, 197–202.
see Sarah Graham-Brown, Images of Women: 9. Charles-Robert Ageron, Histoire de l’Algérie
The Portrayal of Women in Photography of the contemporaine, vol. 2 (Paris: Presses Univer-
Middle East (London: Quartet, 1988); and sitaires de France, 1979), 166, notes that
Mounira Khemir, “The Orient in the Pho- many Europeans feared that formal educa-
tographer’s Mirror: From Constantinople to tion for the Arabs would radically change the
Mecca,” in Benjamin, ed., Orientalism: power structure. On Algerian educational
Delacroix to Klee, 189–95. policy, see Ageron, 152–68.
10. A good sense of the term évolvé is provided
2. See Lumières tunisiennes, exh. cat. (Paris: in David Prochaska, “Tales of the City: Be-
Paris-Musées and Association française tween Algérie française and Algérie algéri-
d’action artistique, 1995). enne,” in Crossing Cultures: Essays in the Dis-
placement of Western Civilization, ed. Daniel
3. I wish to thank Lynne Thornton, Brahim Segal (Tucson and London: University of
Alaoui, and James Housefield for kindly pro- Arizona Press, 1992), 182–225.
viding me with copies of rare texts on Mam- 11. Angéli, “Les maîtres . . . : Azouaou Mam-
meri; and Maître Si Ali Tiar and, through meri,” 41–43.
him, Professor Driss Mammeri for letting me 12. Tharaud and Tharaud, “Si Azouaou,”
examine part of the family’s photo docu- 21–24.
mentation of the artist’s work. 13. See Charles-André Julien, Le Maroc face aux
impérialismes, 1415–1956 (Paris: Editions
4. François Pouillon, “Tableaux d’Occident et J. A., 1978), 141.
d’Orient: La synthèse Racim,” in Mohammed 14. Tharaud and Tharaud, “Si Azouaou,” 22.
Racim, miniaturiste algérien (Paris: Musée de 15. Jérôme Tharaud and Jean Tharaud, Fès, ou,
l’Institut du Monde Arabe, 1992), 14–20. Les bourgeois de l’Islam (Paris: Plon, 1930),
Most of the works by Racim that I discuss are 236–37; the chapter entitled “Histoire
illustrated in this catalogue. d’Azouaou” (234–92) draws on the biogra-
phy of Mammeri as corroborated by other
5. See the essays in Homi K. Bhabha, The Lo-
cation of Culture.

6. Prosper Ricard, “Aperçu religieux, artistique

Notes to Pages 217–224 313

sources (including the Tharauds’ own 1921 26. Pierre Angel, L’école nord-africaine dans l’art
article). At times the Tharauds seem to français contemporain (Paris: Les oeuvres
conflate the careers of the two Mammeri représentatives, 1931), 139.
cousins, Azouaou and Mohammed.
16. Signed simply “Mammeri, instituteur à Fez- 27. See the illustrated entry in Benjamin, ed.,
Djédid,” those articles may have been writ- Orientalism: Delacroix to Klee, cat. no. 108.
ten by Mohammed Mammeri but illustrated
by Azouaou (whose style and signature in the 28. All three quotations are from Bénédite,
drawings correspond to those in his later Avant-propos to Exposition . . . de Si Azouaou
paintings). Mammeri (1921), 1, 2–3, 6.
17. See Lyautey’s preface to Exposition du peintre
musulman Azouaou Mammeri, sous le patro- 29. Ibid., 4, 8.
nage de M. le Maréchal Lyautey (Paris: Galerie 30. According to Bénédite, ibid., 4, Mammeri at
Jean Charpentier, 4–19 May 1931): “I think it
was in France-Maroc that I saw your first Rabat refrained from teaching the figure, “to
drawings, sketches of children and views of avoid any contestation,” focusing on tradi-
terraces. The line was already firm, exact, tional vegetative motifs and nature study, a
expressive.” point repeated in the anonymous article “Le
18. Azouaou Mammeri, “L’Enseignement: Une premier peintre musulman” in L’Illustra-
classe marocaine,” France-Maroc, no. 3 (15 tion, no. 4094 (20 August 1921): 162–64.
March 1917): 34–35. From the later 1920s, however, Mammeri
19. Azouaou Mammeri, “Une classe cora- painted the figure (especially his family and
nique,” France-Maroc, no. 12 (December French and Moroccan notables) with in-
1918): 351–54. creasing frequency.
20. Exposition sous le haut patronage de M. le 31. Ricard, Les merveilles de l’autre France, 292;
Maréchal Lyautey des dessins et peintures de Si see 288 for Joseph Victor Communal’s oil
Azouaou Mammeri, exh. cat. (Paris: Galerie painting of the same site.
Feuillets d’arts, 1921), cat. nos. 2 (Classe en 32. Conversations with Dja¤ar Boulharouf, Al-
Algérie), 41 (Ecole coranique), and 42 (Appel giers, 1992, and Brahim Alaoui, Paris, 1996.
à la prière). 33. See Gustave Rouger, “Nos artistes au Maroc,”
21. The work was donated to the Cleveland Mu- L’Art et les artistes, n.s. 6, no. 30 (October
seum of Art in 1923 by a Jacques Cartier; it 1922): 3–41. The exhibition was at the semi-
is reproduced in Angéli, “Les maîtres . . . : official Galerie Georges Petit, which showed
Azaouaou Mammeri,” 41. a variety of Orientalists throughout the
22. Exposition des arts marocains, 5; Mammeri 1920s.
showed Campagne de Fès and Coin de Fès. See 34. Gustave Kahn, “Art,” Mercure de France 160
Bénédite, Avant-propos, 5–6. (December 1922): 762–63. Kahn refers to
23. I am supposing that the work entitled Cam- the exhibition Printemps dans l’oasis de
pagne de Fès, which is illustrated in Tharaud Gafsa (Paris: Galerie Bernheim-Jeune, 18
and Tharaud, “Si Azouaou,” 23, is the pic- February–2 March 1918), in the catalogue to
ture in question. I have been unable to trace which Félix Fénéon writes (in the preface)
it at the Musée d’Orsay. that these two almost untutored Tunisians
24. Tharaud and Tharaud, “Si Azouaou,” 24. had “realized little masterpieces, of an in-
25. See Benjamin Stora, Histoire de l’Algérie comparable expressive power” and had thus
coloniale (1830–1954) (Paris: La découverte, come “from the depths of their Africa, from
1991), 41–42, 70– 73. the depths of their inviolate souls, to prove
Matisse and Picasso right.” A copy of this
rare illustrated catalogue is in the Frick Art
Reference Library, New York.
35. See the Homi Bhabha–inspired reading of

314 Notes to Pages 225–231

the Australian Aboriginal landscapist Albert Thornton, La femme dans la peinture orien-
Namatjira: Ian Burn and Anne Stephen, taliste, Les orientalistes, 3 (Paris: ACR Edi-
“Namatjira’s White Mask: A Partial Rein- tion, 1985), 246.
terpretation,” in The Heritage of Namatjira: 48. Chabot, “Les exposants du pavillon officiel
The Watercolourists of Central Australia, ed. à Rabat,” 1058.
Jane Hardy et al. (Melbourne: Heinemann, 49. Ibid., 1059.
1992), 264–82. 50. For biographical information and broader
36. See Benjamin, “Post-Colonial Taste? Non- thematic issues, this section is heavily in-
Western Markets for Orientalist Painting,” in debted to Mustapha Orif, “Mohammed
Benjamin, ed., Orientalism: Delacroix to Klee, Racim.”
32–40. 51. Robert Randau, “Un maître algérien de la
37. [Victor Barrucand], “Salon des Orienta- miniature: Mohammed Racim,” L’Afrique
listes,” L’Akhbar, 5 March 1921. du Nord illustrée 817 (10 January 1937),
38. Bénédite, Avant-propos to Exposition . . . de reprinted in Mohammed Racim: Miniaturiste
Si Azouaou Mammeri. algérien, 38.
39. P. P., “Une exposition à Rabat,” France- 52. This quotation and those that follow are
Maroc, no. 12 (December 1918): 354–57. translated from Randau, “Un maître al-
40. The works Boutet de Monvel purchased gérien,” 38–40.
are illustrated in Rouger, “Nos artistes au 53. Orif, “Racim,” 24–25; there is an example of
Maroc,” 5; see also Exposition Si Azouaou Omar Racim’s work in the collection of the
Mammeri—tableaux et dessins: Afrique du Musée de l’Institut du Monde Arabe, Paris.
Nord et Andalousie (Paris: Galeries Georges 54. Ageron, Histoire de l’Algérie contemporaine,
Petit, 16–31 March 1925), cat. nos. 67–69, 241, notes that in 1913 Omar Racim, “in a
where his ownership is noted. little journal lithographed in Arabic, Dhou-
41. Victor Barrucand, “Peinture au Salon des l-Fiquar, . . . worked to spread the reformist
orientalistes,” La Dépêche algérienne, 16 Feb- [Islamic] doctrine of the Salfiyya.”
ruary 1923. 55. François Pouillon, personal communication,
42. Very likely this is the work described as 1998.
a “stylized landscape” of the “Zaouia de 56. See listings in Mohammed Racim: Miniatu-
Moulay-Idriss,” giving a date of about 1929 riste algérien, 44. Georges Marçais, La vie
for this important picture; see de Chabot, “Les musulmane d’hier vue par Mohammed Racim
exposants du pavillon officiel à Rabat: Mam- (Paris: Arts et Métiers graphiques, 1960),
meri, Pontoy, Mme Moraël,” La Terre maro- has color plates in five styles: “Oriental,”
caine illustré, no. 48 (February 1930): 1059; my “Algerian,” “Persian,” “Turco-Persian,” and
thanks to James Housefield for this citation. “Maghrebian.”
43. Ricard, Les merveilles de l’autre France, 322; 57. All quotations are from Orif, “Racim,” 26
the site is illustrated in fig. 326. (sources not given).
44. Notes provided by Professor Driss Mammeri 58. This history is drawn from Henri Klein,
to Lynne Thornton. “Le Comité du Vieil Alger,” Feuillets
45. Bénédite, Avant-propos to Exposition Si d’El-Djezaïr 1 (1910): 5–12. Unlike later
Azouaou Mammeri—tableaux et dessins: Afri- measures taken by Lyautey in Morocco,
que du Nord et Andalousie, exh. cat. (Paris: those of the Comité du Vieil Alger were lim-
Galerie Georges Petit, 1925), 4. ited by its unofficial status.
46. “Le premier peintre musulman,” 162. 59. See Zeynep Çelik, “Colonialism, Oriental-
47. François Pouillon, personal communication, ism, and the Canon,” Art Bulletin 78, no. 2
1998; for Mammeri’s later career, see Lynne (June 1996): 202–5.

Notes to Pages 231–241 315

60. For details, see Fereshteh Daftari, The 72. My principal sources here are Ricard and
Influence of Persian Art on Gauguin, Matisse, Dalbanne, Guides bleus, 6–7; Charles Delvert,
and Kandinsky (New York: Garland, 1991). Le Port d’Alger (Paris: Dunod, 1923), 8–16;
and Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the
61. Esquer, Iconographie historique de l’Algérie. Maghrib in the Islamic Period (Cambridge:
Racim’s use of Esquer was suggested by Cambridge University Press, 1987), 151–68.
Pouillon, personal communication, 1998.
73. See Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, The Cap-
62. Marçais, La vie musulmane d’hier, 10; cf. tive’s Tale, trans. and ed. Donald P. McRory
Georges Marçais, “Mohammed Racim, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).
miniaturiste algérien,” Gazette des Beaux-
Arts 141 (1939): 52–53. 74. Richard Pennell has kindly translated Racim’s
Arabic inscription—“A sea battle between
63. Marçais, La vie musulmane d’hier, 9. the Muslim fleet and the fleet of the Chris-
64. Adrien Berbrugger, Algérie historique, pit- tians”—which emphasizes the element of re-
ligious struggle.
toresque, et monumentale: Recueil de vues,
monuments, cérémonies, costumes, armes, et 75. See, for example, Andries van Eertvelt, A
portraits, dessinés d’après nature (Paris: J. De- Spanish Engagement with the Barbary Cor-
lahaye, 1843). Berbrugger was the founding sairs, illustrated in David Cordingly, Pirates:
director of the National Library, and his vol- Terror of the High Seas (Atlanta: Turner Pub-
ume helped furnish Esquer’s 1929 portfolio lications, 1996), 76.
of prints.
65. See J[ean] B[évia], “Les Récompenses: Au 76. For Racim’s list of this and other projects for
Salon des Orientalistes,” La Dépêche algéri- book illustration, see Randau, “Un maître al-
enne, 17 February 1923. Bévia congratu- gérien,” 40.
lates Racim, “whose fine talent as an illumi-
nator and miniaturist has earned everyone ’s 77. Marçais, La vie musulmane d’hier, 29. The
admiration.” term “folkloric” is Pouillon’s.
66. Victor Barrucand, “Peinture au Salon des
orientalistes,” La Dépêche algérienne, 17 Feb- 78. See Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communi-
ruary 1923. ties: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of
67. Orif, “Racim,” 27. In the Algiers municipal Nationalism, rev. and expanded ed. (London:
elections, Barrucand ran for office among Verso, 1991).
primarily indigenous Muslim candidates.
68. Victor Barrucand, “Salon d’Hiver,” La 79. See Stora, Histoire de l’Algérie coloniale, 74.
Dépêche algérienne, 21 February 1924. 80. The journal was Ech Chibab, quoted in Orif,
69. Exposition internationale . . . : Catalogue
officiel, “Section d’Algérie,” 507: “Racim, “Racim,” 29–30.
Omar, miniaturiste, Alger (miniatures)”; 81. Bachir Hadj Ali, “Culture nationale et révo-
Mohammed Racim is not listed but clearly
did exhibit. lution algérienne,” La Nouvelle Critique 147
70. [Victor Barrucand], “Aux arts décoratifs,” (1963): 35, as quoted by Pouillon, “Tableaux
L’Akhbar, 21 August 1925. Edmond Gojon, d’Occident et d’Orient: La synthèse Ra-
“L’Algérie,” in Album de l’Exposition Inter- cim,” 18.
nationale des Arts Décoratifs de 1925 (Paris:
L’Art Vivant, 1925), 132. Chapter Ten
71. Pouillon, “Tableaux d’Occident et d’Ori-
ent: La synthèse Racim,” 18. 1. Marshal Lyautey, quoted in Catherine Hodeir
and Michel Pierre, 1931, la mémoire du siècle:
L’Exposition coloniale (Paris: Editions du
complexe, 1991), 25.

2. In addition to Hodeir and Pierre, see Leprun,

316 Notes to Pages 241–250

Le théâtre des colonies; Jean-Claude Vigato, to speak frankly. Like me, he thinks we must
“The Architecture of the Colonial Exhibi- above all intensify French culture, for only
tions in France,” Daidalus, no. 19 (1986): 24– that way can France avoid disappearing com-
37; Philippe Rivoirard, “L’Exposition colo- pletely in North Africa, like the Romans”
niale, ou l’incitation au voyage,” in Emmanuel (quoted in Dinet Rollince, La vie de E. Dinet,
Bréon, Michelle Lefrançois, et al., Coloniales, 195).
1920–1940 (Boulogne-Billancourt: Musée 9. Dinet, letter to his sister, 30 June 1928, quoted
municipal de Boulogne-Billancourt, 1989), in ibid.
67–82; Herman Lebovics, “Donner à voir 10. Ageron, Histoire de l’Algérie contemporaine,
l’Empire coloniale. L’Exposition coloniale 2:396.
internationale de Paris en 1931,” Gradhiva, 11. Bertrand, quoted in A. Augustin-Thierry,
revue d’histoire et d’archives de l’anthropologie “Ce qui se prépare en Alger,” Revue des deux
7 (winter 1989–90): 18–28; Romy Golan, “At mondes, 7th ser., 55 (1 January 1930): 194. See
the Fairs,” in Golan, Modernity and Nostal- the excellent discussion of Bertrand and his
gia, 105–36; Jody Blake, “The Truth about theories of the néo-Français in Lorcin, Impe-
the Colonies, 1931: Art indigène in Service rial Identities, 196–213.
of the Revolution,” Oxford Art Journal 25, 12. Augustin-Thierry, “Ce qui se prépare en Al-
no. 1 (March 2002): 35–58; and Morton, Hy- ger,” 194.
brid Modernities. 13. Ageron, Histoire de l’Algérie contemporaine,
3. See Sylvie Cornilliet-Watelet, “Le Musée des 2:403–4. Metropolitan and foreign journal-
colonies et le Musée de la France d’Outre- ists were funded to cover the festivities in Al-
mer (1931–1960),” in Bréon, Lefrançois, et geria, and the colonial authorities distrib-
al., Coloniales, 83–93; and Morton, Hybrid uted hundreds of articles ready-made.
Modernities, 271–312. 14. Gustave Mercier, Le centenaire de l’Algérie:
4. See Dalila Mahammed-Orfali, Chefs-d’oeuvre Exposé de l’ensemble (Algiers: Gouverne-
du MuséeNational des Beaux-Arts d’Alger (Al- ment générale de l’Algérie and P. & G.
giers: Regie du Sud-Méditerranée, 1999), Soubiron, 1931), 1:148. Poisson was an Abd-
with eighty color plates of paintings in the el-Tifian of 1908 who had also exhibited with
collection and a useful historical overview the Orientalist Painters in 1912 and 1914.
that, perhaps for understandable reasons, 15. See Mercier, 1:171– 79.
says little about the context of the centenary 16. Augustin-Thierry, “Ce qui se prépare en Al-
that I emphasize here. ger,” 198.
5. The discussion that follows draws on the de- 17. The complicity of indigenous leaders with the
tailed account of the political environment centenary admits of various interpretations.
leading up to the centenary in Ageron, His- While clearly some indigenous benefited
toire de l’Algérie contemporaine, 2:389–411. from working alongside the French (Dinet
6. See Lorcin, Imperial Identities, esp. 172. and others derisively called them “Beni Oui-
7. Maurice Violette, letter of 20 February 1926 Oui,” or tribe of yes-men), the participation
to Camille Chautemps, minister of the inte- of others was token or submissive or resigned.
rior, quoted in Ageron, Histoire de l’Algérie A cover of L’Illustration showing an indige-
contemporaine, 2:392. nous leader’s son swearing fealty to France at
8. Dinet wrote to his sister on 12 August 1928: a banquet exemplifies both the French e¤ort
“Our Muslim policy has arrived at a degree of to claim indigenous participation in the cen-
imbecility never previously attained. . . . Vio- tenary and the absence of any protest (see
lette is the only one with whom I’ve been able L’Illustration, no. 4548 [3 May 1930]).

Notes to Pages 250–255 317

18. Dinet, letter to his sister, 12 August 1928, 32. Ibid., xxi.
in Dinet Rollince, La vie de E. Dinet, 195 33. See Jean Alazard, Essai sur l’évolution du por-
(also quoted in Pouillon, Les deux vies d’E-
tienne Dinet, 180). trait peint à Florence de Botticelli à Bronzino
(Paris: H. Laurens, 1924), and his Florentine
19. Ben Badis, quoted in Ageron, Histoire de Portrait (New York: Schocken Books, 1968).
l’Algérie contemporaine, 2:409 (also quoted 34. Alazard, based during World War I at the In-
in Hodeir and Pierre, 1931, la memoire du stitut Français in Florence, wrote on Italian
siècle, 32). policy in that conflict (L’Italie et le conflit eu-
ropéen, 1914–16 [Paris: Alcan, 1916]), and
20. On the Oran and Constantine museums, see during World War II, on the involvement of
Mercier, Le centenaire de l’Algérie, 1:245–55. the United States in the European war (Re-
marques sur la politique étrangère des Etats-
21. Camille Gronkowski, “Le centenaire de la Unis [Algiers: Guiauchain, 1944]).
conquête de l’Algérie au Petit Palais”; and 35. Alazard’s “Palais d’Eté du Gouverneur
Raymond Escholier, “L’Exposition Eugène Général de l’Algérie,” Art et décoration 44, no.
Delacroix au Louvre,” both in L’Illustration, 261 (September 1923): 87–93, displays a
no. 4551 (24 May 1930), n.p. good knowledge of the Abd-el-Tif painters.
36. Jean Alazard, “Le Musée des Beaux-Arts
22. See Edouard Pommier, “Naissance des d’Alger,” Bulletin des Musées de France 2, no.
musées de province,” in Les lieux de la mé- 9 (September 1930): 184–86.
moire, vol. 2, La nation: Le patrimoine, ed. 37. Both passages are from Mercier, Le cente-
Pierre Nora (Paris: Gallimard, 1984), naire de l’Algérie, 1:230–31. Edmond Gojon
451–52. questions the ethics of imposing this “ratio-
nalistic” order on the profusion of exotic
23. C. de Galland, Preface to Muller, Ville d’Al- vegetation of the Jardin d’Essai in his “Jardin
ger: Catalogue du musée municipal (Algiers: d’Essai du Hamma,” in Gojon, En Algérie
A. Jourdan, 1911), xiv. avec la France, 158–67.
38. I am grateful to Professor Philip Goad of the
24. Fritz Muller, Avant-propos to ibid., v–x. Faculty of Architecture at the University of
25. See Sherman, Worthy Monuments, chap. 1. Melbourne for help in reading this building.
26. Alexandre, Réflexions sur les arts . . . en Al- Initial drawings showed arched windows on
the first and second floors, producing a Re-
gérie, 38: “These works age quickly, [and] naissance look; these were eliminated in the
are a bad example. . . . Thus certain provin- built version in all but the courtyard windows
cial museums . . . are nothing but a shambles on the top floor. See “Une grande création du
that young people should avoid, for they can Centenaire: Le nouveau Musée national des
irreparably pervert an artistic vocation.” Beaux-Arts d’Alger,” Bulletin de l’art ancien
27. Galland, Preface to Muller, Ville d’Alger, xv, et moderne, no. 767 (April 1930): 155–58.
citing petitions of July 1905 and February 39. Quoted in Ageron, Histoire de l’Algérie con-
1908. temporaine, 2:409.
28. The conditions of display were nevertheless 40. Alazard, “Le Musée des Beaux-Arts d’Al-
lamented in “Le Musée d’Alger et la Com- ger,” 186.
mission des Beaux-Arts,” L’Akhbar, 26 April 41. The building, begun in September 1927, was
1908. completed in time for the museum to be
29. Galland, Preface to Muller, Ville d’Alger, opened by President Gaston Doumergue on
xviii.
30. See Muller, Ville d’Alger. The Algiers Mu-
nicipal Museum’s administrative committee
included Cauvy, Dinet, Bénédite, and the
patron Frédéric Lung.
31. Galland, Preface to Muller, Ville d’Alger, xx.

318 Notes to Pages 255–261

4 May 1930; for details see Mercier, Le cente- curating and in his scholarly books on Ori-
naire de l’Algérie, 1:231–33. entalists like Lebourg and Chassériau. The
42. Alazard, “Le Musée des Beaux-Arts d’Al- heroes of the movement, for Alazard, were
ger,” 186. Delacroix and Fromentin but also Chas-
43. Pierre Berthelot, “Le Musée National d’Al- sériau, Dehodencq, and Regnault. Alazard
ger,” Beaux-Arts: Chronique des arts et de la wrote a chapter on the impressionist Orien-
curiosité 8, no. 5 (20 May 1930): 7. talists Lebourg and Renoir (not explored in
44. Thus he wrote: “One hopes this new center Bénédite ’s retrospectives at the Orientalist
of culture will . . . give the young French Painters). Alazard’s major point of di¤er-
people of Africa the wherewithal to educate ence with Bénédite was Dinet, whom Bé-
their taste. Many of them know our artistic nédite championed and Alazard virtually
traditions only through books; henceforth ignored.
they will have living examples before their 50. See Daniel Wildenstein, Claude Monet: Bio-
eyes, and so will remain permanently in con- graphie et catalogue raisonné, vol. 2, 1882–
tact with what has made the grandeur and 1886: Peintures (Lausanne and Paris: La Bi-
beauty of our civilization” (Alazard, quoted bliothèque des arts, 1979), cat. no. 1118, Mer
in Mercier, Le centenaire de l’Algérie, 1:244; re- démontée.
peated in Alazard, “Le Musée des Beaux-Arts 51. Barrucand, “Pour le Musée d’Alger.”
d’Alger,” 210). 52. Alazard, “Le Musée des Beaux-Arts d’Al-
45. Mercier, quoted in Augustin-Thierry, “Ce ger,” 208.
qui se prépare en Alger,” 198. 53. Ibid., 202.
46. Victor Barrucand, “Pour le Musée d’Alger,” 54. Fierens, “Le Musée des Beaux-Arts d’Al-
L’Akhbar, 30 June 1928. ger,” 214.
47. Alazard, cited in Paul-Fierens, “Le Musée 55. Berthelot, “Le Musée National d’Alger,” 7.
des Beaux-Arts d’Alger,” Mouseion 21–22 As for the work of Charles Despiau, who,
(1933): 212. Alazard nevertheless did pur- like Aristide Maillol, excelled at the mod-
chase a School of Fontainebleau Venus ernized neoclassical female nude, Algiers
Lamenting the Death of Adonis (Vénus pleu- possessed the best collection held by any mu-
rant la mort d’Adonis) to establish the start- seum of the day.
ing point common to histories of French 56. Alazard attempted to import the whole his-
painting. Giovanni Pannini’s View of the tory of French sculpture to Algiers by the
Colosseum (Vue du Colisée) appears as a rare expedient of the plaster cast. He expanded
gesture to non-French precedents, while a the Municipal Museum’s old study collection
fine drawing of a nude by Carle Van Loo by spending thirty-seven thousand francs
stood out against new transfers from the Lou- on “fifty-seven casts of French art (tenth–
vre: a copy of Poussin’s Institution of the Eu- nineteenth century),” and devoted another
charist (L’Institution de la Eucharistie), a Vow ten thousand to “albums of reproductions of
of Love (Voeu d’amour) from the school of master drawings,” mostly from the Alber-
Fragonard, and a “rather somber” seascape tina in Vienna (minutes of the 27 November
by Joseph Vernet. See Alazard, “Musée des 1929 meeting of the Conseil Supérieur du
Beaux-Arts d’Alger.” Centenaire, AOM 64.S.30).
48. Berthelot, “Le Musée National d’Alger,” 7. 57. Alazard wrote of seeking to create, “not
49. Alazard’s 1930 book L’Orient et la peinture far from the museums of Mustapha, of
française au XIXe siècle reinforces the ge- Cherchell and Djemila, in a country that
nealogy Bénédite had established in his own contains so many vestiges of antique statu-

Notes to Pages 261–266 319

ary, a sort of modern Glyptotheque” (“Le 66. Barrucand, “Pour le Musée d’Alger.”
Musée des Beaux-Arts d’Alger,” 202). 67. Alazard, “Le Musée des Beaux-Arts d’Al-
58. See Mercier, Le centenaire de l’Algérie, 1:278–
311, for details of the military monuments. ger,” 201.
59. “Contrôle des engagements de dépenses,” 68. The minister of public instruction and fine
Commissariat générale du centenaire de l’Al-
gérie, 26 October 1928, AOM 64.S.30. arts in Paris wrote to the governor-general
60. The evidence for such allocations lies in fur- of Algeria on 17 May 1929, agreeing to
ther official documents (in ibid.) and in the change the name of the proposed museum
list of new works in Jean Alazard, “Le Musée from “Musée Colonial” (which must have
des Beaux-Arts d’Alger: Exposition des dons been its interim designation) to “Musée Na-
et acquisitions,” Bulletin des musées de France tional” (AOM 64.S.30).
5 (May 1935): 73–80. 69. On the role of Jean de Maisonseul, see
61. Alazard continued: “Purchases made for the François Pouillon, “Exotisme, modernisme,
museum of Algiers will benefit from the identité: La société algérienne en peinture,”
great authority of such persons as MM. in Le Maghreb, l’Europe, et la France, ed.
Koechlin, Pacquement, David-Weill (a bene- Kacem Basfao and Jean-Robert Henry, An-
factor of our museum), Jamot, Gui¤rey, nuaire de l’Afrique du Nord 29 (1990): 219.
Dezarrois, Rey, and so forth, . . . who are the 70. See Les peintres de l’Orient au XIXe siècle, Ex-
men the director of fine arts in Paris has pro- position artistique du Centenaire de l’Al-
posed to you” (Jean Alazard, letter to Gus- gérie (Algiers: Musée National des Beaux-
tave Mercier, dated Marrakech, 28 April Arts d’Alger, 5 May–5 June 1930); the
1929, AOM 64.S.30; the same source lists all scholarly counterpart of Esquer’s exhibition
sixteen members of the commission for pur- was his three-volume Iconographie historique
chases in a document dated 11 May 1929). de l’Algérie; more accessible is his splendidly
62. Alazard, ibid. illustrated “Oeuvre de la France en Algérie,”
63. For comprehensive lists of works acquired, L’Illustration 8, no. 4551 (24 May 1930): n.p.
see the documents of the Commission 71. Jean Alazard, letter to Gustave Mercier, 28
d’achats for the Centenaire de l’Algérie dated April 1929.
from 1929 to 1930, in AOM 64.S.30. 72. It is likely Séailles donated the works, for they
64. Polignac gave a drawing by Derain and a do not appear on Alazard’s lists for the cen-
nude by André Favory (with drawings by tenary budget; the Louvre donation is noted
Nicolas de Largillière and Louis-Léopold in Alazard, “Le Musée des Beaux-Arts d’Al-
Boilly); David-Weill donated an Italian ger,” 195.
landscape by Pierre Laprade, and the small 73. See Alazard, “Le Musée des Beaux-Arts
Matisse—a view of Renoir’s garden (see d’Alger,” 198; the acquisition of Renoir’s
Alazard, “Le Musée des Beaux-Arts d’Al- Algerian figure studies by the museum is
ger,” 191–92). proved by the entry in L’Algérie vue par les
65. On Lung’s Besnard, see Barrucand, “Pour le artistes français (XIX et XXe siècles), exposi-
Musée d’Alger.” Lung reserved his major tion organisé sous les auspices du Gou-
munificence for the metropole, most works vernement Général de l’Algérie et de l’Asso-
from his estate passing on his death during ciation Française d’Expansion et d’Echanges
the Algerian war to the Bordeaux Museum Artistiques (Brussels: Palais des Beaux-Arts,
and the Musée National d’Art Moderne in October–November 1931), cat. no. 25, “Types
Paris (see Dorival, “La donation Lung”). arabes (Musée des Beaux-Arts d’Alger).”
74. Alazard, “Le Musée des Beaux-Arts d’Al-
ger,” 199.

320 Notes to Pages 266–269

75. At the time of my visit in 1992 the Abd-el- depuis la fondation de la Société des artistes
Tif collection was relegated to storage in algériens et orientalistes,” Société des artistes
lamentable conditions. algériens et orientalistes, catalogue of the
forty-second annual Salon (Algiers, 1942),
76. Jean Alazard, “Les Beaux-Arts,” in Les Arts 17–19. Her work was in the Museum of Al-
et la technique moderne: Algérie, 1937 (Al- giers by 1935 (if not well before); see Alazard,
giers: Imprimerie Fontana, 1937), 163; see “Le Musée des Beaux-Arts d’Alger: . . . dons
also Alazard, Exposition d’oeuvres d’Albert et acquisitions,” 79.
Marquet (1875–1947), exh. cat. (Algiers: 84. The Conseil Supérieur du Centenaire, 19
Musée National des Beaux-Arts d’Alger, February 1930, approved the following pur-
1949), 14–17. chases: “Mammeri—Maison arabe . . . 1,500
frs” and “Racim—Miniatures . . . 10,000
77. Ketty Carré purchased three Sudanese dyed frs”; the number of miniatures is not speci-
cloths and one “Dokali Gourara” (her hus- fied (AOM 64.S.30).
band purchased two more) from a special 85. Shown as the property of the Algiers Mu-
display organized by the Direction des Ter- seum when displayed at the Palais des
ritoires du Sud; see “Etat des ventes au salon Beaux-Arts at the 1931 Exposition coloniale;
de 1912,” in Société des artistes algériens et ori- see Beaux-Arts: Exposition coloniale interna-
entalistes, catalogue of the fifteenth annual tionale de Paris (Paris, May–November
Salon (Algiers, 1913), 30. 1931), 68 (cat. nos. 295, 296).
86. The commission allocating works to the mu-
78. Victor Barrucand, L’Algérie et les peintres ori- seums of Algiers, Constantine, and Oran
entalistes (Grenoble: B. Arthaud, 1930), 1:19. transferred to Oran (as part of a lot of 56
paintings and 12 sculptures by primarily
79. Minutes of the Conseil Supérieur du Cente- twentieth-century Orientalists) Racim’s
naire, 19 February 1930, AOM 64.S.30; and Miniature orientale, Dinet’s Vieilles femmes
L’Algérie vue par les peintres français, cat. nos. arabes, and Mammeri’s Vue de Tolède (min-
45, 46. utes of 28 February 1930, AOM 64.S.30).
87. See Orif, “Racim,” 28; and Alazard, “Le
80. Barrucand, L’Algérie et les peintres orienta- Musée des Beaux-Arts d’Alger,” 200, and
listes, 1:18–19; see also 1:35, 43–44. (Barru- “Les Beaux-Arts,” 163. In the first of his two
cand commissioned Ketty Carré and Racim essays Alazard wrote of the “original note”
to do the covers for his two-volume book.) that indigenous artists brought to the new Al-
Yet Pierre Angel could compare her work gerian school, in “Racim who rejuvenates the
unfavorably with that of her husband and technique of the miniature, and Mammeri,
other male members of the school, writing the Kabyle painter who brings to the analy-
of her “savorous, ever so delicate, perhaps sis of things in his home country a probity, a
over-pretty work” (Angel, L’école nord- primitive ’s vigor that has an austere charm.”
africaine, 177). 88. Pouillon, Les deux vies d’Etienne Dinet, 182.
89. Ibid., chaps. 9, 10.
81. In Paris she studied under the figure painter 90. See Muller, Ville d’Alger, cat. no. 38; and the
Paul-Albert Laurens and the poster artist minutes of 28 February 1930, AOM 64.S.30.
Eugène Grasset. See Lynne Thornton, La Only one Dinet belonging to the Algiers
Femme dans la peinture orientaliste, 241. museum was exhibited in the full-scale ret-
rospective devoted to the artist at the end of
82. See the comb, hairpin, and pendant sold by
“Mlle Herzig” in “Etat des ventes au Salon de
1912,” 29.

83. Kleiss-Herzig won scholarships from the
office of the governor-general, the Algerian
railways, and so forth, in 1920, 1924, and
1926; see “Recompenses officielles attribuées

Notes to Pages 269–272 321

the colonial exposition in Paris. See Retro- ter entitled “Challenging the Exposition,”
spective E. Dinet, Exposition coloniale inter- 96–129; and from Jody Blake, “The Truth
nationale de Paris 1931 (Paris: Palais des about the Colonies, 1931,” 35–58.
Beaux-Arts, 16 October–11 November 1931), 2. For details of both the retrospective and the
cat. no. 8: “L’Abandonnée, peinture, Musée contemporary sections, see Beaux-Arts: Ex-
d ’Alger.” position coloniale internationale de Paris
91. A number of Islamic reformist politicians (Paris, May–November 1931), listing nearly
were present at the funeral and made eight hundred items.
speeches about their devotion to this Muslim, 3. See Golan, Modernity and Nostalgia, 168 n.52.
for whom religion, having arisen from study, 4. For Mammeri and Racim, see Beaux-Arts,
meditation, and free choice, was all the 65, 68, 86, 90; on the Indochinese artists, see
richer. See Pouillon, Les deux vies d’Etienne the thoroughly researched book by Nadine
Dinet, 207–11. André-Pallois, L’Indochine: Un lieu d’échange
92. Pierre Bordes, “La mort du peintre Dinet,” culturel? Les peintres français et indochinois
L’Akhbar, 15 January 1930, reprinted in Pouil- ( fin XIXe–XXe siècle) (Paris: Presses de
lon, ibid., 212, 216. Given the liberal and con- l’Ecole d’Extrême-Orient, 1997), as well as
ciliatory tenor of Bordes’s eulogy and the her Paris–Hanoï–Saigon: L’Aventure de l’art
level of understanding of Dinet’s art it ex- moderne au Viêt-Nam, exh. cat. (Paris: Pavil-
hibits, it seems unlikely that Bordes wrote it lon des Arts/Paris Musées, 1998).
himself (Pouillon, 205). 5. These points were first made by Kenneth
93. Regarding his appointment to the Commis- Silver, in his “Matisse ’s ‘Retour à l’Ordre,’”
sion on Muslim Arts Dinet wrote his sister: Art in America 76, no. 6 (June 1987): 111–23,
“I should decide whether to participate in the and in his Esprit de Corps: The Art of the
centenary. Personally I would like to see it go Parisian Avant-Garde and the First World War
to the devil! Even if it succeeded overall, it (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,
would bring with it so much ugliness (not to 1989), 258–64.
say ignominy) that I would like to be far 6. “Exposition Rétrospective,” in Beaux-Arts,
away and see nothing of it.” In the event 33, 42.
Dinet died first, but in 1929 there was a plan 7. Camille Mauclair, letter to Marshal Lyautey,
for the French president’s ceremonial tour of 22 May 1931 (on letterhead of Le Figaro),
Algeria to include Bou-Saâda, where he was Arch: Nat. F 21 4076.
to make Dinet Commander of the Légion 8. Gaston Bernheim, letter to Senator Henri
d’honneur (Dinet Rollince, La vie de E. Dinet, Bérenger (commissaire des Beaux-Arts), 1
206– 7). June 1931, Arch. Nat. F 21 4076.
94. See the catalogues of the following exhibi- 9. Jeanne Dinet Rollince, letter to Paul Léon, di-
tions at the library of the Algiers museum: rector of fine arts, 7 June 1931, Arch. Nat. F 21
Léon Cauvy (1933), Henri Clamens (1939), 4076: “The organizers of the exhibition, no
Charles Dufresne and Jean Launois (1942), doubt finding more interesting works of a
Albert Marquet (1949), Othon Friesz (1951). certain modernism that I will not judge here,
welcomed them in such a great number and
Conclusion placed them so advantageously that Dinet,
Suréda, and others had to be relegated . . . to
1. This summary draws from materials in Pa- the entrance of a staircase. Against this I
tricia Morton, Hybrid Modernities, the chap- protest vehemently, M. le Directeur, and beg
you to raise your authoritative voice to reverse

322 Notes to Pages 272–280

this scandalous state of a¤airs. If Dinet had 11. Arsène Alexandre, “La vie artistique:
been alive they would never have dared to act L’oeuvre d’Etienne Dinet,” Figaro, 20 Oc-
thus.” tober 1931. See also “Les Expositions: Une
10. Retrospective E. Dinet. Exposition coloniale retrospective Dinet à l’Exposition colo-
internationale de Paris 1931 (Paris: Palais des niale,” L’Art et les artistes 26, no. 120 (Octo-
Beaux-Arts, 16 October–11 November 1931); ber 1931): 67. Canvases were drawn from the
a letter from the administrator Albert Keim Luxembourg, the Petit Palais, the Musée de
to the curator of the Luxembourg (Louis Reims, and the Algiers Museum, but most
Hautecoeur) indicates the exhibition was al- were from private collections like those of
ready being organized in early July, just Frédéric Lung, Miss Cushing, Mme Louis
weeks after Dinet Rollince ’s intervention; Meley, Bénédite ’s family, and Mme Georges
see Arch. Nat. F 21 4076. Devêche.

Notes to Page 280 323



Selected Bibliography

All catalogues of temporary exhibitions are identified as “Exh. cat.” Exhibition dates, however, are pro-
vided only for catalogues published prior to 1960.

1830—L’Algérie française—1930. Special issue of ———. “Le Musée des Beaux-Arts d’Alger: Ex-
L’Illustration, no. 4551 (24 May 1930). position des dons et acquisitions.” Bulletin des
musées de France 5 (May 1935): 73–80.
Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. A History of the Maghrib in
the Islamic Period. Cambridge: Cambridge ———. “Les Beaux-Arts.” In Les arts et la tech-
University Press, 1987. nique moderne: Algérie 1937, 161–66. Algiers:
Imprimerie Fontana, 1937.
Ageron, Charles-Robert. L’anticolonialisme en
France de 1871 à 1914. Paris: Presses Universi- ———. Le Palais d’Eté: Résidence du Gouverneur-
taires de France, 1973. Général d’Algérie. Algiers: Direction de l’in-
térieur et des Beaux-Arts, 1951.
———. Histoire de l’Algérie contemporaine, vol. 2.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1979. Alexandre, Arsène. Réflexions sur les arts et les in-
dustries d’art en Algérie. 1905. Algiers: L’Akhbar,
Alazard, Jean. “La Villa Médicis algérienne: ‘Abd el 1907.
Tif,’” with watercolors by Jean Bouchaud. L’Il-
lustration, no. 4490 (25 March 1929): 297–300. ———. “La vie artistique: Les orientalistes.”
Figaro, 7 February 1911.
———. “Le Musée des Beaux-Arts d’Alger.”
Bulletin des musées de France 2, no. 9 (Septem- Alexandre, Arsène, et al. Les richesses artistiques de
ber 1930): 183–210. la France coloniale. Special issue of La renais-
sance de l’art et les industries de luxe 5, no. 4
———. L’Orient et la peinture française au XIXe (April 1922).
siècle, d’Eugène Delacroix à Auguste Renoir.
Paris: Plon, Collection du centenaire de l’Al- Alloula, Malek. The Colonial Harem: Images of a
gérie, 1930. Sub-Eroticism. Minneapolis: University of Min-
nesota Press, 1986.

325

Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflec- ———. “Les Abd-el-Tif.” L’Akhbar, 30 June
tions on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism. 1928.
Rev. and expanded ed. London: Verso, 1991.
———. “Pour le Musée d’Alger.” L’Akhbar, 30
Andral, Jean-Louis, et al. Album de voyage: Des June 1928.
artistes en expédition au pays du Levant. Paris:
Association Française de l’Action Artistique ———. L’Algérie et les peintres orientalistes. 2
and Réunion des Musées Nationaux, 1993. vols. Grenoble: B. Arthaud, 1930.

Angel, Pierre. L’école nord-africaine dans l’art fran- Baudelaire, Charles. Les fleurs du mal. Edited by
çais contemporain. Paris: Les oeuvres représen- Antoine Adam. Paris: Garnier Frères, 1961.
tatives, 1931.
———. Art in Paris, 1845–1862: Salons and Other
Angéli, Louis-Eugène. “Les maîtres de la pein- Exhibitions. Translated and edited by Jonathan
ture algérienne: Azouaou Mammeri.” Algéria Mayne. Oxford: Phaidon, 1965.
42 (May–June 1955): 40–44.
Bayard, Emile. “L’art indigène aux colonies fran-
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Harem.” Di¤erences 4, no. 1 (1992): 205–24. de la France, 299–319. Paris: Garnier Frères,
1931.
———. Continental Drift: From National Charac-
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Chicago Press, 1999. cien et moderne 18 (July–December 1905): 17–26.

Arama, Maurice. Itinéraires marocaines: Regards de Beaux-Arts: Exposition coloniale internationale de
peintres. Paris: Jaguar, 1991. Paris. Exh. cat. Paris, May–November 1931.

“Art colonial.” In Exposition internationale des arts Béguin, François. Arabisances: Décor architectural
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nationale, 1925; reprinted New York: Garland,
1977. Bénédite, Léonce. “La peinture orientaliste et Gus-
tave Guillaumet.” La Nouvelle revue 50 (15 Jan-
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Revue des deux mondes, 7th ser., 55 (1 January
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Baghli, Sid Ahmed. Un maître de la peinture al-
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Bailey, Colin B., with John B. Collins. Renoir’s ———. “Première exposition rétrospective et
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Haven and London: Yale University Press; Exposition de l’art musulman, catalogue officiel,
and Ottawa: National Gallery of Canada, 156–95. Exh. cat. Palais de l’Industrie. Paris:
1997. Bellier, October–December 1893.

Barker, Francis, et al., eds. Europe and Its Others. 2 ———. “La collection Caillebotte et l’école im-
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Arts Museums of San Francisco, 1996.
———. “Une tentative de rénovation artistique:
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———. “Art et Orient: L’oeuvre d’Etienne ———. The “Scramble” for Africa: Causes and
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Heath, 1966.
———. “A Etienne Dinet.” Preface to Etienne
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———. “Etienne Dinet.” L’Art et les artistes 10, Blake, Jody. “The Truth about the Colonies, 1931:
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———. Avant-propos to Exposition sous le haut
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———. Albert Lebourg. Paris: Editions Georges vich, 1983.
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Bongie, Chris. Exotic Memories: Literature, Colo-
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———. “The Colonial Mirage: Besnard in India, France, 1850–1900. Paris: Hazan, 1990.
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