The Power of Learning

ILLUSTRATION BY HARRY CAMPBELL

SHAPING EDUCATION

The Art and
Science of Teaching

Educational experts from across the country
share their ideas for what works—and
what doesn’t—when preparing instructors
for the classroom

BY RICHARD JEROME

S AMUEL READ HALL If these points sound oddly
contemporary, it’s because some
isn’t a household are part of an often-contentious
name, except debate over education and teacher
training that continues to this day.
perhaps among In the two centuries since Hall
opened his academy, competing
a small set of philosophies have come in and out
of vogue, changing the way teach-
historians. But he was a pioneer and ers are taught to teach and students
are expected to learn. Teaching
visionary who profoundly shaped itself has long been seen as a kind
of poor relation among professions.
education in America. As a newly “Indeed, for a long time it wasn’t
even regarded as a profession,”
ordained minister in 1823, Hall took says historian Diane Ravitch, a
professor at New York University.
a position in Concord, Vt., then still In Hall’s time, some men (teaching
was a male province then) were
a frontier settlement, but only after career schoolmasters, but many in
small towns and rural areas were
town fathers satisfied one condition: farmers, surveyors and innkeepers
who taught as a side gig. For better-
that he be allowed to start a school educated teachers, it was often
merely a starter job until they could
for training teachers. And so Hall enter more prestigious professions,
say, as lawyers or ministers or in
opened the first institution in the burgeoning industries. It’s a trend
that persists today.
U.S. designed to educate educators.
In the 1830s, Massachusetts
Hall had definite ideas on the subject, reformer Horace Mann (1796–1859)
transformed American education
outlined in his influential Lectures when he proposed a universal,
secular—and free—system of
on School Keeping, published in 1829,

perhaps the earliest instruction

manual for teachers in America. In it,

Hall noted some substantial impedi-

ments to education. Among them:

1. Lack of supplies, including a In addition to
globe of the world. (Some credit understanding subject
Hall with inventing the iconic matter and educational
blackboard and eraser.) philosophies, teachers
must be able to engage
2. Political factions within the their students.
school district, battling at the
expense of educational progress.

3. Poorly qualified teachers.
4. Poor remuneration of qualified

teachers.

50 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

51

Italian educator Maria Montessori (here, in 1946) developed a teaching style that encouraged innate interest in learning.

common schools, the precursors institutions known as normal a variety of pedagogical styles,
to public schools. Mann’s scheme schools—derived from the sometimes used in combination.
broke localities into districts, 16th-century French écoles normales— Among them:
each providing a school open so named because they provided a
to all students, regardless of cohesive curriculum that served as • Didactic, teacher-centered,
faith, income and social status. a norm. Over time, normal schools heavy on lectures
Funded largely by tax dollars, gave way to university depart-
common schools taught the ments of education as pedagogical • Student-centered, in which
basics—literature, arithmetic and training grounds. The curricula teachers serve as facilitators,
history—but also civic education therein has been influenced by say, for group projects and
and democratic principles. These various theorists. Among the more student portfolios
institutions spread as urbaniza- prominent were John Dewey
tion, immigration and westward (1859–1952), who advocated against • Kinesthetic, which includes
expansion swelled the nation—and an authoritarian classroom and hands-on projects, drawing,
the demand for teachers skyrock- argued for one pragmatically role-playing, sports and other
eted. Not coincidentally, the late relevant to students’ lives (see page physical activities
19th century also saw more women 65); Maria Montessori (1870–1952),
in the teaching profession. Women whose approach stresses the devel- • Differentiated instruction that is
were viewed as more nurturing, opment of a child’s own initiative individually tailored, be it geared
and, perhaps more important, they and natural abilities, especially to gifted and talented, middling
came cheaper—typically garner- through practical play, and allows or special-needs students
ing only about one third the salary children to develop at their own
paid to men. By the turn of the pace; and the psychologist Jean • Experiential learning, involving
20th century, 75% of all teachers Piaget (1896–1980), who identified internships, public service,
were female. four stages of childhood cogni- research, study abroad and other
tive development. In real-world activities outside the classroom
Mann was also instrumental classrooms, teacher ed has yielded
in developing teacher-training • Cooperative education, which
combines classroom and work
experience—such as when
students collaborate to run a
school store

52 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

Graduates of the Whitewater Normal School, a teacher-training college in Wisconsin, in the early 1900s.

GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES—often Quality, one deficit in teacher of presenting material in both
politicized and controversial—have education is “a reluctance to graphics and words, while linking
also shaped pedagogical training. include well-supported scientific abstract concepts to concrete
Recent programs include the No findings in its canon,” as she wrote representations. Other research
Child Left Behind Act of 2002; Race in a 2016 paper. “We have solid shows that posing probing
to the Top, under President Obama; research going back 50 or 60 years questions such as “Why?” “How?”
and the Common Core State that establishes how a teacher and “What if?” helps kids achieve a
Standards, co-sponsored by the might boost student learning,” she deeper understanding of a subject.
National Governors Association. says. “But many teacher educators Despite the sound science, Walsh
All stress basic-skills standards, and reject out of hand a method that admits, “There is a certain artistry
all have come under criticism for, will work with 95% of kids because to delivering instruction, the
among other things, an overreliance of the 5%—they fervently believe quality that makes people great
on standardized tests and short- in the uniqueness of every child. teachers is hard to put your finger
changing arts and social studies. Some of that attitude is grounded on, but you know it when you see
in a romanticism dating back it. Somebody you like to listen to,
For all those efforts, as of 2018 to [18th-century Swiss philoso- somebody who sparks a great inter-
U.S. students ranked just 38th pher Jean-Jacques] Rousseau, a est in the topic at hand, somebody
among developed countries in distrust of formal education for who doesn’t make you discouraged,
math and 24th in science. American threatening children’s true and who makes you feel like you can
education and teacher education good natural state. It’s a kind of grasp what’s being taught.”
are, fairly or not, viewed as under- anti-intellectualism that almost
achieving. Time magazine spoke to disdains knowledge as if it were About half of teachers quit
six of the nation’s leading educa- Trivial Pursuit and not something during their first five years—well
tional experts for some insights that has engaged the human mind before reaching peak potential—
into the current practice of teach- since the beginning of time.” because of relatively low pay
ing—and the teaching of teachers. and status compared with other
Walsh cites empirical studies professions, notes David Berliner,
For Kate Walsh, president of demonstrating the effectiveness dean emeritus of Arizona State
the National Council on Teacher

53

SHAPING EDUCATION

University’s Graduate School of techniques, many of which are conservatives on teachers’ unions,
Education. That’s why he’d like often easier to learn on the job or [which are] among the most
to see budding teachers get more from a mentor than in a didactic powerful bases of the Democratic
experience at the front end. “If I preparation program on pedagogy. Party,” says Ravitch, who served
were czar, I’d set up a teacher-ed Third is a human quality, the as an assistant secretary of educa-
program with maybe half the ability to understand, relate to tion under President George H.W.
year in classrooms,” Berliner says. and communicate to kids, and Bush. “It used to be canonical on
“Learn how classrooms actually that probably has more to do the political right that unions
run. What we do now is silly. We with temperament, character and cause low test scores, which is
teach them theory and send them personality than any training.” ridiculous because the highest-
out, and they don’t get to see how performing states in the country—
theory and practice are related. Finn believes that teacher train- Massachusetts, Connecticut and
That’s the art part. I was talking to ing is hamstrung by “often foolish New Jersey—all have strong teach-
an expert teacher who was cover- and bureaucratic rules” that govern ers’ unions. Meanwhile, teachers
ing the solar system. He had kids district schools because of state are expected to be social workers,
labeled as the planets and moon, requirements and that the best
walking around the room as if in
orbit. He explained that at first Students learn best by building
when he taught the topic nobody on ideas they already know, notes
learned anything. So he tried this, Daniel Willingham. That is why a
teaching the solar system in a way “well-sequenced curriculum” is crucial.
those kids will never forget. That’s
what a great teacher does.” charter and private schools, “freed psychologists and saints, willing
from those rules,” can offer more to work for less than other profes-
In far too many cases, Berliner flexibility for both teachers and sionals and to pay for supplies out
believes, teacher education fails students. “They can feature differ- of their own pockets.”
to account for the socioeconomic ent instructional styles, different
factors that influence test scores educational philosophies and draw Ravitch also decries what she
and classroom performance. “Also on different kinds of teachers,” he considers a national “obsession”
if I were czar,” he says, “in areas says. “Some teachers can be effec- with standardized tests, both as
where students who are poor and tive in different styles. Some kids a measure and shaper of teacher
of color live, I’d have the people of thrive in an environment where and student performance. “The
status in those communities take they’re sitting at a desk, taking it most important determinant of
teacher candidates around to visit all in and asking questions; others test scores is the child’s home
the churches and political leaders thrive doing a group project, or background,” she says. “A student
and allow ordinary parents to bring going outside and learning biology who comes from a home where
them in for dinner. Teachers need by pulling leaves off trees. There the parents are college graduates
to understand those communities are going to be some kids who and who has good nutrition and
and understand that the kids in forge ahead on their own and some medical care will more likely do
them are not all doomed to failure.” kids who need the equivalent of very well. There’s something in
one-on-one tutoring.” education called Campbell’s law:
“There are only a few requisites when a measure becomes the goal,
for a good teacher,” says Chester Education historian Ravitch it distorts the measure. It’s absurd
Finn, a noted educational policy laments what she calls decades of that tests have become the driver of
analyst and former assistant “relentless teacher bashing” that everything—while driving out play,
secretary of education during discourages good people from recess, music and art and sucking all
the Reagan administration. entering the field. “Part of that the joy out of teaching and learning.
“One is subject-matter mastery. has been a sustained attack by It’s as if you lived your life to have
I wholly subscribe to the maxim
you cannot teach that which you
yourself do not know. Second is a
set of pedagogical and classroom

54 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

a 98.6 temperature. That’s just a Kinesthetic learning involves art and other physical activities.
measure, not the goal of your life.”
thinking. It’s actually a prerequisite physics simultaneously. The auto-
Daniel Willingham, a profes- of critical thinking.” mechanics teacher and the physics
sor at the University of Virginia, instructor co-teach the class. One
has spent 20 years applying the “When it comes to teaching of them asked a visitor which ones
principles of cognitive psychology and learning, the best of every- were the AP kids, the special-needs
to teacher education. “I’ve worked thing we’d like to see is already kids and the vo-tech kids. Guess
on translating what cognitive in place somewhere in American what? He couldn’t say.”
psychologists know about learn- schools—but it’s just so unevenly
ing, perception, memory, attention, distributed,” says Barnett Berry, a Learning to teach, Berry argues,
emotion and motivation in ways research professor at the University is about more than conveying infor-
that seem relevant to classrooms,” of South Carolina and founder of mation: “What if kids are coming to
he says, adding that when prospec- the Center for Teaching Quality, school with trauma in their lives?
tive teachers are exposed to this which specializes in developing When kids are acting out, most of it
material, it’s often in a theoretical and implementing innovative is because they’re in pain. How do
way. Instead, he would zero in on teaching practices. “I visited a you deal with that? It takes train-
empirical findings that apply to school in Gulfport, Miss., not a ing and support. We have not done
real-world situations. “I would place you’d think of as a harbinger enough to create a much more fluid
focus on things like ‘This is how of innovative pedagogical practices. profession of teaching where you
kids perform in a memory test with They’ve merged a curriculum so have a wide array of credentialed
this particular type of training,’” he that college-bound kids taking professionals, specialists working
says. “Or ‘This is the type of circum- advanced-placement tests, special- seamlessly with those in the
stance in which kids focus their needs kids and kids you’d think are social service and mental health
attention more effectively.’ These homing in on vocational-technical and medical sector to bridge the
are experimental phenomena that careers—they all take courses academic needs of kids along with
we’ve observed many, many times.” together combining the learning their social, emotional and physical
In a paper titled The Science of of complex auto mechanics and needs. Education is complex stuff.”
Learning, Willingham lays out some
of these principles. For instance, he
notes, students learn best by build-
ing on ideas they already know,
which is why a “well-sequenced
curriculum” is crucial. Burdening
students with too much informa-
tion at once, meanwhile, can cause a
kind of cognitive overload.

Willingham also challenges a
commonly expressed dichotomy
between imparting factual informa-
tion and developing a child’s critical
thinking skills. “A key conclusion
in teacher education, based on
research from the last 25 or 30
years, is that critical thinking and
knowledge are really intertwined,”
he says. “Certainly, we don’t want
kids just to become encyclopedias
of fact; we want them to become
excellent thinkers. Some people see
knowledge as an enemy of critical

55

SHAPING EDUCATION The School of Athens,
a fresco painted by
The Lessons Raphael in 1511, depicts
of History philosophers and
scholars, including Plato
Tracing the evolution of educational and Aristotle (center).
theory and institutions, from Confucius
and Plato to medieval Europe and
20th-century America

BY COURTNEY MIFSUD

P LATO GREW UP in (groups) of the state receive.”
a city at war. His Throughout history, humans
home of Athens
have sought to learn in formal and
battled Sparta in informal settings, and the type
of education experienced at each
the Peloponnesian juncture depended on the needs of
society at that time. Education—in
War until he was 23, when the both system and theory—has
evolved with changing societies
war ended with Athens’s defeat while in turn shaping the minds of
the times to better fit and improve
and subsequent turmoil. “Athens those societies.

was no longer administered THOUSANDS OF YEARS before Plato
institutionalized learning in
according to the standards and Greece, the ancient Sumerians
were hard at work developing
practices of our fathers,” the famed systems for writing, agriculture
and mathematics, so much so
philosopher wrote in a letter. that the ancient Mesopotamian
region—in modern-day Iraq—is
“Athens desperately needs the referred to by many as the cradle of
civilization. In the late 19th century,
means of improving this particular fragments of a Sumerian tablet
dating back to roughly 2000
situation and of reforming the B.C.E. were discovered and pieced
together. Over the next four
whole constitution.” According decades researchers worked to
translate the texts, and in 1949
to Plato, education was the path scholars revealed that the tablet
described the life of a young scribe
to achieving a just society, so he as he learned in school. The text on
the tablet begins:
founded the Academy in 387 B.C.E.,
“Schoolboy, where did you go
Greece’s first higher-learning

institution. The intellectual

center lasted for more than

900 years, until the Byzantine

emperor Justinian the Great

dissolved it in 529 C.E. Philosophy,

mathematics, astronomy and

geometry were among the subjects

taught at the Academy. Plato

theorized that education had

the practical purpose of training

society’s citizens and building

its leadership: “The quality of

the State depends on the kind

of education that the members

56 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

57

A depiction of Chinese philosopher Confucius lecturing students on how to behave toward elders, circa 500 B.C.E.

from earliest days?” late for school and is punished [handwriting] was unsatisfactory.”
“I went to school.” by the schoolmaster when he The system described represents
“What did you do in school?” misbehaves. “It was a bad day for
“I read my tablet, ate my lunch, our ancient pupil,” wrote Samuel the first-known education system.
prepared my tablet, wrote it, Noah Kramer, who published In learning temples known as
finished it; then my prepared the tablet’s translation in the edubbas (tablet houses), students
lines were prepared for me [and article “Schooldays: A Sumerian were taught by teachers or priests,
in] the afternoon, my hand copies Composition Relating to the called ummia (experts), for many
were prepared for me. Upon the Education of a Scribe” in the years to learn cuneiform, the
school’s dismissal, I went home.” Journal of the American Oriental written language, along with the
Society in 1949. “He was caned by numeric system. Through these
THE TABLET GOES on to describe the various members of the school teachings a scribe learned to write
the life of the schoolboy, and it’s staff for his indiscretions and three books and documents by hand as
not unlike the life of a modern times by the teacher himself—once a form of record keeping—which
student. He is terrified of being with the reprimand that his ‘hand’ explains why the schoolboy’s
underwhelming handwriting was

58 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

SHAPING EDUCATION

so bothersome to his teacher. officials were taught alongside the The Oxford Handbook of the History
In ancient Egypt, education sons of the Pharaoh. of Education. “Japan, heavily
influenced by Confucianism from
flourished in a similar fashion. As IN ANCIENT ASIA, education was China, nevertheless adapted it to
the civilization advanced, the need designed in line with specific suit a unique culture and set of
for writing was critical. Young values for citizens, and both Japan institutions.”
boys were sent to school at around and China developed extensive
8 years old, and they were taught practices from the earliest of The earliest pieces of evidence
mathematics, writing, reading, times. “China’s major educational of education in China date back to
geometry, astronomy and medicine. thrust was centered on educating 2000 B.C.E., in the form of inscrip-
There were general village schools the heart-mind for moral and tions on the shoulder blades of
and specialized schools for certain proper conduct, a process of total deer and turtle shells. There is
positions in society, such as priest education and self-cultivation,” archeological evidence that begin-
or scribe. And at the top of the wrote Conrad Schirokauer, a late ning writers learned to inscribe on
social hierarchy was the Prince’s American historian and writer, in practice bones. “The ancient graphs
School, where nobles and court evolved into standard characters,
but drawing them continued to
require long practice before the
results were acceptable,” wrote
Schirokauer. “If learning figured
in the very gestation of Chinese
civilization, the same was thought
to hold true for individuals.”

Confucius, born in 551 B.C.E.,
was a philosopher and an educa-
tor who came to be known as “the
teacher of 10,000 generations.”
He founded the Confucian school
of thinking, or Confucianism.
The teacher devoted himself to
education, once writing, “I have
never grown tired of learning, nor
wearied in teaching others what
I have learned.” For Confucius,
the purpose of learning was to
improve one’s character and self,
but just because learning began
with oneself did not mean that
it should end there. Confucian
philosophy emphasized a commit-
ment to social responsibility and
expected students to apply their
knowledge and virtue to the rest
of the world. The opening passage
of Xueji (Record of Learning), one
of the main texts of Confucianism,
begins, “If a ruler desires to trans-
form the people [and] perfect [their]
customs, [the ruler] can only do so
through education.”

Confucian texts dominated the

59

SHAPING EDUCATION

curriculum in premodern China, 1603 to 1867, during which regional Isocrates exalted was known as
and they not only gave guidance leaders, placed in power by the paideia, and it often included
to teachers but also dictated how emperor, oversaw a fragmented subjects such as mathematics,
students were expected to behave. feudal political system. This led to a music, rhetoric, grammar, gymnas-
“Be certain you are respectful and diverse education system through- tics, history and philosophy. Paideia
reverent, keep the expression on out the regions. Schirokauer noted functioned in two ways: it prepared
your face harmonious, examine that samurai were taught to be men to become upstanding citizens,
your language and commands, both warriors and scholars. They capable of shouldering political and
be quick in leaping forward and received martial training, such as military burdens; and it allowed
in jumping back and be certain in swordsmanship and lancing, but children to rise above their baser
you are serious and decorous. also civil learning. human instincts so that they could
This is how one honors teachers,” achieve a high moral character.
Confucius wrote in the Record of IN GREECE during the 5th century
Rites. “This is because: Teaching is B.C.E., the country’s greatest But paideia wasn’t for everyone.
the most important of our moral thinkers spent much of their time Like many cultures that came
duties, and learning is the culmi- pondering the question of how to before and after Greece, this type
nation of wisdom. The greatest of raise a child. According to Isocrates, of education was reserved not only
moral duties is to benefit others, a prominent rhetorician who was for wealthy elites but also only for
and nothing is of more benefit to influenced by Plato, Greece was their sons, not their daughters.
others than teaching.” leaps and bounds ahead of the
rest of the world when it came to However, education in the
Confucianism spread through- education: “So far Athens left the Greek city-state of Sparta, where
out China and across Asia over rest of mankind behind in thought children were bred for battle,
the following millennium, with and expression that her pupils have disregarded economic and gender
each country uniquely interpret- become the teachers of the world.” divides. Harsh child-rearing
ing the philosophy. In Japan, the practices and a rigid school system
Tokugawa shogunate reigned from The education system that were organized by the state. Boys
were beaten, taught to withstand
cold and hunger and encouraged
to steal, from the age of 7. Girls
were treated less harshly, but they
trained rigorously and competed
beside their male counterparts. As
the Greek biographer and writer
Plutarch put it, they were expected
to “exercise themselves with
wrestling, running, throwing the
quoit [metal ring] and casting the
dart, to the end that the fruit they
conceived might, in strong and
healthy bodies, take firmer root and
better growth.”

In the military-obsessed Sparta of the 5th century B.C.E., education EDUCATION IN EUROPE throughout
emphasized physical and combat skills. the Middle Ages was a fusion of
knowledge derived from ancient
wisdom, often from scholars of
antiquity, such as Aristotle and
Plato, and the various objectives of
the Christian church. The legacy
of ancient Greek culture brought
with it texts and subjects, as well

60 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

A 13th-century image of a theologian and students at the University of Paris, one of Europe’s oldest universities.

as the experts themselves. “The at this time was the tension and regimented curricula for
words of these ‘authorities’ carried between the philosophy of the past various fields of study, marks
weight in medieval explorations of and the Christian voices propelling one of the greatest educational
any topic and were treated as the the church. Scholars picked and achievements of the era. Bologna
basis for further understanding,” chose their battles with religious was one of the most influential
writes Spencer E. Young, an authorities, often bending on larger cities for European education
expert in religion, history and conflicts in order to ease tension during this era, especially when
education in the Middle Ages, in with the church and avoid suppres- Frederick Barbarossa, a Holy
The Oxford Handbook of the History sion. For instance, the framework Roman Emperor, provided support
of Education. “Even when medieval of Aristotelian natural philosophy for higher education throughout
scholars found, through rigorous suggested that the universe could the Italian peninsula. At the Diet
examination, inconsistencies in not have been put in motion by of Roncaglia in 1158, Barbarossa
this tradition or pursued new a single entity. But to appease issued the Authentica Habita,
directions in their thinking, they Christian voices, the scholars put which set some privileges for
retained immense respect for the forward theories that God could those studying law, including the
authorities of the past.” Medieval have put the universe in motion if assurance of safety for those who
educators also leaned on church he wanted to. traveled for education. “Over
fathers of the 4th and 5th centuries, a span of nearly a millennium,
especially Augustine, an early That’s not to say that religion educational life experiences both
Christian theologian, a doctor halted the progress of true learn- innovation and stagnation,” Young
of the church and a Neoplatonic ing. The emergence of universi- writes. “Some of these develop-
philosopher. ties throughout the late 12th and ments continue to resonate in
early 13th centuries, including the different ways today.”
The chief struggle of education introduction of degree programs

61

At a Jewish school in London in the early 1900s, girls engaged in exercise, in addition to their studies.

EDUCATION IS OFTEN thought of wrote in his 2008 book Imagining plains hunters. These communi-
in a vacuum, in which one seeks Head-Smashed-In: Aboriginal ties drove herds of bison in the
higher knowledge by learning to, Buffalo Hunting on the Northern autumn and early winter months,
for example, write, read, practice Plains. According to Brink, the and to encourage the cows and
medicine and/or philosophize. story of indigenous groups, such calves to jump, the people lined the
We picture scholars like those as the bison-hunting aboriginal lanes with rock cairns that were
described above as champions people of the Great Plains, has not decorated with scarecrows. Some
of learning—and of course they gotten its due in historic literature: of the hunters would disguise
were. But the ways members of “It needs to be remembered for themselves as bison and wolves
indigenous societies teach and what it was—an astonishing and run alongside the herd,
learn, including the precolonial triumph of intelligent humans which created a false boundary
peoples of the Pacific Rim and over circumstances stacked for the herd to stay within. “The
western hemisphere, before overwhelmingly against them.” knowledge people must have had
widespread European colonization, [of bison habits, strengths and
should not be overlooked as Buffalo jumps—where herds weaknesses] in order to pull off
valuable systems of education. of bison were guided by hunters the feat of harvesting and process-
Colonizers often characterized into stampeding over cliffs ing over 100 bison at a time was
these societies as primitive and and then butchered at the cliff deep and vast,” writes Andrea
desperately in need of conventional bottom—were commonplace for Lawrence, an associate professor
education. But certainly these thousands of years in precolonial in the department of curriculum
individuals were educated North America. The largest and and instruction at the University of
according to their own needs and best-preserved buffalo jump is Montana, in The Oxford Handbook
standards. “There is practically Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump of the History of Education. “The
no limit to the depth of creativity in the Porcupine Hills of south- learning that accumulated over
human beings have brought to western Alberta, Canada. The time might now be identified as
bear in order to make their world archaeological evidence at this site largely scientific. This knowledge
livable,” archaeologist Jack W. Brink dates back more than 5,000 years, was transmitted by generations of
before horses became available to

62 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

Students at a New York high school in the mid-1920s listened to a radio.

communities through daily and emphasis on practical information. women who taught at neighbor-
seasonal practices.” In 17th-century America, many hood dame schools were to be
certified by the selectmen.
In colonial America, education leaders feared that an educated
developed initially on two tracks: public would lead to a disruption OPPORTUNITIES FOR education
the upper classes were able to of the status quo. Lord Berkeley, a for women in the U.S. did not
pursue the classics, such as Latin governor of Virginia, said in 1671, begin in any meaningful fashion
grammar and Greek texts; the lower “I thank God that there are no free until the 19th century. The first
classes, mostly farmers, received schools . . . and I hope that we shall co-educational colleges were
limited and inconsistent education, not have these [for a] hundred founded in 1833, and in the coming
often simply learning how to read years.” He added that “learning has decades access to higher education
and write through the church, in brought disobedience, and heresy opened for women. The Morrill
addition to lessons based on moral and sects into the world.” Act of 1862 granted federal land
virtues and the Bible. to each state for the creation of
This attitude became less public colleges, and of the 34 public
As communities grew, so did prevalent after the colonies won institutions founded between 1861
the need to educate them, and their independence. When John and 1880, 71% accepted women.
in 1647 Massachusetts enacted a Adams drafted the Massachusetts
law that required towns of 100 or Constitution in 1780, he included While some institutions found
more families to establish a formal provisions that guaranteed co-ed schools in order to be more
school—though students wouldn’t public education to all citizens. cost-effective, the push to accept
be required to attend until the In 1789 Massachusetts passed a women at public institutions was
following century. Education comprehensive education law that largely driven by the need to train
was often an avenue to support required all teachers in grammar teachers to accommodate the
the community—children could schools to “provide satisfactory spread of schooling. “The schools
apprentice to be tradesmen, with an evidence” that they had received are growing so rapidly with this
employer teaching the skills of the a formal education in a college or expansion of primary education
trade. Children on farms were often university and, equally important, and then secondary education in
educated inside the home, with an were of good moral character. Even

63

SHAPING EDUCATION

the 19th century that one of the become elementary schoolteach- During this era, Rury notes,
problems is getting teachers to ers, but Rury notes that women America created an education
do all this,” says John L. Rury, a would teach for only a few years, system that rewarded rational
professor emeritus of education while they were unmarried, and thinking. He specifically points
at the University of Kansas. Rury that some districts would not to the methods of certifying and
explains that initially men were even hire married women. When a organizing learning, such as
educators and schoolmasters, teacher became pregnant, it would international testing programs
teaching during four- or five- lead to questions from schoolchil- and research universities, that
month terms while holding other dren curious about reproduction— have flourished in the U.S. and
jobs for the rest of the year. But questions that were tricky for attracted students from all over
once the school term was extended conservative educators to answer. the world. But there’s more work
to eight or nine months, these to be done. As Rury says, “What we
male educators didn’t have the THE TURN OF the 20th century [educators in the U.S.] have done
bandwidth for full-time teach- brought a more expansive poorly is creating a system where
ing. “The school leaders, the education system, largely due to opportunity is really equalized.”
superintendents, were in favor America’s rapid industrialization
of co-education because this was and subsequent economic growth. In the spring of 1966, James
their big supply of teachers,” Rury In the decades between 1890 and Coleman, a Johns Hopkins University
says. Nineteenth-century high 1930, private and public high sociologist, was charged by
schools had teacher-training school enrollment increased Congress to investigate the source
programs that taught girls to from 300,000 to nearly 15 million. of inequality in education. He
was specifically called on by the
federal commissioner of education
concerning a single paragraph in
the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that
required a survey and to report
to the president and Congress
“concerning the lack of availability
of equal educational opportunities
for individuals by reason of race,
color, religion or national origin in
public educational institutions.”
The Coleman Report, officially
called the Equality of Educational
Opportunity Study, challenged the
existing hypothesis that a school’s
access to funding and resources
dictated the success or failure of
its students. Much to the surprise
of Coleman, the chief source of
variation was not the school but
the home backgrounds of the
students. “Knowing that we live in
a country with enormous dispari-
ties in living conditions, how do we
make the education system operate
in a way that creates more or less
equal opportunity for outcomes?”
asks Rury. “That’s the big challenge
facing American education today.”
And it’s still just as true in 2021.

64 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

AMERICA’S
E D U C AT I O N
EVANGELIST

How John Dewey championed
a new education movement that
appealed to the masses

BY COURTNEY MIFSUD

IF YOU WERE an educator in the Dewey worked to prepare students for a role in society.
19th century, you likely taught
the philosophies of a bygone system was that he believed it had published 766 articles in 151
era. “Learning accomplishment been tailored for the aristocracy, journals throughout his lifetime.
at that time was learning the with a curriculum that revolved But his way of thinking was not
classics: Greek and Latin. And around high culture and abstract without controversy, especially in
the principal argument in favor thinking, essentially keeping it out postwar America. Critics assumed
of it was that it was hard. The of reach for most people. “The that under Dewey’s learning
harder, the better,” says John L. simple facts of the case are that in models, students would fail to
Rury, a professor emeritus of the great majority of human beings, acquire the academic skills and
education at the University of the distinctively intellectual interest knowledge needed to advance.
Kansas. “In fact, the further from is not dominant,” Dewey wrote. Many were concerned that
your immediate experience, the “They have the so-called practical classroom order would disappear
better.” At the time, colleges impulse and disposition.” And with once a teacher’s authority had
and educators believed that more Americans from many walks been challenged. President
the source of knowledge was of life enrolling in school, it was up Dwight D. Eisenhower told Life
from ancient wisdom, and even XS IHYGEXSVW XS ǻRH [E]W XS VIEGL magazine in 1958 that he blamed
as contemporary sciences the masses: “The school must America’s educational failings
HIZIPSTIH XLSWI ǻIPHW [IVI WXMPP represent present life,” according to on Dewey’s teachings. However,
rooted in mastering the classics. Dewey. )I[I]ƶW PIKEG] [EW RSX HIǻRIH
But progressive education by his critics. In China, he was
reformers of the late 19th and As an intellectual and an called “a second Confucius,”
early 20th centuries questioned activist, Dewey made a string of and historian Henry Steele
these archaic teaching styles. landmark contributions to the Commager called him “the guide,
Chief among the reformers was educational landscape of the the mentor and the conscience
Vermont native John Dewey 20th century. He co-founded of the American people.” Unlike
(1859–1952), a philosopher and the American Association of Eisenhower, President Lyndon
educator who pushed for a new University Professors and worked B. Johnson—a former teacher—
model of schooling. to organize the New York City applauded Dewey’s philosophies
Teachers Union. Dewey also and carried them forward in the
In 1899, Dewey published the WYTTSVXIH IǺSVXW XLEX LIPTIH W /SLRWSRcSRGI VIQEVOIH
pamphlet The School and Society, found the National Association that he had found “a deep and
which challenged the existing for the Advancement of Colored PEWXMRK WMKRMǻGERGI MR )V /SLRR]ƶW
learning model, in which students People and the American Civil belief that the greatest sin of all is
sat in classrooms in rows reciting Liberties Union. to lose faith in one’s fellow man.”
and memorizing information. Dewey
proposed that students should take Dewey wrote 37 books and
an active role in their education
and be tasked to complete
interesting projects that required
problem-solving. One of Dewey’s
major gripes with the education

65

Educators must
acknowledge the
unconscious prejudices
they hold toward
minority students.

66 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

SHAPING EDUCATION

Addressing Bias
in the Classroom

As the conversation over systemic racism
grows louder, educators are working to
change anachronistic attitudes and curricula
in our schools

BY AARICKA WASHINGTON

I N THE 1940S, and women are still largely under-
represented in (and frequently
Black psycholo- discouraged from pursuing)
gists Kenneth and science, technology, engineering
and mathematics (STEM) fields.
Mamie Phipps Students read textbooks with a
skewed or minimalized history of
Clark conducted a women, African Americans, Native
Americans, the LGBTQIA+ commu-
simple experiment in the hopes of nity and other minority groups
at the mandate of state boards
understanding the effects of racism of education pushing specific
political agendas. English-language
on children. More than 200 Black learners struggle with the lack of
quality learning materials address-
kids were shown Black and white ing their specific needs. And then
there’s the metaphoric school-to-
dolls and asked which one they prison pipeline, a reference to the
disproportionately high enforce-
wanted to play with. The strik- ment of zero-tolerance disciplinary
policies against Black students,
ing result found that a majority depriving them of opportunities to
succeed in school.
preferred the white doll. The study
The coronavirus pandemic
was later used as a key example also exposed ways in which many
minority students are placed at a
that segregation was harmful to disadvantage compared with their
white counterparts. Just two weeks
Black and white children in the before graduation at the predomi-
nately Hispanic and lTleooawren-niicnnogcu,orpamagreeents
1954 landmark Supreme Court Liberty Middle Schosohloiunld take an active
Lemoore, Calif., officcrioahlliesldis’nsufidnodtseteelnlrelicyntguaal
case Brown v. Board of Education announced a policy tchuartiomsiatyn.dated
a minimum attendance record
of Topeka, which ruled that racial

segregation in public schools was

unconstitutional.

As monumental as that ruling

was, it really only began the

conversation about bias in educa-

tion. Seven decades later, the list

of inequities continues to grow.

A Black high school student in

Texas is barred from graduation

after refusing to cut his dreadlocks.

Harvard University pushes back

against a lawsuit from a group

that claimed Asian Americans

were being discriminated against

because of affirmative action. Girls

67

Biases in our education systems create hurdles to learning that students of color constantly face.

of 70% since the start of remote in something that many consider a says. “From the beginning, they
learning in order to participate in rite of passage.” should have been developing
the online graduation ceremony. the students’ capacity to do the
This disproportionately affected Why did the requirement matter cognitively independent work right
students with fewer technological in the first place? According to to be able to have those learning
resources who struggled to keep up Zaretta Hammond, a national behaviors.”
with the curriculum. “The school education consultant and the
is setting these rules based on the author of Culturally Responsive In a 2015 article for the Southern
most privileged of students and Teaching and the Brain, it fits a Poverty Law Center’s educa-
not really taking into account all pattern of historical and habitual tor resource project Teaching
the vulnerable student populations biases that have long impacted Tolerance, Hammond shared
that would likely be harmed by students from vulnerable popula- an anecdote of a white teacher
these policies,” says Abre’ Conner, tions. During the pandemic, many expressing her frustrations with
a staff attorney at the American Black and brown students were her classroom full of African
Civil Liberties Union of Northern facing the consequences of not American, Mexican American and
California, who successfully being properly taught how to work Southeast Asian students, who
lobbied the school district and the independently, especially when seemed reluctant to engage in
principal to remove the require- it comes to literacy. “So, where learning. Hammond emphasized
ment. “The school district was teachers have over-scaffolded that the first step was getting
creating even more barriers for and spoon-fed [during in-person teachers to recognize their assump-
students to be able to participate teaching], now kids were being left tions about their students and
without that support,” Hammond their learning capacity. Then

68 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

SHAPING EDUCATION

they need to look for inequity school being responsive to what safe spaces for kids to come back
patterns and be aware of accepting the needs of the community are, and heal from whatever traumas
negative stereotypes. The teacher, given what we know in terms of the are happening because of the
Hammond wrote, “was shocked to kind of structural, economic and pandemic and what’s going on
see that many of her interactions social inequities that impact Latino around them,” Hammond says.
were negative—always pointing out communities?” she asks. “Educators have to create spaces
off-task behavior, using sarcasm to listen to students and create
to motivate and discounting Along with cultural proficiency, mindful healing practices, without
their cultural learning tools and Hammond says it is key for white losing the academic rigor.”
strategies. What she thought were educators to build racial literacy
positive interactions were really and reduce their own “white fragil- Krystal Allen, a national educa-
negative statements sugarcoated ity,” a term coined by anti-racist tion consultant and former school
with a ‘happy’ tone of voice.” educator Robin DiAngelo that leader in New Orleans, says some
refers to the low tolerance many biases in education originate from
In regards to the Liberty Middle white people have when it comes a lack of shared decision-making
School situation, Hammond says to discussing racism. No school power for parents regarding
school leaders should not lower district is doing an excellent job, polices and agendas. Instead, white
the learning standards for the Hammond says, but many of them officials often feel as if they alone
students, but they must understand are trying to do the work by having know what’s best for minority
the bigger picture of challenges diversity, equity and inclusion students. “When you think about
that families face, especially during offices. all the ways biases creep in and
the crisis. Many minority parents operate,” she says, “there is a very
are frontline workers who were Still, school leaders are not yet salient sense of white dominance
unable to devote as much time hitting the mark when it comes and white supremacy at play when
and resources to their children’s to how they are responding to the we do not share the voices of
schooling as white parents. “Is the needs of parents and children. “We families of color.
recognize that we need to make

THE HBCU EXPERIENCE

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69

70 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

SHAPING EDUCATION

E D U C AT I O N
AROUND
THE WORLD

The schools and classrooms
may look different, but all
across the planet students from
preschool day-care centers to
high-level graduate programs
receive formal training. Still,
according to the United Nations,
as of 2018, one out of five
children between the ages of
6 and 17 worldwide was not
attending school, with more than
half of them in areas plagued
by war or conflict. As part of
its Sustainable Development
Goals, the U.N. hopes to correct
those numbers by 2030 and
ensure educational access for
all children and improve literacy
and numeracy globally.

Sevare, Mali

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-IVI E WXYHIRX [EW XEYKLX MR
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71



SHAPING EDUCATION

Bazhou, China Lausanne,
Switzerland
In the province of Hebei,
students practiced dance At the hospitality-management
at a Peking opera class. school École Hôtelière de

New York City Lausanne, students received
hands-on instruction from a chef.
Future doctors learned about
geriatrics as their professor 73
interviewed a healthy senior in
a lecture hall at Weill Cornell
Medical School.

Moscow, Russia

The Rumyantsev State School
of Circus and Variety Arts, named
for a famous Soviet-era clown,
trains gymnasts, acrobats and
other aspiring performers.

74 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

75

SHAPING EDUCATION
76 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

Ibb, Yemen San Antonio del
Chami, Colombia
As an ongoing civil war tears through
the country (located on the Arabian Two girls from the Embera-Chami
peninsula), students carried on with indigenous tribe of South America
lessons in the wreckage of their school. shared a laugh in their village school.

Duluth, Minnesota 77

Toddlers at Aunty’s Child Care
participated in circle time as they
begin to prepare for formal schooling
when they reach kindergarten age.

Portland, Maine

A group of budding musicians
at Riverton Elementary School
TVEGXMGIH TPE]MRK XLIcYOYPIPI

78 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

79

Chapter Three MODERN
LEARNING

From Zoom to artificial intelligence,
technology continues to simplify
and enhance the ways we learn.
Still, there’s no replacing good
old-fashioned human interaction

80 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

ILLUSTRATION BY HARRY CAMPBELL

MODERN LEARNING

The New
(Virtual) Reality

We’ve gotten a crash course in remote
learning. While there are various drawbacks,
the digital classroom also brings some
significant benefits

BY INGELA RATLEDGE AMUNDSON

L ET’S BEGIN by material for the web. Students were
stating the introduced to a different kind of
obvious: remote classroom—this time, based in their
bedroom or the family den—where
learning is hardly the daily curriculum was meted out
via a series of computer windows
a novel concept. and clicks.

Online courses have been growing It was, to put it mildly, a shock to
the system. “We all had to go online
in popularity and availability really quickly, and we did what
we could with a lot of Band-Aids
practically since the dawn of the and laptops,” says Erich Dietrich, a
clinical professor of higher educa-
internet in the mid-1990s. As our tion and international education at
New York University’s Steinhardt
technological capabilities have School. But it wasn’t just the swift-
ness or lack of groundwork that
steadily expanded, virtual classes— made the transition so difficult:
there was the issue of our collec-
indeed, even virtual diplomas— tive mindset. “Sure,” the small
voices inside our heads whispered,
have become an exceedingly viable “virtual learning is great if you
want to take a MasterClass in
and attractive solution for meeting stand-up comedy or get your
law degree at night. But students
educational needs across a global belong in school!”

landscape. It’s no wonder, really, that we’re
wired to be wary of a classroom-less
And yet there’s no denying that classroom—we’ve been conditioned
over centuries to believe that the
for the vast majority of us, our first prevailing system is the “right”
way. But wait. “There’s not much
real exposure to remote learn- evidence to support that having an
instructor in a room with a lot of
ing was a stunningly new—and

nonelective—experience. In March

2020, millions of Americans were

plunged into the deep end when

the spread of COVID-19 neces-

sitated school closures across the

country. Suddenly, in the throes

of a pandemic, everybody on the

educational spectrum was thrust

into unfamiliar territory. Parents

found themselves white-knuckling To command the
attention of students
it through grammar lessons with online, teachers must
amp up the force
their elementary-school-age kids. of their personalities.

Teachers burned the midnight oil

trying to figure out how to translate

82 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

83

MODERN LEARNING

students is actually a good model,” Without a leader there to galva- The Pros and Cons
Dietrich says. “Yes, it moves a great nize the troops—create those
amount of people through the “O Captain! My Captain” moments In any dialogue about virtual
classroom with the least amount à la Dead Poets Society—it’s academia, inevitably the first
of work, but it’s been implemented necessary to find other means of concern that crops up is the lack of
because it’s efficient—not because stimulation, whether that’s a well- a rich social component—which
it’s the best pedagogy. It’s become crafted instructional video, an has an enormous impact on the
our default.” impromptu poll or a cameo from a overall student experience and, by
special guest star. extension, learning itself. “When
Virtual vs. Traditional I’m physically in my classes, I feel
The pupils’ ages will also have like I’m seen and known—like my
For the record: regardless of the a major bearing on how they’re work, my questions and my ideas
delivery device, learning is basically able to take in information online. are significant to the community,”
the same whether it happens in While a smaller, discussion-based Diehl says. “Learning at home by
person or via computer. “We’re seminar-style class might work for myself, I don’t feel that.”
creating sets of links in our long- college or grad students, it would
term memory and strengthening be a comedy of errors to try to get a Another major problem is that
them with practice,” explains pack of first graders to sit still for an the technology gap—the digital
Barbara Oakley, a professor of hour-long handwriting workshop. divide between affluent students,
engineering at Oakland University “It’s been so hard for elementary who may have more access to and
and an expert in general and online and middle schoolers to go online familiarity with devices, and their
learning. Naturally, the most because their attention spans are less-privileged counterparts—
glaring distinction between the two shorter and they require a lot more puts students on uneven footing.
methods is that traditional learning interaction,” Dietrich says. “The gap is definitely increasing,”
originates in the classroom while warns Mary Stephens, a veteran
the virtual version exists online. The specific topic being taught educator of kindergarten through
matters too; certain disciplines college-level students and founder
In a traditional setting, a teacher lend themselves better to online of PrepForward, an online prep
is able to take the temperature of treatment. “Writing and a lot of the course for teacher certification.
the room—to interpret cues about human and social sciences are a “Even if students are able to borrow
how the students are faring and natural fit for online,” Dietrich says. machines from the school district,
respond in kind. “There are all “Science is more difficult, because it won’t necessarily bridge the gap.
kinds of cognitive tricks you can you need the space and facilities for They may not have Wi-Fi access, or
use to get attention and keep it,” teamwork, and it’s harder to develop they may need to share the technol-
Oakley says. “Online, that’s a lot soft skills like public speaking when ogy with others in the household.”
tougher—if someone’s texting her you aren’t in person.” According
friend off to the side, that’s pretty to Kalyn Diehl, a student who was Among the upsides is how
hard to catch and address.” Trying midway through her junior year adaptive and inclusive virtual
to compel a group of students to at St. Francis College in Brooklyn learning can be. In traditional
listen for extended periods using when her classes went online in classrooms, students are expected
sheer force of personality is much the wake of the coronavirus, her to maintain roughly the same pace,
more challenging on a screen. French curriculum suffered in despite the fact that there are all
“The camera basically subtracts particular. “The professor’s goal of kinds of learners. Virtual learning,
10 charisma points,” Oakley says. full immersion—all of us practicing with its utilization of asynchro-
“However engaging you are in the language by having an ongoing nous materials, allows individu-
real life, you’d better be a lot more conversation and learning on our als to move at their own speed.
engaging online—and that can be feet—kind of went out the window (Asynchronous learning is done on
hard to keep up.” when we moved online,” Diehl your own time—watching a video,
says. “I wasn’t able to adapt well doing a preassigned exercise and
Which explains why you can’t to not having that, and it was a lot so on—while synchronous learn-
simply take exactly what would more difficult trying to learn from ing happens live with others, as in
occur in a classroom and put it on a textbook.” a Zoom lesson.) “It’s easy to miss
Zoom—or at least you shouldn’t. something in a classroom because

84 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

Online learning allows for flexibility but should still adhere to standards and requirements.

things are going by so fast,” Oakley time investment, but it will pay off the material itself, but on how to
says. “But if you have a video avail- big-time later.” The reason videos help their children learn,” Stephens
able, you can stop it as many times are such a mainstay: research into says. The teachers will likely benefit
as you want and make sure you’re multimedia learning theory— from the insight and be able to offer
getting it.” pioneered by Richard Mayer, a solutions.
psychologist at the University of
Improving the Experience California, Santa Barbara—has And while virtual learning
demonstrated that our brains does allow for greater flexibility,
Now that virtual learning has learn much faster when a subject is it shouldn’t be the Wild West.
become part of our repertoire, let’s being presented via a combination “Structure is always helpful,”
roll up our sleeves and get better of words, pictures and auditory Oakley says. Teachers should create
at it. What have we discovered information. a syllabus and establish a weekly
so far? For virtual coursework, routine: new materials on Mondays,
the most effective curriculum is Communication is another meetings on Wednesdays, quizzes
a hybrid of materials and styles huge key to success and should on Fridays and so on. It’s important
that leverages the advantages of be a cornerstone of the virtual that the routine includes breaks and
asynchronous and synchronous learning process. “The channels social time.
approaches. “Some students are between teachers and students,
really good at thinking on the fly teachers and parents, parents and Although many of us were
and being impromptu; others aren’t. kids, teachers and their peers, and pushed into homeschooling, it has
It’s really good to offer options for students and their peers must be undeniably been, well, a learn-
both,” Dietrich says. If haphazardly continually open and flexible,” ing experience. “It’s forced us to
slapping an offline curriculum Stephens says. Parents must be take a step back and say, ‘How are
on Zoom is a surefire recipe for honest with instructors about their we really meeting our learning
mediocrity, “then the remedy to own limitations—there’s no shame objectives, and could we be doing
that is careful preparation,” Oakley in, say, failing to grasp the intrica- something more innovative?’”
says. “Like incorporating really cies of middle school math. “They Dietrich says. “This is a moment
good, watchable video materials need to seek advice from their kids’ for being creative, and I don’t think
into the course. It takes an up-front teachers—not on understanding we’ll ever go back to the same
normal that we had before.”

85

MODERN LEARNING

How to Raise a
(Successful) Failure

Resilience—not letting setbacks destroy you,
learning from them, trying again—is one of life’s
great skills. This is how you can teach it

BY JENNIFER KING LINDLEY

I T WAS THE EVE of a “failure-deprived generation”—
the sixth-grade famously blamed on helicopter
science fair. parents, lawn-mower parents,
snowplow parents and other
Having dawdled heavy-machinery types who swoop
in to bawl out coaches and wheedle
until the deadline, better grades. Jessica Lahey, the
author of The Gift of Failure,
my son, Ethan, had whipped has been an English teacher for
20 years and has watched her
together a seriously lame experi- students become increasingly
uncomfortable with taking risks.
ment: measuring the weight of a Lahey says this avoidance can
be fostered by parents with even
banana before and after it dried the best intentions: “It’s painful
to watch your child stumble. You
out. Every maternal atom in me want to show your love by making
a problem instantly better. But we
thrummed with ideas for making need to look beyond the immediate
emergency and take a longer view:
“Banana Water” less bad. “How ‘How can this help my kid grow
from life’s many setbacks while I’m
about you test several different here to help?’”

fruits and compare? Or maybe a In fact, failing is essential to a
well-lived life. Being comfortable
nice avocado?” I enthused. Ethan faltering and getting back up are
indispensable to building resilience.
was unmoved: “Just bananas. It’s “We don’t rejoice in easy victories.
If you recover from failure, you
easier.” I watched him blow-dry the learn something about yourself.
You are tougher than you thought.
lone, browning piece of fruit and Or more hardworking. That’s how
confidence is built,” says Rachel
shrugged. On science fair night, Simmons, the author of Enough

at tables nearby, atoms were being

split, obscure diseases cured. Ethan,

looking uncomfortable under the

glaring gymnasium lights, got only

the thinnest, most polite grand-

parent traffic and—surprise!—

earned a deservedly lackluster

grade. “Maybe some grapes would

have helped,” he admitted on the

subdued car ride home.

I now realize Ethan got to

experience something that is

increasingly rare for kids: what

it’s like to just plain screw up.

Our youngsters have been called

86 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

87

As She Is: How to Help Girls Move in low-income high schools who council seat but losing, for example.
Beyond Impossible Standards of learned about the struggles and “Emphasize to them that failures
Success to Live Healthy, Happy, and failed experiments of scientists like are proof you are pushing yourself
Fulfilling Lives. Marie Curie saw their own science to do something hard. If you are not
grades improve. They learned that making mistakes, you are probably
As a leadership-development intelligence is not something you not challenging yourself,” says Amy
specialist at Smith College in are born with but something you Morin, a psychotherapist and the
Northampton, Mass., Simmons gain through effort and, yes, error. author of 13 Things Mentally Strong
helped develop Failing Well, a “Students realize that success Parents Don’t Do.
workshop series that included requires a journey with failures
having professors and students along the way,” says Lin-Siegler. Ready to raise your own little
publicly air their rejection letters failures? Here’s where to begin.
and biggest screwups. In 2018, Of course, you don’t want to
Columbia University’s Teachers just throw your kid to the wolves. Step Back
College established the Education (“Good luck with choosing a
for Persistence and Innovation college! Bye!”) Experts say the Allow your kids the chance to
Center, dedicated to studying sweet spot of failure often lies just (deep breath) fail naturally. Start
the role of failure in learning outside children’s comfort zones, young, when the stakes are low:
and innovation. A 2016 study by where they have the chance to learn let your 3-year-old lose to you at
the center’s director, Xiaodong something that will serve them well Candy Land, suggests Stephanie
Lin-Siegler, showed that students in the future—running for a student O’Leary, a clinical psychologist
and the author of Parenting in
the Real World: “She might have
a meltdown, but don’t lose your
cool. Say, ‘I know this is hard.’ If
she sees her mom tolerating her
distress, she will realize it is not the
end of the world.” For school-age
kids, sports offer excellent lessons
in taking your lumps (sometimes
literally) and trying another day.
Lahey’s son was tripped at the start
of a cross-country meet. “If I had
been there, I couldn’t have resisted
coming to his rescue and asking
for a do-over,” she says. “Instead,
his teammates ran beside him, he
had a personal best, and he beat
the kid who fouled him. My son
now counts that as one of the best
running days he ever had.”

Stepping back may mean
examining your own attitudes, says
Morin. “You feel guilty if you don’t
run to school with the left-behind
soccer gear. You may see your
child’s failures as a reflection of
your parenting. To cool down, it can
help to write a list: What are three
things my child could learn from
this? Seeing the logic on paper can
bring you back to reality.”

88 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

MODERN LEARNING

Teach Them cut-down skis in our backyard. By court, accepted to the dream
Self-Compassion the time he was 12, he was compet- school and laughing with gaggles
ing against older kids. He would of friends at the best party. “These
However much it helps them grow, get so mad at himself if he lost images can make young people
messing up hurts. Validate their a race, but he was determined. I think that they are the only ones
discomfort, say experts. “We need would tell him, ‘Just getting pissed who have struggles and bad days,”
to sit with them with those difficult off isn’t going to do it. How about says O’Leary. “I repeat to my kids
emotions. Having parents take you talk to your coaches about all the time, ‘Understand what
their feelings seriously is gold for how to fix it?’” She credits his you are seeing on social media is
kids—it is often what they want early experiences in resilience for not real. Posts leave the tough stuff
most. And they will learn that bad his ability to withstand making out. Everyone has bad days.’ Saying
feelings are not going to destroy the Olympic team in 2018, only to that over and over to them creates a
you,” says Simmons. Use active have to miss competing due to a mental basket for them to put those
listening by repeating the gist of last-minute injury. And he’s racing images in.” The parenting resource
what they are saying: “Wow, that again: “Tommy has had to claw Common Sense Media advises you
is rough! You must feel so angry for everything he’s achieved. His to frequently ask your kids how
right now.” And encourage them to setbacks have just made him dig they are feeling about their social
practice self-compassion—being deeper,” she says. media feeds. Encourage them to
kind to themselves when they take a break if all those perfect
falter. “If [name a best friend] were Share Your Own brows and perfect scores are
feeling bad, what would you say Screwups making them feel bad about their
to them right now?” you can ask. own lives.
When you help them through the You may think being a good role
emotional sting, they feel capable model means you have to appear Nudge Them Out of
of trying again. perfect. Quite the contrary. Sharing the Comfort Zone
your own stumbles can show kids
Emphasize the Lessons that mistakes are totally normal “My 10-year-old son prefers
and thus helps them take their own activities he is already good at, like
Your kids take their cues about in stride. Says Tish Biesemeyer, music and math,” says O’Leary. “He
what to think about failure “I’m in sales. I would come home recently wanted to start playing
from you, says Kyla Haimovitz, and tell my kids, ‘I didn’t get that basketball. I got real: ‘You might
a psychology researcher at the sale, and I’m so bummed! Here’s end up sitting on the bench a lot,
University of Pennsylvania who what I’ll do differently next time.’” but go for it!’ Kids learn lots of
has studied how parents react to Simmons regularly shares her things when they are not the best at
kids’ failures. “Your reaction has mistakes with her 6-year-old something—persistence, empathy,
a huge impact on your kids. Talk daughter: “I’ll say, ‘Whoops, I forgot losing gracefully.”
to them in a way that focuses on to call the plumber. I’ll remem-
the process: ‘I’m sorry you are ber next time—my brain just got It’s never too late: out of love,
not happy with how things went. bigger!’” You can also discuss the you may have spent years running
Could you try it a different way? struggles of their heroes, like a interference. If you catch yourself
Could you talk to your teacher?’ favorite athlete who wasn’t picked filling out the learner’s permit
What is not helpful is language that until the final round of the draft or form for your teen driver, be direct.
suggests their intelligence is fixed: an actor who had to wait tables for Advises Lahey: “Tell him, ‘I’m sorry
‘That’s OK, honey. I wasn’t good at years before getting a big break. I have not been treating you like the
math either.’ Or ‘Don’t worry. You competent person you are. I’m here
are so good at reading!’” Get Real About for you if you need me. But I think
Social Media you can do it.’”
Tish Biesemeyer, mother of
Olympic skier Tommy Biesemeyer Instagram pretty much has a built- Consider your parenting lapse
(famous for enduring and in My Life Is Totally Perfect filter. just one more chance to model
overcoming serious injuries), took Everyone posting on social media making mistakes and growing
this approach: “He started skiing seems to be on the homecoming from them. After all, it’s a lifelong
when he was 3 years old, using process.

89

MODERN LEARNING

Learning in a
Brave New World

From kindergarten (and before) through
college (and beyond) artificial intelligence and
other advanced technologies are transforming
the process and promise of education

BY DANIEL S. LEVY

J USTIN VANHORN’S have long hoped for computer
systems that are able to not only help
working life— teachers, but also analyze the needs
much like the of students and adapt to those needs.
And in recent years the advanced
working lives of technologies, including forms of
artificial intelligence (AI), that have
many thousands begun to influence many aspects
of our lives have had an increas-
of teachers across the country and ing impact on education. Google
Classroom, for example, can offer
the world—changed dramatically insight on each student’s progress
and review submitted papers to
as the pandemic descended in gauge their authenticity, while also
handling crucial clerical tasks such
the spring of 2020. He set up his as sending out notifications and
setting up review pages—chores that
desk in the loft of his home and can save teachers hours each day and
help them manage multiple classes.
connected with his advanced- For them, learning management
systems such as Google Classroom,
placement and honors biology Blackboard Learn and Canvas have
been a godsend.
students at Whiteland (Indiana)
“Grading is not the fun part of
Community High School. At first teaching,” VanHorn notes. “Having
that computer system that does
VanHorn taught entirely remotely that for you makes everything take
less time.” With that and other jobs
via Zoom. Then he moved to a handled by the computer, VanHorn,
37, is freed up to personally analyze
hybrid model: partly in school and tests and papers, write comments,
and assess nuances of how his
partly remote. VanHorn relied on students are progressing and then
apply that information to lesson
Google Classroom to organize his

teaching plan and to let his students

know about their assignments, tests

and papers. Using artificial intel-

ligence programs offered through

Classroom, VanHorn checked on

the quality and originality of his

students’ work as the program

presented him with feedback on his

class. “The technology is a great tool

to help us get our points across,” he

says. “It helps students understand

what we’re trying to do, and helps us

identify students who are struggling

a lot quicker.”

Software designers and teachers

90 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

91

MODERN LEARNING

plans tailored to the students’ needs. 8 see ROYBI as a friendly toy with for relevant material. As a sign of
Companies making these and interchangeable colored hats, the ever larger changes to come in our
robot offers hundreds of lessons ability to talk to computers, Google
related systems have transformed in math, science and culture, asks has touted a new AI language
education for the young and old. and answers questions, has weekly platform that the company says
This was evident during the most reviews and links to an app so that will “engage in a free-flowing way
disruptive times of the pandemic parents and caregivers can track a about a seemingly endless number
and will only become more obvious child’s progress. of topics, an ability we think could
as time goes on. Amira Learning unlock more natural ways of
offers a reading assistant aimed The range of AI enhanced interacting with technology and
at kindergartners through third tutoring programs for children entirely new categories of helpful
graders. After listening to a child in later grades includes StepWise, applications.”
read aloud for 15 minutes, Amira which supplies teaching in algebra,
determines her ability to produce calculus, physics and engineering. While AI can teach Korean,
sounds, learns her vocabulary level, It gives immediate feedback, helps explain the reasons for the
obtains a snapshot of her level of students with individual difficul- Peloponnesian War and show how
comprehension and assesses her ties, analyzes how they perform and to find calculus derivatives, people
for dyslexia. Along with providing reports common mistakes so their are concerned that such systems
a literacy report, Amira prepares teacher can do targeted explana- also might be gathering and
a teaching program. If the child tions. Other tutorial programs such misusing students’ information. In
engages, Amira continues to as Photomath read handwritten China, for instance, some schools
appraise her abilities, reevaluate or printed math equations, answer have handed out headbands with
word usage and understanding, and questions and offer multiple step- electrodes to track brain electri-
then teach new things at an appro- by-step methods so students can cal signals and rate a youngster’s
priate level of difficulty. see how an equation is solved. The level of focus. It doesn’t help that
learning app Socratic lets students many AI manufacturers are far
ROYBI is a robot programmed ask a question verbally or upload an from transparent with what they
with voice and facial recognition image of, say, a math problem, and do with the intelligence their
and even possesses emotion detec- then the program searches the web systems glean. Because of this, New
tion. While children ages 2 through Mexico attorney general Hector
Balderas sued Google, alleging that
The ROYBI robot uses machine learning to try to appeal to—and teach—children. the tech giant spies on students
through its cloud-based products.
A federal court dismissed that case
in September 2020. Yet two months
later the White House Office of
Management and Budget issued
guidance to federal agencies on
regulating the private sector’s use
of AI. And though federal legisla-
tion seems unlikely in the near
future, more than a dozen states
are looking into various restric-
tions. And in the spring of 2021,
the European Union drafted rules
on regulating AI for personal and
business uses. Said Margrethe
Vestager, the executive vice-presi-
dent of the E.U. overseeing digital
policy: “On artificial intelligence,
trust is a must, not a nice to have.”

92 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

Educators can use AI to enhance a remote learning environment.

WITH THE MANY pressures students are deluged with bot-generated than 2,000 auto-responses, and
face, systems have emerged to assist texts and emails to see if they have if it can’t answer a question, the
in the often confusing and stress- questions. Georgia State University question gets sent to a person for
inducing college search. The Texas claims that its Pounce chatbot has a follow-up. Student questions
Higher Education Coordinating answered hundreds of thousands of containing red-flag words such as
Board created an AI bot called queries over the past five years and “afraid” and “death” also go straight
ADVi to help students applying to that this successfully reduced the to people overseeing the bot, and
a Texas public college or univer- number of students who accepted they reply directly. In April of 2021,
sity. Once applications are sent in, admittance but then didn’t show up Cal Poly Pomona reported that Billy
schools can use AI to get a sense to enroll in the fall. Chat had handled 22,000 incoming
of a student’s desire to attend. The messages during the previous half
firm Kira Talent has a program that The University of California year—an average of about 110 a day.
reviews a video a student submits. offers chatbots to assist students
The company says the review adjusting to school and dealing Some college students are using
will offer “a deeper understand- with day-to-day problems. Cal speech-recognition software to
ing of the personality traits and Poly Pomona’s Billy Chat texts transcribe professor lectures, while
soft skills your most successful students uplifting notes, as well some professors are using AI to
students possess.” Some colleges as memes, GIFs and emojis. The grade papers, employing programs
such as New York University use bot also reminds students of such as Turnitin—a plagiarism
Element451, which determines how deadlines, lets them know if they detection software. Turnitin also
well a teenager will do in a univer- owe work to a professor and gives offers a program that looks at all
sity setting and how engaged the them leads to secure financial aid. of the class’s work and flags any
student will be, based on how the Billy says things like, “If you need widespread mistakes so that the
teenager uses the school’s website help making an appointment with professor only needs to address
and answers its messages. And at an adviser or setting up your CPP the mistake once. Some colleges
various schools, accepted students Connect Planner, text me.” Billy are investigating systems offering
has been programmed with more virtual AI lecturers.

93

MODERN LEARNING

At medical schools, some artificial appendages are cumber- like CT Speech and the Cognitive
students are using apps such as some and unintuitive. Engineers Therapy app.
Brainscape, which not only offers at the University of Utah recently
digital flashcards, but also pinpoints designed a leg that studies how the Such learning tools are not
areas of knowledge that a student user’s remaining leg moves, which confined to a single species: some
is struggling with and focuses on it. helps determine how to program systems can speak to and teach
Even bedside manner is being virtu- a more individual and natural our pets. Young pups, old dogs
ally coached. A health care simula- movement for the artificial one. and those who didn’t do well in
tion program, Virti, helps teach how For patients who have suffered a obedience school can turn to an
to bring empathy to serious talks. stroke—which can in minutes wipe autonomous dog-training device
Virti’s virtual reality headsets let out a lifetime of learning—treat- called Companion. Outfitted with
users talk to computer-generated ment apps like Elevate focus on infrared cameras, image sensors, a
patients. It then analyzes the would- a person’s cognitive function. It speaker, lights and a Google Edge
be doctor’s tone and the cadence of has educational games to both AI processing unit, the floor-based
their voice, along with their actual ameliorate and exercise the parts machine senses when the dog is
answers. The program even tracks of the brain dealing with functions in front of it. It then offers basic
the amount of eye contact the such as memory, concentration and obedience commands such as “Sit”
student makes. problem-solving. As the person and “Lie down.” If Companion’s
improves, Elevate increases its sensors determine that the dog
In the practice of medicine AI difficulty level to make sure the has responded correctly, its treat
can assist patients’ learning and patient continues to be challenged. launcher delivers a tasty reward. A
improve their lives. Patients who And for stroke victims having Pavlov for modern times—and for
have lost a leg need to learn how trouble speaking, there are systems the dog, a snack sure beats earning
to use a prosthetic. Traditional an A on that honors biology test.

“Sit,” said the
autonomous dog-
training device.
And the dog sat.

94 T H E P O W E R O F L E A R N I N G

The Power of Learning Hands-on learning helps the brain make powerful connections.

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95

LEARNED “Education “Never “Live as if you
WORDS is the passport let formal were to die
to the future, education tomorrow. Learn
“I cannot for tomorrow get in the as if you were to
teach anybody belongs to those way of your live forever.”
anything, I can who prepare learning.”
only make for it today.” —MAHATMA GANDHI
them think.” —MARK TWAIN
―—MALCOLM X “I am always
—SOCRATES “Anyone who ready to learn
“Learning is stops learning is although I do
not attained by old, whether at not always like
chance. It must 20 or 80. Anyone being taught.”
be sought for who keeps
with ardor and learning is young.” —WINSTON CHURCHILL
attended with
diligence.” —HENRY FORD “The beautiful
thing about
—ABIGAIL ADAMS “I am still learning is nobody
learning.” can take it away
“Try to learn “We cannot from you.”
something about solve our —MICHELANGELO AT 87
everything and problems —B.B. KING
everything about with the same
something.” thinking we “Education is
used when we the ability to
—THOMAS H. HUXLEY created them.” listen to almost
anything
“Education is —ALBERT EINSTEIN without
not the filling losing your
of a pot, but “That is what temper or your
the lighting of learning is. self-confidence.”
a fire.” You suddenly
understand —ROBERT FROST
—W.B. YEATS something you’ve
understood all
“The whole of life, your life, but in a
from the moment new way.”
you are born to
the moment you —DORIS LESSING
die, is a process
of learning.”

—JIDDU KRISHNAMURTI



HOW WE LEARN

Our ability to acquire and access knowledge—from others and
from our environment, remotely and hands-on—develops as we grow,
constantly creating an extraordinary web of information and ideas.