Sanskritisation

THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY April 15, 1961

Sanskritisation

A P Barnabas

As both the processes of sanskritisation and westernisation are going on at the same time, there is a
conflicting, or more correctly, a confusing situation.

On the one hand, there are the lower castes trying to take on the traditional values and customs of
the upper castes, to raise their status. On the other hand, the upper castes are discarding some of these
customs.

Westernisation may be characterised as a movement from the. sacred to the secular. It is difficult to
characterise Sanskritisation in a 'toe red-secular' of 'folk-urban frame of reference.

In any case, from the view point of culture content the more important aspect to be noted is that
these processes are likely to result in having a common set of cultural elements in all of Hindu society.

At the same time, there is an element of "conflict" between westernisation and Sanskritisation. Most
of the castes are faced with a dilemma of making a choice.

With increased industrialisation, greater communication, new occupations, greater education, it seems
likely that westernisation will be the more dominant process.

T H E form o f 'Sanskritisation' was The word "Sanskritisation" is "There was another suggestion
first used by Prof M N Srinivas rather difficult to understand. The made that we should discard a
immediate reaction on seeing the local term like Sanskrilisation for
in his book Religion and Society word is that it must be related to acculturation. I think this should
Among the Coorgs of India. This "Sanskrit", the classical and sacred be rejected for the reason that
book is a study of the Coorgs—a caste languages of the Hindus. acculturation takes a particular
like group of people in India occupy- form in Hindu society and we
ing the area called Coorg, located The Word Itself want to characterize this particular
on the south west coast. The Coorgs
are divided into two sections, one The other word that could have form of acculturation
of which is "highly Brahminised in been used is "Brahminisation" but Generalizations about acculturation
their customs and ritual'' Srinivas Srinivas rejects this for the following all over the world are a bit too
says that these Coorgs "exemplify a reasons: premature."
tendency which has always been pre-
sent in the caste system; a small (1 ) Brahminisation is sub-assum- Red field, who was at the conference,
group of people break off from a ed in the wider process of Sanskriti- commented as follows:
larger whole, of which they are a sation:
part. Sanskritise their customs and ''I entirely agree with the sug-
ritual and achieve a higher status (2) the customs and habits of gestion that the process of accu-
than their parent body in the course Brahmins changed after they settled lturation that is going on in India
of a few decades'". in India; and should be indicated by a special
term because the process itself is
Sanskritisation is defined by Srini- (3) the agents of Sanskritisation special. In acculturation general-
vas as follows: were not, and are not always Brah- ly, a group takes over elements of
mins. culture not practised by that
"The caste system is far from a group. Sanskritisation is a pro-
rigid system in which the position Another factor involved is that cess whereby elements of tradition
of each component caste is fixed the word "Brahminisation" evokes more nearly universal and more
for all time. Movement has always the connotation of Vedic traditions, reflectively cultivated are commu-
been possible and especially so in but 'not all aspects of sanskritisation nicated to. and some often con-
the middle regions of hierarchy. are Vedic. sciously assumed by a group whose
A low caste was able, in a gene- local folk culture has long contri-
ration or two to rise to higher At one of the conferences where buted and drawn from reflective
position in the hierarchy by adopt- the concept was discussed, the word culture. The process is taking
ing vegetarianism and teetotal ism " H i n d u i s a t i o n ' was suggested —but place within a civilized community
ami by Sanskritizing its ritual as it smacked of proselytization, it not only characterized by a high
ami pantheon. In short, it look was not accepted. Further the word tradition but also by a more local
over as far as possible the customs, suggests that many of the lower and uureflective tradition. There
rites, and beliefs of the Brahmins castes are not Hindus which is not are levels or stages of culture and
and the adoption of the Brahminic true. Also Hinduism includes many the arrangements of the stages are
way of life by a low caste seems to non-Sanskrit elements. Another sug- affected and altered by the process
have been frequent though theore- gestion was "imitation'' but the pro- of sanskritisation. This is quite
tically forbidden. This process has cess of Sanskritization involves more different from the process which
been called Sanskritisation in this than mere imitation. occurred when the red Indians met
book."8 European traders who came into
To the suggestion that "accultu- contact with them. Therefore in
ration" be used, Srinivas gave the
following reply:

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April 15, 1961 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY

A p r i l 15, 1061

my view it is good we find a spe- preference for virginity in brides, "The pantheistic bias in Hinduism
cial term to express this process."6 chastity in wives, and continence in also contributes to Sanskritisation of
Srinivas himself said the word was widows. This is especially marked the deities and beliefs of the low
"ugly", but at the end of the dis- among the highest castes. The lower castes and outlying communities. The
cussion he felt that nothing that had have not been very r i g i d in their sex doctrine that everything in the uni-
been said had convinced him that he code, but as the castes rise in the verse is animated by God; that all
should change the word. hierarchy, it becomes more and more the various deities are only forms
Sanskritised and, in sex and mar- assumed by the same Brahma makes
The Process riage, the code of the Brahmins is the process of absorption easier.1'10
taken over. Widow remarriage and
"The structural basis of Hindu divorce are restricted. Srinivas him- ' T h e stratification of the Hindu
society is caste and it is not possible self says, "Sanskritization results in society into castes has in a sense
to understand sanskritisation without harshnness towards women."8 In helped Sanskritisation because in any
reference to the structural frame- the sphere of kinship, the patrilineal hierarchial system, there is a tenden-
work in which it occurs. lineage is stressed among the Brah- cy to imitate the customs, habits,
mins, hence the importance of the manners of the top group.''11
"Speaking generally the castes sons.
occupying the top positions in the The most important factor in the
hierarchy are more sanskritised than Sanskritisation also means the hindrance for the process is the re-
the castes in the lower and middle adoption of new ideas and values sentment of other castes against any
ranges of the hierarchy and this has which have been expounded in Sans- caste that tries to raise its status.
been responsible for the sanskritisa- kritic literature. Such the6logicaI Often political and economic pres-
tion of the lower castes as well as the terms as Karma (predestination and sures are put. At times even physi-
outlying tribes. The lower castes r e b i r t h ) , dharma ( d u t y ) , papa ( s h i h cal force is used to prevent the lower
seem to have always tried to take punya ( m e r i t and deliverance) castes' taking on the customs and the
over the customs and ways of life of maya ( i l l u s o r y nature of the w o r l d ) , rituals of higher castes. Cohn men-
the higher castes. The theoretical samsara ( u n i v e r s a l ) , and moksha tions the fact that Thakurs used
existence of a ban on their adoption (liberation) are used frequently. political and economic pressure and
of Brahmanical customs and rites These were essentially related to also physical violence to keep the
was not very effective and this is Vedas and the discussion confined Chamars in place. In my own study
clear when we consider the fact that mostly to Brahmins. of North Indian Village, one of the
many non-Brahmanical castes prac- more educated Brahmins said, " I f the
tise many Brahmanical customs and Helps and Hinderances lower castes attempted to disobey
rires"7 Brahmins they would ask them not
What has been said go far may to walk on their fields. If they do,
As this process was common to all seem to suggest that the process of we can manhandle them physically."
the castes except the highest, it meant Sanskritisation goes on without hin- As the houses of the lower castes
that the Brahmanic customs and way drances. This is not true. The very were located in the midst of the
of life spread among the Hindus. fact that it takes decades and decades fields of the Brahmins, the lower
However, the immediate group that for a caste to raise its status is indi- castes would not be able to move out
was imitated by the lower castes was cative of the slowness of the process of the houses at all. As the upper
the locally dominant group. As the and slowness is an indication of the castes hold most of the land, are
dominant caste began to take on opposition. "Once inside Sanskritic better educated, hence have the eco-
more of the Brahminical customs and Hinduism, the local rites and beliefs nomic and the political power to
rites, the latter slowly seeped down undergo Sanskritisation rapidly in a subdue them . . ." A more effective
to the lower castes as well and, hence, thoroughgoing manner." In the barrier to the taking over of the cus-
to the entire society. Among the recent past, the process of Sans- toms and the rites of the higher
customs taken over are clothing, kritisation seems to have been castes by the lower castes, was the
jewellery, cooking, vegetarianism, acclerated, hostile attitude of the locally domi-
teetotalism and at times the changing nant caste or of the k i n g of the re-
of the name of the caste. Among the factors that have helped gion."12
the process along are the "legal fic-
According to Srinivas, two legal tions'' that have been already men- Functions of Sanskritisation
fictions helped the process of sans- tioned. The second factor is west-
kritisation of the ritual aspects. The ern technology — railways, press, A second factor that hinders the
ban is restricted not to the ritual radio, internal combustion engine, process of Sanskritisation is westerni-
itself but to the recital of magic and plane. Communication is easier zation—this is in view of the fact
chants (mantras) from the Vedas. and ideas spread more q u i c k l y be- that there is a conflict between the
This was circumvented by the lower cause of it. Parliamentary demo- Sanskritic and western values—the
castes by using Sanskrit verses f r o m cracy also contributed to i t . Some conflict between "the world view dis-
the Post-Vedic period. This substi- of the values of the higher castes closed by the systematic application
tution in itself was the second legal were written into the Constitution— of scientific method to the various
fiction. such as prohibition and mono- spheres of knowledge and the view
gamy. of traditional religions."13 At pre-
The non-Brahmins not only adopt sent this conflict is i m p l i c i t , rather
the Brahminical riles and customs, " I t is possible that the very ban than explicit as it is not fully rea-
but also the institutions. Srinivas on the adoption of the Brahminical lized.
corroborates this by referring to way of life by the lower castes,
marriage, position of women, and had exactly the opposite effect. The It could be said that there are
kinship. Among Hindus, there is forbidden fruit was the tastier three major functions of the process.
One"

615

April 15, 1961

In the first place, as the process the initiating village or villages. Ulti- 'Therefore, the picture is of the
was common to a l l castes except the mately the initiating Chamars deter- changing caste moving up in the
highest, the Brahminical customs and mine that they will no longer give Sanskritic caste status hierarchy, as
the way of life spread among all the daughters to or accept daughters-in- the higher more advantaged castes
Hindus. law from the Chamars who do not move out of the hierarchy into a
conform to the change. non-Sanskritic milieu. In Srikanda
From this arises the second func- the picture is of the entire, Pahari
tion, namely that because of the "Consistent with efforts to raise community attempting to move up
spread of one particular way, a com- their caste status to gain power, the from the low status to higher status
mon "culture" was developing Chamars of Modhopur in recent in terms of Sanskritic values while
throughout the whole Hindu society. years also made conscious efforts to castes w i t h i n that community retain
" T h e presence of completely sans- suppress their distinctive traditional
kritised worship of rivers, trees, and religion, to Sanskritise their rituals their relative status positions
mountains in Hinduism, and then in- still further and emulate the specific It is however an assertion that the
corporation in vast mythology of religious forms of the higher castes. dominant trend is' towards society-
Hinduism, makes easier the assimi- Although they continue to propitiate wide movement upward in the tradi-
lation of the ritual beliefs of the the Goddess Bhagoti jointly of the tional Sanskritic context."17
lower castes and of communities re- whole hamlet and although they
maining outside Hinduism." continue to worship the other deities, In Srikanda there is little evidence
as do members of the higher castes, of any one caste making an organi-
A third function is to provide for yet they have made many changes zed effort to raise its status in the
social mobility within a rigid social in the rest of their religious prac- system. This does not mean that the
structure. Too often the caste sys- tice''15 low castes w o u l d not l i k e to rise in
tem and Hindu society are described status, but they see no w a y to do i t .
as non-mobile, This does not pro- Case Studies They feel that they are subject to
vide a total description of the Hindu the will of high castes who would
society. The reform movements, the Domestic ceremonies of the Cha- never tolerate impingement upon
revolts of the lower castes and Sans- mars have been modelled increasing- their superior status.18
kritisation all indicate that the Hindu ly upto leaders and devotees of the
society is dynamic. Sanskritisation Siva Narayan sect. The sacrifice of Cohn mentions in his study of the
provides the means of vertical so- a pig which began the Chamar wed- attempt by "Noniyas"° to raise
cial mobility. ding ceremony has now been given their status. Roweb made a study
up and replaced by the cutting of a of this caste in the same villagec.
The concept of sanskritisation is nutmeg?10 According to him, there is not much
one of the most widely discussed and of a process of sanskritisation. There
used concepts in recent studies. How- Dowry is beginning to replace are possibly two reasons for this.
ever, I shall confine myself to citing bride price. A Brahmin conducts the One may be due to the failure to raise
four studies and indicating the find- wedding ceremony. Horoscopes are the status through the process of
ings on the subject, cast at birth ceremonies. Changes Sanskritisation. The second reason
have been made in the death rituals. may be that they feel that westerni-
Cohn studied a village in U P Pilgrimage is emphasized. " zation (discussed later) is a better
He states "For the last thirty years recent changes have moved Chamar way of catching up with the upper
the Chamars of Modhopur have religion directly toward the main castes. Rowe feels that there is a
struggled consciously to raise their stream of the great tradition of or- greater process of westernization than
status on another related front— thodox Hinduism." Sanskritisation. The reaction to-
that of caste hierarchy. At least two wards Sanskritisation is characterised
generations ago, in the vicinity of Berreman studied a village in the by the following statement. "What
Modhopur, began to outlaw eating of Himalayan regions. He states " I n - is the use of calling oneself a Singh
beef and the carting of manure in creasing contact with Brahmins edu- (the reference to changing of 'name
what proved to be a futile attempt to cated in traditional Hinduism has to a higher caste) if you can't be a
gain greater respect for the caste."14 been sufficient to impel the whole Singh?"
society including all castes towards
Such attempts to raise their caste increasing acceptance of Sanskritic In my own study of a village in
status are not individual in character values and aspirations, or at least U. P. there was not too much evi-
or effect. Nor are they 'necessarily superficial adherence to these. Where dence of Sanskritisation among the
legislated by large formal gather- new reference groups have been ac- lower castes. There was some indi-
ings. Rather a leader or a group of quired, they have been largely those cation of Sanskritisation among the
leaders in the caste in one village within the traditional Hindu culture middle range caste groups, particu-
feels that some traditional behaviour with which the people have long had larly in matters of food and to
should be changed and the changes some acquaintance. Status improve-
are talked over in the village. Rela- ment here as among the low castes a A higher caste than Chamars studied
tives and others who are visiting hear of the plains is perceived as achie- by Cohn
about the proposed change and carry vable through adoption of Sanskritic
the news to their home villages. If practices. That it occurs among all b Information based on personal dis-
a local group of Chamars decides to castes almost u n i f o r m l y is due in cussion
initiate the change, it decrees that part to the relative absence of differ-
any Chamar who fails to conform to ential beliefs and practices among c Rowe W, Social & Economic Mobility
the new pattern w i l l be outcasted. castes in this area w h i c h in t u r n is in a low caste North India Community,
Active propagandizing follows from largely attributed to lack of caste Ph D thesis (Unpublished), Cornwell
community isolation in these hills. University, 1960

616

THE ECONOMIC W EEKLY April 15. 1961

some extent in rituals. The middle castes to do the same w o u l d have Westernization may be character-
range caste groups seemed to be been ridiculed. ised as a movement from the sacred
observing nil the rituals that the to the secular. In the sacred society,
Brahmins observed, the difference Aspects Westernized the characteristics are folk and pres-
was in the degree of elaboration. cribed, particularistic, collective
As stated earlier, not all aspects oriented, diffuse, quality-oriented
In the village studied by me, it is of ''westernization" were accepted. (ascription! and affective. In the
possible to explain the lack of Sans- This is in keeping with process of secular. the factors involved are
kritisation by using another concept acculturation in which there is principles, and normless, universi-
developed by Srinivas—"dominant always selection and adaptation. tistic, ego-oriented. specific. per-
easte."20 A c c o r d i n g to this concept, Some of the changes which Srinivas formance - oriented (achievement),
each village has a dominant caste-- mentions are changes in appear- and affective-neurality. It is diffi-
dominance may be based on ritual ance and dress. Crop haircut be- cult to characterise sanskritisalion
"power" economic power, political came normal. The wearing of in a "sacred-secular of folk-urban"
power, or a combination of them. In shirts, and suits became common. frame of reference.
the village studied, the dominance The change in dress led to change
of the dominant caste- Brahmins— in certain ideas with particular re- Trends
was too complete to allow any at- ference to rituals connected with
tempt by the lower caste to try to 'pure robes'" for eating. The diet Some trends have already been
raise their status. Brahmins wielded changed. Onion, carrot, potato, implicitly indicated. However, other
power with regard to rituals. They radish, beet-root became part of aspects need to be made explicit.
were the land-holders and the lower the menu. Formerly they were for- The fact that the lower castes are
castes were engaged by them labour- bidden. New occupations were trying to "sanskritise" ie. 1o adopt
ers. Numerically, they were the taken. Medical profession (which the traditions and customs of the
largest. The village council was do- involved touching the corpses, treat- Brahmins. The Brahmins, on the
minated by the Brahmins- only three ing untouchables) became popular. other band, are becoming more
out of thirteen being non-Brahmins. An indirect effect was the spread westernized. The lower castes are
The lower castes were too much of dowry. The demand for educated faced with a dilemma. As members
under subjugation to try to raise boys with good jobs brought in of the lower castes they have certain
themselves. "dowry" in place of "bride price". privileges which the government has
Certainly many ideas of western accorded to them (free tuition, pre-
Westernization origin were accepted. "The syste- ference in selective jobs, scholar-
matic application of scientific me- ships, etc) so as to bring them in
Reference has already been made thod" had already been mentioned. line with the rest of the society.
to westernization. Western influence The legal and political system was The lower castes do want these
came to India through the British. accepted. privileges, but they also want to
There was an attempt by Indians to raise their status. It is a case of
accept, adopt, or imitate the British The process of westernization took wanting to have the cake and eat
customs and habits. '"The form and place because: it too.
pace of westernization in India
varied from one region to another 1. British rule and the imposition Among middle range castes, west-
and from one section of the popula- of legal and political system ernization seems to be gaining
tion to another. For instance, one rapidly. As indicated in Rowe's
group of people became westernized 2 Increased social value on edu- study, the attempt seems not to
in their dress, diet, manner, speech, cation which was mostly in Sanskritise. This is possibly due to
sports, and the gadgets they used, English and the functional two reasons. T h e upper castes are
while another acquired western necessity of studying English— westernizing and naturally if the
science, knowledge and literature to be able to secure jobs immediately lower castes are going
while remaining relatively free from to imitate them, then naturally there
westernization in externals."21 3 Increased communication and will be westernizing/Secondly,
transport system caste names and rituals do not now
The process of westernization was account entirely for the status.
more relevant to the upper castes. 1 The desire of the upper castes Education, occupation, and wealth
Brahmins. Kshathryas and Vaish had to move nearer to the ruling are beginning to be considered.
a literary tradition which gave them class and also to increase the Most occupations outside the caste
an initial advantage in taking to social distance with the lower hierarchy do have a high value, e.g.,
western education. In most parts of castes lawyer, teacher, doctor, government
the country Brahmins were the first service, factory worker, etc.
to take to English. This resulted in Present Situation
increasing (a) the social distance be- As both the processes of sans- In brief, the lower castes are
tween them and other castes and (h) kritisation and Westernization arc still trying to give up the traditions
brought them closer to the rulers going on at the same time, it would and customs which gave them lower
which in turn enabled them to acquire be said that there is a conflicting, status and are t r y i n g to adopt cus-
political and economic advantages. or more correctly, a confusing situa- toms and traditions of the upper
As the Brahmins were at the top of tion. Cohn refers to this condition castes. The upper castes are over-
social hierarchy, it was easy for them in his article. On the one hand there looking their rituals, customs, and
to do things without being subject to are the lower castes t r y i n g to take traditions and taking to westerniza-
ridicule. Any attempt by the lower on the traditional values and cus- tion. The middle range castes tend
toms of the upper castes, to raise to imitate the upper castes, hence
their status. On the other hand, the
upper castes are discarding some of
these customs.

617

April 15, 1961 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY

undergoing "westernization." It is 8. Srinivas, M. N. Religion and
possible that the lower castes will, Society Among Coorgs of
in the near future, take to westerni- South India,
zation,
(Oxford, Claredon Press, 1952.)
Implication for Culture Content
9. American Anthropologist, Feb-
In both Sanskritisation and west- ruary, 1959.
ernization, there is culture accumu-
lation as well as culture depletion. 10. Rowe W.L. "Social and Econo-
mic M o b i l i t y in a L o w Caste
In Sanskritisation, the lower castes North Indian Village".
are giving up their own rituals,
customs, folkways, and values. (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
Hence, there is culture depletion. Cornell University 1960)
On the other hand, there is culture
accumulation in view of the fact Bibliography Life Insurance Business
that they are taking over new
values, traditions, and customs from 1. Aiyappan and Balaratnam. T H E Life Insurance Corporation
the upper castes. In westernization Society in India(Madras, - secured peak business during
the new elements which have come 1956.)
into being have been mentioned. 1960. The new business amounted
The upper castes seem to be giving 2. Berreman G. D. "kin, Caste to Rs 460 crores, according to pro-
up the rituals and customs of the and Community in a Himala- visional figures.
past. Hence there is both accumu- yan Hill Village' 1959
lation as well as depletion. (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. The amount of new business com-
Cornell University) pleted during 1955, the year im-
From the present trends, it would mediately preceding the year of
seem that the process of westerni- 3. Becker, H o w a r d . Man in Reci- nationalisation, was Rs 260,84
zation is likely to become the more procity. ( N e w Y o r k 1956.) crores.
dominant process. In any case, f r o m
the viewpoint of culture content the 4. Barnabas A. P. "Social Change The Corporation will examine in
more important aspect to be noted in a North Indian Village" due course whether in view of the
is that these processes are likely to 1960 high profits earned the premium
result in having a common set of rates could be reduced.
cultural elements in all of Hindu (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis.
society. At present there is great Cornell University) This information was given by
diversity. Both sanskritisation and the Minister of Revenue and Civil
westernization are a trend towards 5. Cohn B. Chamars of Sena pur. Expenditure, Dr B Copala Reddi
decreasing the diversity and of 1954. in Lok Sabha.
unifying the Hindu society from the
point of view of culture content. (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Replying to another question Dr
Cornell University) Copala Reddi informed the House
At the same time there is an ele- that foreign business completed by
ment of "conflict" between westerni- 6. M a r i o t t , M a e k i n , ed. Village the Life Insurance Corporation of
zation and sanskritisation. Most of India, (Chicago Press, 1955.) India during 1960 was Rs 9.70 cro-
the castes are faced with a dilemma res. Foreign business in 1957 was
of making a choice. A§ not many 7. Redfield, R. Folk Culture of Rs 5.40 crores; in 1958 it was Rs
studies have been made. it is not Yucatan. {Chicago Press, 1941) 5.62 crores; in 1959, Rs 9.47
easy to predict which process is crores.
likely to be more dominant. With
increased industrialization, greater
communication, new occupations,
greater education, it seems likely
that westernization will be the more
dominant process.

Footnotes

Rook of Publication Page
1. Religion Among the
Coorgs 34
35
2. „ „ „ „ 31
3. „ „ „ .

Also "Socity in India" 73

4. Society in India 73

5. „ „ ,, 113
114
6. „ „ „
75
7

8 „ ,, ,, ,, 78

9. „ ,. „ 76