Acute Heart Failure
Last Updated: September 27, 2015
Dr. Orlando Debesa
General
Heart failure occurs when the heart is not strong enough, either from a structural or functional
impairment of ventricular filling (diastolic dysfunction) or poor ejection of blood (systolic
dysfunction), to meet the metabolic demands of the body.
Epidemiology (Harrison's)
Heart Failure is a burgeoning problem worldwide, with more than 20 million people affected. The
overall prevalence of heart failure in the adult population in developed countries is 2%. Heart
Failure prevalence follows an exponential pattern, rising with age, and affects 6–10% of people
over age 65. Although the relative incidence of heart failure is lower in women than in men,
women constitute at least onehalf the cases probably because of their longer life expectancy.
In North America and Europe, the lifetime risk of developing heart failure is approximately one in
five for a 40yearold. The overall prevalence of heart failure is thought to be increasing, in part
because current therapies for cardiac disorders, such as myocardial infarction (MI), valvular
heart disease, and arrhythmias, are allowing patients to survive longer. Very little is known
about the prevalence or risk of developing heart failure in emerging nations because of the lack
of populationbased studies in those countries.
Rheumatic heart disease remains a major cause of heart failure in Africa and Asia, especially in
the young. Hypertension is an important cause of heart failure in the African and African
American populations. Chagas’ disease is still a major cause of heart failure in South America.
Not surprisingly, anemia is a frequent concomitant factor in heart failure in many developing
nations. As developing nations undergo socioeconomic development, the epidemiology of heart
failure is becoming similar to that of Western Europe and North America, with CAD emerging as
the single most common cause of heart failure. Although the contribution of diabetes mellitus to
heart failure is not well understood, diabetes accelerates atherosclerosis and often is associated
with hypertension (Harrison's).
Pathophysiology (an input/output problem)
If you look at the heart it acts like a pump with blood going in and out of it. In heart failure, there
is not enough blood going out of the heart or not enough blood going into the heart thus
producing the two major signs: 1) poor end organ perfusion and/or 2) congestion because not
enough blood going into the heart and thus backup occurs. It is these two major signs that
classify heart failure as either having systolic or diastolic dysfunction. Regardless of the
dysfunction, a fall in cardiac output activates several compensatory mechanisms, that if
unhalted, lead to vicious cycles and worsening of heart failure. For example, low kidney blood
flow activates the reninangiotensinaldosterone (RAA) system, adrenergic nervous systems,
ADH system and various countervailing vasodilatory molecules, including the atrial and brain
natriuretic peptides (ANP and BNP), prostaglandins (PGE2 and PGI2), and nitric oxide (NO),
that offsets the excessive peripheral vascular vasoconstriction. Genetic background, sex, age,
or environment may influence these compensatory mechanisms, which are able to modulate LV
function within a physiologic/homeostatic range so that the functional capacity of the patient is
preserved or is depressed only minimally.
Patients may remain asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic for a period of years; however, at
some point patients become overtly symptomatic, with a resultant striking increase in morbidity
and mortality. Although the exact mechanisms that are responsible for this transition are not
known, the transition to symptomatic heart failure is accompanied by increasing activation of
neurohormonal, adrenergic, and cytokine systems that lead to a series of adaptive changes
within the myocardium collectively referred to as left ventricular (LV) remodeling.
LV Remodeling
LV remodeling develops in response to a series of complex events that occur at the cellular and
molecular levels. These changes include:
(1) myocyte hypertrophy
(2) alterations in the contractile properties of the myocyte
(3) progressive loss of myocytes through necrosis, apoptosis, and autophagic cell death
(4) βadrenergic desensitization
(5) abnormal myocardial energetics and metabolism
(6) reorganization of the extracellular matrix with dissolution of the organized structural collagen
weave surrounding myocytes and subsequent replacement by an interstitial collagen matrix that
does not provide structural support to the myocytes.
Ventricular remodeling refers to the changes in LV mass, volume, and shape and the
composition of the heart that occur after cardiac injury and/or abnormal hemodynamic loading
conditions. LV remodeling may contribute independently to the progression of heart failure by
virtue of the mechanical burdens that are engendered by the changes in the geometry of the
remodeled LV. In addition to the increase in LV enddiastolic volume, LV wall thinning occurs as
the left ventricle begins to dilate. The increase in wall thinning, along with the increase in
afterload created by LV dilation, leads to a functional afterload mismatch that may contribute
further to a decrease in stroke volume. Moreover, the high enddiastolic wall stress might be
expected to lead to (1) hypoperfusion of the subendocardium, with resultant worsening of LV
function; (2) increased oxidative stress, with the resultant activation of families of genes that are
sensitive to free radical generation (e.g., TNF and interleukin 1β); and (3) sustained expression
of stretchactivated genes (angiotensin II, endothelin, and TNF) and/or stretch activation of
hypertrophic signaling pathways. Increasing LV dilation also results in tethering of the papillary
muscles with resulting incompetence of the mitral valve apparatus and functional mitral
regurgitation, which in turn leads to further hemodynamic overloading of the ventricle. Taken
together, the mechanical burdens that are engendered by LV remodeling contribute to the
progression of heart failure. Recent studies have shown that LV remodeling can be reversed
following medical and device therapy and that reverse LV remodeling is associated with
improved clinical outcomes in patients with heart failurerEF. Indeed, one of the goals of therapy
for heart failure is to prevent and/or reverse LV remodeling.
5min
Heart failure occurs when there is a problem with either phase of cardiac contraction, systole or
diastole. Systolic dysfunction occurs when there is a problem with contraction of blood out into
the aorta and pulmonic circulation. Diastolic dysfunction occurs when there is a problem with
blood entering, from the pulmonic veins and inferior vena cava, into the heart secondary to a
decrease in ventricular distensibility causing an inadequecy in ventricular filling which in the long
run compromises cardiac output while the force of ventricular contraction is normal.
Ejection Fraction (EF)
Size of the heart at end diastole (largest) end systole size (smallest) / end diastole
the proportion of blood the heart can pump out in 1 contraction.
With systolic dysfunction, the numerator will be low because the difference between the two
numbers will be similar and denominator will stay the same causing the overall ejection fraction
to be lower.
In diastolic dysfunction, the numerator will stay about the same or go down and the denominator
will go down, thus the end product will be the ejection fraction staying the same. Remember,
when the heart can't relax it causes a small ventricular cavity, the end diastolic volume is lower
and so not a lot of blood can be pumped out. Our understanding of the mechanisms that
contribute to the development of heart failure with a preserved EF is still evolving. That is,
although diastolic dysfunction was thought to be the only mechanism responsible for the
development of heart failure with a preserved EF, communitybased studies suggest that
additional extracardiac mechanisms may be important, such as increased vascular stiffness and
impaired renal function.
How does anemia worsen Heart Failure
Anemia causes a fall in total peripheral resistance (SVR) partly due to the reduced viscosity of
the blood and to nitric oxidemediated vasodilation. This decrease in blood pressure causes
activation of the baroreceptors (as seen lowoutput heart failure), which, in turn, activates the
sympathetic, reninangiotensinaldosterone system and vasopressin systems, causing
tachycardia, increased stroke volume and peripheral vasoconstriction and a decrease in renal
blood flow and glomerular filtration rate. These compensatory mechanisms lead to further
cardiac stress. As a consequence, salt and water retention with an increase in extracellular and
plasma volume occurs leading to left ventricular dilation and hypertrophy; longstanding anemia
of any cause can cause left ventricular hypertrophy, which can lead to cardiac cell death
through apoptosis and worsen heart failure with the net result being the production or worsening
of heart failure. Therefore, a vicious cycle termed cardio renal anemia (CRA) syndrome occurs
wherein heart failure causes anemia through reduced erythropoietin (EPO) production and
excessive cytokine production which interfere with EPO activity in the bone marrow and reduced
iron supply to the bone marrow which inturn causes more heart failure and both damage the
kidneys worsening the anemia and the heart failure further.
Patients with heart failure who are anemic are often resistant to all heart failure medications
resulting in being hospitalized repeatedly. Many studies also demonstrate that these patients die
more rapidly than their nonanemic counterparts do. In addition, they have a more rapid
deterioration in their renal function and can end up on dialysis. There is now evidence from both
uncontrolled and controlled studies that early correction of the heart failure anemia with
subcutaneous EPO and intravenous iron improves shortness of breath and fatigue, cardiac
function, renal function and exercise capability, dramatically reducing the need for
hospitalization. (J Nephrol. 2004 NovDec;17(6):74961.The role of anemia in the progression of
congestive heart failure. Is there a place for erythropoietin and intravenous iron?Silverberg DS1,
Wexler D, Iaina A.)
Heart Failure classification
ACC/AHA 1 year mortality
NYHA
A (at risk) treat predisposing
conditions, risk
factors, ACEI
B / I ACEI 510%
(asymptomatic BB
LV dysfunction) Diuretic (as needed)
C / II Diuretic 1530%
(mild) Amlodipine
Digoxin
CD / III Diuretic 1530%
(moderate) Amlodipine
Digoxin
Spironolactone
D / IV Chronic Inotropes 5060%
(severe) LVAD
Transplant
Hospice
Many patients with heart failure present without signs or symptoms of volume overload, and
thus the term “heart failure” is preferred over the older term “congestive heart failure.” In
addition, the terms “systolic” and “diastolic” heart failure have been abandoned because
epidemiologic studies have shown that approximately onehalf of patients who develop heart
failure have a normal or preserved EF (EF ≥50%). The new nomenclature categorizes heart
failure as either having a reduced EF (heart failurerEF) or a preserved EF (HRpEF).
heart failurerEF is synonymous with systolic dysfunction; that inability of blood to get out of the
heart and thus blood can't get into the heart. Risk factors include: ischemic heart disease, CAD,
DM
Just as before, in heart failurepEF the blood can't get back into the heart because the muscle
can't relex and thus not enough blood can get out. Risk factors for the development of heart
failurepEF include: hypertension, myocardial infarction, pericardial effusion, PEEP
These patients will benefit from lasix because they are congested secondary to blood unable to
get out.
So, the problem is the same in both BUT the why is different (blood can't get in and blood can't
get out)
Prognosis
Despite many recent advances in the evaluation and management of heart failure, the
development of symptomatic heart failure still carries a poor prognosis. Communitybased
studies indicate that 30–40% of patients die within 1 year of diagnosis and 60–70% die within 5
years, mainly from worsening heart failure or as a sudden event (probably because of a
ventricular arrhythmia). Although it is difficult to predict prognosis in an individual, patients with
symptoms at rest (New York Heart Association [NYHA] class IV) have a 30–70% annual
mortality rate, whereas patients with symptoms with moderate activity (NYHA class II) have an
annual mortality rate of 5–10%. Thus, functional status is an important predictor of patient
outcome (NY Heart Association classification).
Signs and Symptoms
The cardinal symptoms of heart failure are fatigue and shortness of breath. Although fatigue
traditionally has been ascribed to the low cardiac output in heart failure, it is likely that
skeletalmuscle abnormalities and other noncardiac comorbidities (e.g., anemia) also contribute
to this symptom.
In the early stages of heart failure, dyspnea is observed only during exertion; however, as the
disease progresses, dyspnea occurs with less strenuous activity, and it ultimately may occur
even at rest. The origin of dyspnea in heart failure is probably multifactorial. The most important
mechanism is pulmonary congestion with accumulation of interstitial or intraalveolar fluid, which
activates juxtacapillary J receptors, which in turn stimulate the rapid, shallow breathing
characteristic of cardiac dyspnea. Other factors that contribute to dyspnea on exertion include
reductions in pulmonary compliance, increased airway resistance, respiratory muscle and/or
diaphragm fatigue, and anemia. Dyspnea may become less frequent with the onset of right
ventricular (RV) failure and tricuspid regurgitation.
ORTHOPNEA
Orthopnea, dyspnea that occurs in the recumbent position, is usually a later manifestation of
heart failure than is exertional dyspnea. It results from redistribution of fluid from the splanchnic
circulation and lower extremities into the central circulation during recumbency, with a resultant
increase in pulmonary capillary pressure. Nocturnal cough is a common manifestation of this
process and a frequently overlooked symptom of heart failure. Orthopnea generally is relieved
by sitting upright or sleeping with additional pillows. Although orthopnea is a relatively specific
symptom of heart failure, it may occur in patients with abdominal obesity or ascites and patients
with pulmonary disease whose lung mechanics favor an upright posture.
PAROXYSMAL NOCTURNAL DYSPNEA (PND)
This term refers to acute episodes of severe shortness of breath and coughing that generally
occur at night and awaken the patient from sleep, usually 1–3 hours after the patient retires.
PND may manifest as coughing or wheezing, possibly because of increased pressure in the
bronchial arteries leading to airway compression, along with interstitial pulmonary edema that
leads to increased airway resistance. Whereas orthopnea may be relieved by sitting upright at
the side of the bed with the legs in a dependent position, patients with PND often have
persistent coughing and wheezing even after they have assumed the upright position. Cardiac
asthma is closely related to PND, is characterized by wheezing secondary to bronchospasm,
and must be differentiated from primary asthma and pulmonary causes of wheezing.
CHEYNESTOKES RESPIRATION
Also referred to as periodic respiration or cyclic respiration, CheyneStokes respiration is
present in 40% of patients with advanced heart failure and usually is associated with low cardiac
output. CheyneStokes respiration is caused by an increased sensitivity of the respiratory center
to arterial PCO2. There is an apneic phase, during which arterial PO2 falls and arterial PCO2
rises. These changes in the arterial blood gas content stimulate the respiratory center, resulting
in hyperventilation and hypocapnia, followed by recurrence of apnea. CheyneStokes
respirations may be perceived by the patient or the patient’s family as severe dyspnea or as a
transient cessation of breathing.
ACUTE PULMONARY EDEMA
See Chap. 326
Other Symptoms
Patients with heart failure also may present with gastrointestinal symptoms. Anorexia, nausea,
and early satiety associated with abdominal pain and fullness are common complaints and may
be related to edema of the bowel wall and/or a congested liver. Congestion of the liver and
stretching of its capsule may lead to right upperquadrant pain. Cerebral symptoms such as
confusion, disorientation, and sleep and mood disturbances may be observed in patients with
severe heart failure, particularly elderly patients with cerebral arteriosclerosis and reduced
cerebral perfusion. Nocturia is common in heart failure and may contribute to insomnia.
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
A careful physical examination is always warranted in the evaluation of patients with heart
failure. The purpose of the examination is to help determine the cause of heart failure as well as
to assess the severity of the syndrome. Obtaining additional information about the
hemodynamic profile and the response to therapy and determining the prognosis are important
additional goals of the physical examination.
General Appearance and Vital Signs
In mild or moderately severe heart failure, the patient appears to be in no distress at rest except
for feeling uncomfortable when lying flat for more than a few minutes. In more severe heart
failure, the patient must sit upright, may have labored breathing, and may not be able to finish a
sentence because of shortness of breath. Systolic blood pressure may be normal or high in
early heart failure, but it generally is reduced in advanced heart failure because of severe LV
dysfunction. The pulse pressure may be diminished, reflecting a reduction in stroke volume.
Sinus tachycardia is a nonspecific sign caused by increased adrenergic activity. Peripheral
vasoconstriction leading to cool peripheral extremities and cyanosis of the lips and nail beds is
also caused by excessive adrenergic activity.
Jugular Veins
(See also Chap. 267) Examination of the jugular veins provides an estimation of right atrial
pressure. The jugular venous pressure is best appreciated with the patient lying recumbent, with
the head tilted at 45°. The jugular venous pressure should be quantified in centimeters of water
(normal ≤8 cm) by estimating the height of the venous column of blood above the sternal angle
in centimeters and then adding 5 cm. In the early stages of heart failure, the venous pressure
may be normal at rest but may become abnormally elevated with sustained (~15 seconds)
pressure on the abdomen (positive abdominojugular reflux). Giant "v" waves indicate the
presence of tricuspid regurgitation.
Pulmonary Examination
Pulmonary crackles (rales or crepitations) result from the transudation of fluid from the
intravascular space into the alveoli. In patients with pulmonary edema, rales may be heard
widely over both lung fields and may be accompanied by expiratory wheezing (cardiac asthma).
When present in patients without concomitant lung disease, rales are specific for heart failure.
Importantly, rales are frequently absent in patients with chronic heart failure, even when LV
filling pressures are elevated, because of increased lymphatic drainage of alveolar fluid. Pleural
effusions result from the elevation of pleural capillary pressure and the resulting transudation of
fluid into the pleural cavities. Since the pleural veins drain into both the systemic and the
pulmonary veins, pleural effusions occur most commonly with biventricular failure. Although
pleural effusions are often bilateral in heart failure, when they are unilateral, they occur more
frequently in the right pleural space.
Cardiac Examination
Examination of the heart, although essential, frequently does not provide useful information
about the severity of heart failure. If cardiomegaly is present, the point of maximal impulse (PMI)
usually is displaced below the fifth intercostal space and/or lateral to the midclavicular line, and
the impulse is palpable over two interspaces. Severe LV hypertrophy leads to a sustained PMI.
In some patients, a third heart sound (S3) is audible and palpable at the apex. Patients with
enlarged or hypertrophied right ventricles may have a sustained and prolonged left parasternal
impulse extending throughout systole. An S3 (or protodiastolic gallop) is most commonly
present in patients with volume overload who have tachycardia and tachypnea, and it often
signifies severe hemodynamic compromise. A fourth heart sound (S4) is not a specific indicator
of heart failure but is usually present in patients with diastolic dysfunction. The murmurs of mitral
and tricuspid regurgitation are frequently present in patients with advanced heart failure.
Abdomen and Extremities
Hepatomegaly is an important sign in patients with heart failure. When it is present, the enlarged
liver is frequently tender and may pulsate during systole if tricuspid regurgitation is present.
Ascites, a late sign, occurs as a consequence of increased pressure in the hepatic veins and
the veins draining the peritoneum. Jaundice, also a late finding in heart failure, results from
impairment of hepatic function secondary to hepatic congestion and hepatocellular hypoxemia
and is associated with elevations of both direct and indirect bilirubin.
Peripheral edema is a cardinal manifestation of heart failure, but it is nonspecific and usually is
absent in patients who have been treated adequately with diuretics. Peripheral edema is usually
symmetric and dependent in heart failure and occurs predominantly in the ankles and the
pretibial region in ambulatory patients. In bedridden patients, edema may be found in the sacral
area (presacral edema) and the scrotum. Longstanding edema may be associated with
indurated and pigmented skin.
Cardiac Cachexia
With severe chronic heart failure, there may be marked weight loss and cachexia. Although the
mechanism of cachexia is not entirely understood, it is probably multifactorial and includes
elevation of the resting metabolic rate; anorexia, nausea, and vomiting due to congestive
hepatomegaly and abdominal fullness; elevation of circulating concentrations of cytokines such
as TNF; and impairment of intestinal absorption due to congestion of the intestinal veins. When
present, cachexia augurs a poor overall prognosis.
Treatment
2nd video
left sided back up = pulm edema and pleural effusions
right sided back up = lower extremity edema
things that just affect the lungs (IPF, sarcoid)
pulmonary artery remodeling and permanaent PHTN could occur which can affect the right side
of the heart.
Aorta high afterload from HTN causes LVH which then doesn't allow the ventricle to fill which
can then back up into the lungs and cause PHTN. Also AS can cause LVH and cause the same
thing
Ischemic CAD causes a systolic dysfunction from death of cardiac muscle.
Cardiomyopathy: affects the entire muscle of the heart
dilated: large thin walled (etoh, coxaschie, enterovirus)
restritive
hypertrophic: diastolic dysfunction
Preload:
ventricles filled with blood (end diastolic volume) before contraction
the amount of stretch on the ventricles
sarcomeres are stretched out
starling curve (stroke work/wall tension vs. preload/EDV)
higher the preload = higher tension (eg. higer blood vol, high venous rtn, supine, head down,
legs up, atrial contraction (atrial kick)
HTN with thick ventricle has hard time getting blood into it then all of the sudden you have afib
will cause your CO to drop
if preload is high in RA will cause backup to the coronary vv which will prevent forward flow
from the coronary aa this is what nitrates do, they drop preload thru veno dilation
Afterload
the tension that must be overcome to have ventricular contraction
aortic resistance, TPR, viscosity of blood (HCT>55)
Law of Laplace: T=PR/2h
tension is the contractile force around the etntire heart
P = the afterload pushing outward
H = thickness of myocardium
if the P goes up (eg HTN) then T has to go up (the heart does not like that so it has 2 choices,
drop the radius and increase the thickness of myocrdium) this will offset the increase in pressure
cause by HTN.
normal ventricular cycle contraction causes the tension to decrease because P stays the
same, radius will decrease, and the H will increase this is assuming ll the heart goes into aorta
MR has a more rapid drop in afterload b/c its going into LA which is a much lower pressure
area.
with MR blood has a choice either out the aorta or backward into the lungs causing frothy pulm
edema. CPAP, labetalol (decreases afterload) also able to reduce the preload that was pushing
into the lungs and causing pulm edema
Sepsis
TPR drops
preload drops
PEEP
affects the flow back into the heart
afterload drops the LVEDP is increased and the difference between LVEDP and aorta
decreases
great for Cheart failure because reduces both preload and afterload
end video
As a consequence, the clinical symptoms of fatigue, dyspnea, rales and edema may occur.
Diagnosis
The diagnosis of heart failure begins with recognition of the signs and symptoms of heart failure,
the phase of the cardiac cycle involved (systolic or diastolic) and the side of the heart involved
(right versus left). In other words, heart failure can be divided into rightsided and leftsided
Heart Failure and each side may have a systolic or a diastolic dysfunction.
Pathophysiology
The above picture provides a general conceptual framework for considering the development
and progression of heart failurerEF. As shown, heart failure may be viewed as a progressive
disorder that is initiated after an index event either damages the heart muscle, with a resultant
loss of functioning cardiac myocytes, or, alternatively, disrupts the ability of the myocardium to
generate force, thereby preventing the heart from contracting normally.
This index event may have an abrupt onset, as in the case of an MI; it may have a gradual or
insidious onset, as in the case of hemodynamic pressure or volume overloading; or it may be
hereditary, as in the case of many of the genetic cardiomyopathies. Regardless of the nature of
the inciting event, the feature that is common to each of these index events is that they all in
some manner produce a decline in the pumping capacity of the heart. In most instances,
patients remain asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic after the initial decline in pumping
capacity of the heart or develop symptoms only after the dysfunction has been present for some
time. (view Youtube video)
Although the precise reasons why patients with LV dysfunction may remain asymptomatic is not
certain, one potential explanation is that a number of compensatory mechanisms become
activated in the presence of cardiac injury and/or LV dysfunction allowing patients to sustain and
modulate LV function for a period of months to years.
BASIC MECHANISMS OF HEART FAILURE
Heart Failure with a Reduced Ejection Fraction
To understand how the changes that occur in the failing cardiac myocyte contribute to
depressed LV systolic function in heart failure, it is instructive first to review the biology of the
cardiac muscle cell (Chap. 265e). Sustained neurohormonal activation and mechanical overload
result in transcriptional and posttranscriptional changes in the genes and proteins that regulate
excitationcontraction coupling and crossbridge interaction (see Figs. 265e6 and 265e7). The
changes that regulate excitationcontraction include decreased function of sarcoplasmic
reticulum Ca2+ adenosine triphosphatase (SERCA2A), resulting in decreased calcium uptake
into the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), and hyperphosphorylation of the ryanodine receptor,
leading to calcium leakage from the SR. The changes that occur in the crossbridges include
decreased expression of αmyosin heavy chain and increased expression of βmyosin heavy
chain, myocytolysis, and disruption of the cytoskeletal links between the sarcomeres and the
extracellular matrix. Collectively, these changes impair the ability of the myocyte to contract and
therefore contribute to the depressed LV systolic function observed in patients with heart failure.
Myocardial relaxation is an adenosine triphosphate (ATP)dependent process that is regulated
by uptake of cytoplasmic calcium into the SR by SERCA2A and extrusion of calcium by
sarcolemmal pumps (see Fig. 265e7). Accordingly, reductions in ATP concentration, as occurs
in ischemia, may interfere with these processes and lead to slowed myocardial relaxation.
Alternatively, if LV filling is delayed because LV compliance is reduced (e.g., from hypertrophy
or fibrosis), LV filling pressures will similarly remain elevated at end diastole (see Fig. 265e11).
An increase in heart rate disproportionately shortens the time for diastolic filling, which may lead
to elevated LV filling pressures, particularly in noncompliant ventricles. Elevated LV
enddiastolic filling pressures result in increases in pulmonary capillary pressures, which can
contribute to the dyspnea experienced by patients with diastolic dysfunction. In addition to
impaired myocardial relaxation, increased myocardial stiffness secondary to cardiac hypertrophy
and increased myocardial collagen content may contribute to diastolic failure. Importantly,
diastolic dysfunction can occur alone or in combination with systolic dysfunction in patients with
heart failure.
DIAGNOSIS
The diagnosis of heart failure is relatively straightforward when the patient presents with classic
signs and symptoms of heart failure; however, the signs and symptoms of heart failure are
neither specific nor sensitive. Accordingly, the key to making the diagnosis is to have a high
index of suspicion, particularly for highrisk patients. When these patients present with signs or
symptoms of heart failure, additional laboratory testing should be performed.
Routine Laboratory Testing
Patients with newonset heart failure and those with chronic heart failure and acute
decompensation should have a complete blood count, a panel of electrolytes, blood urea
nitrogen, serum creatinine, hepatic enzymes, and a urinalysis. Selected patients should have
assessment for diabetes mellitus (fasting serum glucose or oral glucose tolerance test),
dyslipidemia (fasting lipid panel), and thyroid abnormalities (thyroidstimulating hormone level).
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
A routine 12lead ECG is recommended. The major importance of the ECG is to assess cardiac
rhythm and determine the presence of LV hypertrophy or a prior MI (presence or absence of Q
waves) as well as to determine QRS width to ascertain whether the patient may benefit from
resynchronization therapy (see below). A normal ECG virtually excludes LV systolic dysfunction.
Chest XRay
A chest xray provides useful information about cardiac size and shape, as well as the state of
the pulmonary vasculature, and may identify noncardiac causes of the patient’s symptoms.
Although patients with acute heart failure have evidence of pulmonary hypertension, interstitial
edema, and/or pulmonary edema, the majority of patients with chronic heart failure do not. The
absence of these findings in patients with chronic heart failure reflects the increased capacity of
the lymphatics to remove interstitial and/or pulmonary fluid.
Assessment of LV Function
Noninvasive cardiac imaging (Chap. 270e) is essential for the diagnosis, evaluation, and
management of heart failure. The most useful test is the twodimensional (2D)
echocardiogram/Doppler, which can provide a semiquantitative assessment of LV size and
function as well as the presence or absence of valvular and/or regional wall motion
abnormalities (indicative of a prior MI). The presence of left atrial dilation and LV hypertrophy,
together with abnormalities of LV diastolic filling provided by pulsewave and tissue Doppler, is
useful for the assessment of heart failure with a preserved EF. The 2D
echocardiogram/Doppler is also invaluable in assessing RV size and pulmonary pressures,
which are critical in the evaluation and management of cor pulmonale (see below). Magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) also provides a comprehensive analysis of cardiac anatomy and
function and is now the gold standard for assessing LV mass and volumes. MRI also is
emerging as a useful and accurate imaging modality for evaluating patients with heart failure,
both in terms of assessing LV structure and for determining the cause of heart failure (e.g.,
amyloidosis, ischemic cardiomyopathy, hemochromatosis).
The most useful index of LV function is the EF (stroke volume divided by enddiastolic volume).
Because the EF is easy to measure by noninvasive testing and easy to conceptualize, it has
gained wide acceptance among clinicians. Unfortunately, the EF has a number of limitations as
a true measure of contractility, since it is influenced by alterations in afterload and/or preload.
Nonetheless, with the exceptions indicated above, when the EF is normal (≥50%), systolic
function is usually adequate, and when the EF is significantly depressed (<30–40%),
contractility is usually depressed.
Biomarkers
Circulating levels of natriuretic peptides are useful and important adjunctive tools in the
diagnosis of patients with heart failure. Both Btype natriuretic peptide (BNP) and Nterminal
proBNP (NTproBNP), which are released from the failing heart, are relatively sensitive markers
for the presence of heart failure with depressed EF; they also are elevated in heart failure
patients with a preserved EF, albeit to a lesser degree. In ambulatory patients with dyspnea, the
measurement of BNP or NTproBNP is useful to support clinical decision making regarding the
diagnosis of heart failure, especially in the setting of clinical uncertainty. Moreover, the
measurement of BNP or NTproBNP is useful for establishing prognosis or disease severity in
chronic heart failure and can be useful to achieve optimal dosing of medical therapy in select
clinically euvolemic patients. However, it is important to recognize that natriuretic peptide levels
increase with age and renal impairment, are more elevated in women, and can be elevated in
right heart failure from any cause. Levels can be falsely low in obese patients. Other
biomarkers, such as soluble ST2 and galectin3, are newer biomarkers that can be used for
determining the prognosis of heart failure patients.
Exercise Testing
Treadmill or bicycle exercise testing is not routinely advocated for patients with heart failure, but
either is useful for assessing the need for cardiac transplantation in patients with advanced
heart failure (Chap. 281). A peak oxygen uptake (vo2) <14 mL/kg per min is associated with a
relatively poor prognosis. Patients with a vo2 <14 mL/kg per min have been shown, in general,
to have better survival when transplanted than when treated medically.
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
heart failure resembles but should be distinguished from (1) conditions in which there is
circulatory congestion secondary to abnormal salt and water retention but in which there is no
disturbance of cardiac structure or function (e.g., renal failure), and (2) noncardiac causes of
pulmonary edema (e.g., acute respiratory distress syndrome). In most patients who present with
classic signs and symptoms of heart failure, the diagnosis is relatively straightforward. However,
even experienced clinicians have difficulty differentiating the dyspnea that arises from cardiac
and pulmonary causes (Chap. 47e). In this regard, noninvasive cardiac imaging, biomarkers,
pulmonary function testing, and chest xray may be useful. A very low BNP or NTproBNP may
be helpful in excluding a cardiac cause of dyspnea in this setting. Ankle edema may arise
secondary to varicose veins, obesity, renal disease, or gravitational effects. When heart failure
develops in patients with a preserved EF, it may be difficult to determine the relative contribution
of heart failure to the dyspnea that occurs in chronic lung disease and/or obesity.
preload (EDV):
how much blood in the ventricle before it contracts
the sarcomere get stretched
y axis = stroke work or wall tension
x axis = preload
as the preload goes up the tension goes up (inc blood volume, high venous return by being
supine or head down, inc atrial contraction, afib diminshes preload especially if you have a thick
ventricle which can't keep that much blood to begin with).
coronary artery to muscle > coronary sinus > RA (decrease preload to inc coronary artery Q
how nitrates work)
afteload:
the tension that must be overcome by the ventricle
La Place law T = PR/2h (R=afterload) (h=thickness of myocardium) (T=tension around the
entire heart) (P=pushing out)
viscosity Hct > 55
PEEP
reduces preload and afterload (beneficial in Cheart failure not in sepsis)
NOT ENOUGH FORWARD FLOW SIDE
Low renal perfusion activated:
RAA
ADH secretion
These will exacerbate the amount of accumulated fluid.
Pulmonary
Cheyen stokes breathing (fast slow); not enough CO2 is circulating
CONGESTION SIDE
Pulmonary Edema
elevated PAP
Liver Congestion
nut meg liver on cross section
Pedal edema
You can see these symptoms in any form for Cheart failure
The heart is a 2 stroke pump, systole and diastole (active relaxation)
EF = size of heart at end diastole (largest) size of heart at systole (smallest) / end of diastole
how much blood the heart can spit out in one contraction
* EF occurs during 1 contraction
Heart failure divided and subdivided into:
Right heart Failure
systolic
diastolic
Usually develops after left heart failure.
Left Heart Failure
systolic
diastolic
Most common and there are 2 types
Diastolic failure appears when the ventricle can't be filled properly because it can't relax or
because its wall is thick or rigid. This situation presents usually a concentric hypertrophy
NEW CLASSIFICATION
heart failure Reduced Ejection Fraction (Systolic Dysfunction)
blood can't get out and thus can't get into the heart
ischemic HD
heart failure Normal Ejection Fraction (Diastolic Dysfunction)
blood can't get into the heart because the muscle can't relax thus blood can't get out of the
heart
HTN
aortic stenosis
Cardiomyopathies
affect the entire
Dilated CM
Hypertrophic CM
Treatment
The distinction between systolic and diastolic heart failure is important because what would be
appropriate management for one type of heart failure can aggrevate the other.