information science

History and Basic Concepts
of Information Science

Chapter 1

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

1.0 History and basic concepts of information science
1.1 Evolution of information science

What is information science

1.2 The boundaries of information science

 The basic structure of information science
 Foundational disciplines of information science
 Related field of study in information science

1.3 Information Lifecycle

 Information lifecycle management
 Explanation of the information lifecycle management

1.4 Spectrum of Knowledge

 Is there a hierarchy of data, information and knowledge?
 Knowledge and information
 Comparison and differences between information and knowledge
 Data and information

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing this chapter, you should be able to:-
1. Define information science, information lifecycle

and information spectrum.
2. Explain the information lifecycle management.
3. Differentiate between data, information and

knowledge
4. Describe the knowledge spectrum.

WHAT IS INFORMATION SCIENCE?

Our perception of the concept of information science

is based on the assumption that all organisms
are information systems.

The information system is an environment of person,
machines, and procedures that develop human

biology potential to acquire, process and
act upon data, thus improves our chances for

survival.

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DEFINITIONS

Science

Any system of knowledge that is concerned with

the physical world and its phenomena
and that involve unbiased observations
and systematic experiment (research).

Information science

A discipline that deals with the processes of

storing and transferring of information.

Fundamentally it covers all theories, concepts and
methods in the collection, organization, storage,
retrieval and use of information.

THE BOUNDARIES OF INFORMATION SCIENCE

Basic structure of
information science
• Technology and Systems - the application of IT
• Impact of IT on society - problems of information
society, copyrights, personal privacy, plagiarism,
etc.
• Resources - the human resources needed to
sustain the activities of the science worldwide,
encouragement of R&D, training, etc.

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THE BOUNDARIES OF INFORMATION SCIENCE

Foundational
Disciplines
Philosophy - provides infor. Sc. with the understanding
of inquiry system (state of the world) and the foundation
of the social sciences that are relevant to infor. system.
Mathematics (statistics). - the foundation of statistics
which is the tools used by infor. Scientist.
Linguistics - the study of language, which is important
to infor. Scientist as tool to represent events.
Behavioral science - include psychology and
sociology, important part for user study.

RELATED FIELD OF STUDY IN INFORMATION SCIENCE

Informatics – the study of automation and automated

technologies in document retrieving.

Information Engineering – refers to various aspects of

infor. System design.

Knowledge Engineering – artificial intelligence & expert

system.

Cybernetics – the science of control, include

communications & system theory.

Bionics – the understanding of the functions & characteristics

of living systems & biomechanical systems.

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INFORMATION LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Information life cycle management (ILM) is a comprehensive

approach to managing the flow of an information
system's data from creation and initial storage to the

time when it becomes obsolete and is deleted. ILM involves all
aspects of dealing with data, starting with user practices. ILM
enables more complex criteria for storage management than
data age and frequency of access.

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INFORMATION LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

1. Collection
• Acquisition
• Research
• Analysis

2. Processing
• Validating

3. Recording
• Documentation

4. Storage
5. Retrieval
6. Dissemination

• Distribution
7. Use

• Reuse
8. Restoring
9. Revalidation
10. Reprocessing
11. Disposition

FIVE PHASE OF ILM IN BUSINESS RECORDS

Record from the 2. Distribution Process of managing the
organization itself. Create information once it has
by member of the been created or received.
organization or receipt of Includes internal and
information from an external distribution.
external source. Examples:-
reports, drawings, computer Takes place after
input/output etc. information is distribute
internally, can generate
business decisions,
document further actions or
serve other purpose.

1. Creation and Receipt 3. Use

Handling the information Management of the
that is less frequently information. Example filing,
accessed; relocate to an retrieval and transfers.
inactive records facility. If
no longer valuable will be 4. Maintenance
disposed.

5. Disposition

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Case Study:-

Find one situation in your daily life or business
environment and discuss the process of information
lifecycle involved for that situation.

Definition of Information

The term information has a number of different
meanings and connotations when used in a number of

different contexts. It is generally recognized as

processed data, text, voice and/or
image and is synonymous with
knowledge or intelligence.

Many information scientists accept the standard
definition of information as:

“Data which is used in

decision making”

(Ralston, Anthony)

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Definition (cont..)

Fritz Machlup (1983) carefully assessed the different
meanings associated with the information. Some
interpretations from these sources are as follows:

– Something one did not know before.
– A clue.
– Something that affects what one already knows.
– How data is interpreted.
– Something useful in some way to the person receiving

it.
– Something that reduces uncertainty.
– The meaning of words in sentences.
– Something that provides more than what is stated.
– Something that changes what a person who receives

believes or expects.

abs.UiTM Johor

The representation of information

Signals – a sign with an emphasis on some
consequential action.

Sign – a physical evidence of the immediate
physical of the thing or event present.

Symbols – special kind of sign. They represent
an object, idea or event and elicit the same
response as if things they refferred to were
immediately present.

Languange – the principal method of human
communication.

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Information Explosion

The universe of recorded information and the number of
knowledgeable human beings are have expanded at

such a rate and in so short time a phenomenon knows as

information explosion will happen.

Information Overload

Occurs when the amount of information we receive
exceeds our ability to process it in a meaningful way.

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Factors contribute to information overload

Personal factors
• Lack of time
• Poor self-organization
• Personal inefficiency
Organizational factors
• Poor communication
• Ineffective use of information technology
• An organizational culture not geared up to

handling information

Consequences of information overload

Personal
• Stress and ill health
• Less free time
• Less job satisfaction
• Poor decision-making
Organizational
• Loos of productivity
• Waste of resources
• Loos of competitive advantage
• Duplication and overlap of work

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A model for managing information overload

Discard Use
Store

Process

Filter Pass to
others
Incoming
Information Throw away

Function and Use

Information is a key resource and an important factor

in national progress and development. It used to be

regarded as playing only a supportive role in the

various national development programs like education,
economic planning, agriculture, medicine and the
transfer of science and technology.

Now, however its importance is being increasingly
recognized and its acquisition has emerged as a matter
of national policy.

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Characteristics of Information

Expandable

– Facts are never all in, we are constantly aware of
information overload.

Compressible

– While the amount is expanding exponentially, it can be
concentrated, integrated, summarized, miniaturized for
easier handling.

Substitutable

– It can replace capital or physical materials, information is a
commodity and on the current scene that means power.

Transportable

– At the speed of lights, as quick as pushing a button.

Diffusive

– It tends to leak and in that regard cannot be possessed.

Shareable

– Sharing transactions.

Source of Information

•Personal •Commercial •Computer •Production of
contact orgn based services litery work or
that provides written artistic
•Writings •Educational information works as form
PEOPLE of expression
ORGANIZATION•Governmental or ideas.
INFORMATION SYSTEM
•Society and •Novel, Books,
LITERATUREprofessionalarticles,
organization pamphlets etc

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SPECTRUM OF KNOWLEDGE

The hierarchical transformation of data, information,
knowledge, wisdom and enlightenment

What are the elements that trigger the transformation?

Intrinsic: the influence within oneself that turns these
elements into other entities on several basis like our
experience, background, education, belief, lifestyles etc.

Extrinsic: the external influences that turn these entities
into other form. For example the information that we
have through reading materials might may turn
something that we are aware of to be something that
we really understand its concept.

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IS THERE A HIERARCHY OF DATA, INFORMATION, AND KNOWLEDGE?

To determine whether the transformation is hierarchical
we need to
• understand the concept of information, knowledge,

wisdom and enlightenment in details.
• be able to understand the differences between these

entities.

Knowledge and Information
A close and firm link between information and
knowledge has always existed .
Distinctions between information and knowledge
have been proposed chiefly on the followings:

 Information is fragmented, particular, whereas
knowledge is structured (well-thought of), coherent
(logical), and often universal.

 Information is timely, transitory, whereas knowledge is
26 of enduring significance.

.

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Continue…

 Information is a flow of messages, whereas
knowledge is a stock, largely resulting from the flow,
in the sense that the "input" of information may
affect the stock of knowledge by adding to it,
restructuring it, or changing it in any way

 Information in the sense of telling and being told is
always different from knowledge in the sense of
knowing: The former is a process, the latter a state.

 Data are the things given to the analyst, investigator,
or problem-solver; they may be numbers, words,
sentences, records, assumptions - just anything
given, no matter in what form and of what origin.

 Information...is essentially raw data. Knowledge is
interpreted data.

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Comparison And Differences Between Information &
Knowledge

 Knowledge may be considered as storage of
information by way the information makes changes
to the structure of the knowledge.

 Information is acquired by being told, whereas
knowledge can be acquired by thinking. Thus, new
knowledge can be acquired without new
information being received.

 Neither knowledge nor information needs to be
useful or valuable to merit its designation. People
speak of "useless information" and "useless
knowledge"

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 Nor is it a requirement of normal language use that
information is correct and knowledge is true.

 When a new discovery or a new theory is
announced in newspapers and news broadcasts,
this will be information to most recipients but new
knowledge to specialists.

Data and Information
There is no need to establish either a hierarchy or a
temporal sequence in discussing data and
information.
For example, consider the following three outputs:

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 a printout that gives us exactly what has been
fed into the memory of the computer

 a new arrangement of the data, after sorting
(chronological or alphabetical ordering, or
selecting on the basis of detailed instructions)

 an output different from the stored data as a
result of an analysis made by the computer using
a highly sophisticated piece of software.

Should all three printouts still be called data or
should they be referred to as information?

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 For some definers, information, to be information, has to
have value.

 Sometime it is proposed that information must reduce
uncertainty on the part of those getting informed.

 Information may in the ordinary sense is received by
people without any effect on their uncertainty; and some
news items may even raise uncertainty in several aspects.

FORMS OF INFORMATION
 Information touches all human activity. It comes in a

multitude of different shapes –
 speech, pictures, video,
 office work, software,
 great art and kitsch,
 invoices, music, stock prices, tax returns,

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Characteristics of Information

Information has several characteristics that make
information very different than other commodities:

1. It is reproducible.
2. The cost of reproduction is low.
3. It can be transported easily.
4. Its lifetime can be brief.
5. Its value is not additive.

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Value of Information

 One suggestion is that information has economic value
to people only if it can lead then to the acquisition of
tangible goods. Therefore, value of information is a
matter of form, not of amount.

 Also, value of information often depends on the
preexisting form of the receiver as on the message itself.

 Similarly, information has intangible value if it can enable
them to satisfy less tangible human desires.

 An encyclopedia publisher, for instance, will find a
mailing list of prospective buyers useful because it might
increase sales.

 Watching a soap opera has value for those people who
want to experience heartrending emotions.

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 Watching a soap opera has value for those
people who want to experience heartrending
emotions.

 Because information leads to goods only
indirectly, it seems reasonable to value it as a
fraction of the worth of the tangible goods to
which it leads.

 Therefore the economic value of all sprawling
computer-and-network complexes may be
estimated as a fraction of the tangible goods to
which they will lead.

 Value of US computer hardware and software,
including the work needed to run computer
systems within organizations, at almost a tenth of
its GNP - roughly about $500 billion.

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 Yet because some 60 percent of the work forces

have jobs that involve information, the value of
computerized information handling may well grow to
an even larger fraction of the global economy.
 In spite of its importance, information is secondary to
people's principal needs - food, shelter, health and
human relationships

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