LOSES IN PIPE STUDENT MANUAL

LOSSES IN PIPING SYSTEM

Model: D1131
Student Manual
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LOSSES IN PIPING SYSTEM Page

Document No.: 8128-M-1131-01 4
5 -13
CONTENT
15
No. Title 16
I OPERATION MANUAL 17
1. Introduction 18
2. Background Theory 19
II EXPERIMENT MANUAL
Experiment 1 : Pipe Fittings, Bends and Tees Head Loss 20-25
Experiment 2 : Valves Head Loss
Experiment 3 : Flow Measurement
Experiment 4 : Pipe Head Loss
III REFERENCES
IV APPENDIX
Attachments

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OPERATION MANUAL

STUDENT
MANUAL

Name : ___________________________________

Class : ___________________________________

Faculty : ___________________________________

Date : ___________________________________

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STUDENT OPERATION MANUAL
MANUAL

1. INTRODUCTIONThe basic approach to all piping systems is to write the Bernoulli
equation between two points, connected by a streamline,
where the conditions are known. For example, between the
surface of a reservoir and a pipe outlet.

The total head at point 0 must match with the total head at
point 1, adjusted for any increase in head due to pumps, losses
due to pipe friction and so-called "minor losses" due to entries,
exits, fittings, etc. Pump head developed is generally a function
of the flow through the system, with head rise decreasing with
increasing flow through the pump.

The energy required to push water through a pipeline is
dissipated as friction pressure loss, in m. “Major” losses occur
due to friction within a pipe, and “minor” losses occur at a
change of section, valve, bend or other interruption. In this
practical you will investigate the impact of major and minor
losses on water flow in pipes.

Moody chart or Moody diagram is a graph in non-
dimensional form that relates the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor

fD, Reynolds number Re, and surface roughness for fully
developed flow in a circular pipe. It can be used to predict
pressure drop or flow rate down such a pipe.

Figure 4:
Moody Chart

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STUDENT OPERATION MANUAL
MANUAL

2. BACKGROUND A. Pipe Head Loss
THEORY
In fluid mechanics there are two major friction factors: the
Fanning friction and the Darcy-Weishbach factor, which is
sometimes called the moody friction factor. The two factors
have a relationship where Darcy factor is four times larger than
the Fanning factor. This can cause confusion when using the
factor. It is important to be the certain which factor to be used,
or the answer achieves will not be correct. In laminar flow, the
factor doesn’t change over the range of laminar flow, so when
one is using a chart or graphical solution, it is fairly easy to
determine which factor is presented.

The Fanning factor in laminar flow is:

——————(1)

The Darcy factor in laminar flow is:

——————(2)

Reynold number can be calculated:

——————(3)

, where:

= Density of fluid, kg/m3
v = Velocity of fluid, m/s
D = Pipe interior diameter, m

= Fluid dynamic viscosity, kg/m.s

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STUDENT OPERATION MANUAL
MANUAL

2. BACKGROUNDFrom volumetric flowrate, we can calculate the velocity:

THEORY
——————(4)

It is fairly easy to determine which factor to be used. If a chart
is used, simply read the factor for an R of 1000, and then you
will read either the decimal number 0.064 or 0.016, which will
give you the factor being used. The factor used changes the
form of the head loss equation that one uses to calculate the
pressure drop in a pipe section or line.

It is common for chemists to use Fanning factor, while civil and
mechanical engineers use the Darcy factor. So if you are the
civil engineer and get a Fanning factor chart, multiply the factor
by 4 and you will have the factor you need , or use the Fanning
formula for head loss. The two equation forms used with the
proper form of the head loss equation will give the same loss
for that line segment of pipe.

For the Fanning equation:

——————(5)

For the Darcy-Weishbach equation:

——————(6)

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STUDENT OPERATION MANUAL
MANUAL

2. BACKGROUND , where:
THEORY
L = length of straight pipe, ft or m
D = pipe interior diameter (ID), ft or m
v = average velocity of fluid, ft/s or m/s
g = acceleration of gravity, m/s-2
fF or fD = dimensionless factor for the form being used
hF or hD = head loss, ft or m

B. Valves and Fittings Head Loss

Losses in the fittings of a piping network are frequently termed
minor losses or miscellaneous losses. These descriptions are
misleading because in process piping fitting losses are often
much greater than the losses in straight piping sections.

For instance, major energy losses are mainly due to the pipe
friction. For example, the inner pipe surface is very rough or
composed of many disturbances. On the other hand, minor
energy losses are caused by sudden expansion, sudden
contraction, bends, pipe fittings and others. For example,
sudden expansion and contraction are caused by reducer. The
bends consist of 45o and 90o elbow and 45o and 90o tee.

The head loss that is caused by the inlets, outlets or fittings is
expressed by the equation below:

——————(7)

, where:
k = loss coefficient for the fitting that is involved

= velocity head, hv

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STUDENT OPERATION MANUAL
MANUAL

2. BACKGROUND C. Venturi Meter
THEORY
When the process required to measure the flowrate of the
medium in the pipeline, the differential pressure between point
1 and point 2 can be predicted using pressure drop information.
A Venturi meter is an instrument used for measuring the rate of
discharge for fluid flowing in a pipe.

This instrument is based on the same principle:

• The pressure difference between any two points on a
tapering pipe through which the fluid is following depends
on the change of levels and on the change in velocities and
therefore on the volume rate of flow.

In this instrument, the flow is led to narrow cross section, at
which the velocity increases and hence a fall in the pressure
occurs. A venturi tube consists of a short converging conical
tube leading to a cylindrical portion, called the throat, of smaller
diameter of that of the pipeline, which is followed by a diverging
section in which the diameter increases again to that of the
main pipeline. There are two pressure taps located at the
widest and the narrowest location of the tube.

Figure 2: A venturi tube.

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STUDENT OPERATION MANUAL
MANUAL

2. BACKGROUNDThe flowrate can be determined by measuring pressures P1

THEORY and P2 at these locations and substituting them into Bernoulli

equation. For incompressible fluid, the pressure drop is related

to the flowrate by the following formula:

——(8)

Since z1 = z2,

Applying the equation of continuity at both points, we have:

or

, where d1 and d2 are the diameters at point 1 (pipe) and point
2 (throat) respectively.
Now putting the value of v2 in the above expression:

————(9)

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STUDENT OPERATION MANUAL
MANUAL

2. BACKGROUNDFlowrate that is calculated from equation (9) is the theoretical

THEORY flow rate and applies to frictionless flow of incompressible

fluids. Actual flow includes frictional loss between point 1 and

point 2:

————(10)

, where:

Q1 = Inlet flowrate, m3/s
Cd = Venturi discharge coefficient, (0.94)
P1 = Inlet pressure, N/m2
P2 = Throat pressure, N/m2

H = Difference in height, m
A1 = Area of tube, m2
A2 = Area of throat, m2

= Density of water, kg/m3
= Throat-to-pipe diameter ratio
d = Throat diameter, m
D= Pipe diameter, m

D. Orifice Plate

An orifice consists of an orifice plate which has an opening in it
smaller than the internal diameter of the pipeline, placed in a
flange connecting the two portions of the pipeline. It is a plate
with a machined hole in the center. The flow rate is determined
by a measuring the pressure drop as the flow pass through the
plate. The frictional losses in the orifice meter are much larger
than in the venturi meter and a typical value of the discharge
coefficient Cd is 0.6. The operating principle for this device is
the same as for the a Venturi meter.

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STUDENT OPERATION MANUAL
MANUAL

2. BACKGROUND
THEORY

Figure 3: An orifice plate mechanism.
The formula for orifice:

——–——(11)

where:

Q1 = Inlet flowrate, m3/s
Cd = Discharge coefficient, (0.6)
P1 = Inlet pressure, N/m2
P2 = Orifice plate pressure, N/m2

H = Difference in height, m
A2 = Area of throat, m2
Ao = Area of orifice, m2

= Density of water, kg/m3
= Inner and outer diameter ratio
d = Orifice diameter, m
D= Pipe diameter, m

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STUDENT OPERATION MANUAL
MANUAL

2. BACKGROUND E. Pitot Tube
THEORY
Pitot tubes are used to measure the velocity of a fluid moving
through a pipe by taking the advantage of the fact that the
velocity at the height of the bend in the tube (stagnation point)
is zero.

P2
P1

Figure 4: Pitot Tube.

Some kinetic energy density of the fluid flowing through the
pipe is converted into pressure, resulting in a change in
manometer height. Bernoulli’s equation is used to calculate the
velocity of the bulk fluid in the pipe by using the pressure
difference in the pitot tube:

—–—(12)

All the terms on the left side represent the stagnation point
(entrance of the pitot tube); here P1 is the stagnation pressure
and v1 is the velocity of fluid in the pipe at point 1. All terms on
the right refer to point 2, a point upstream from the pitot tube.

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STUDENT OPERATION MANUAL
MANUAL

2. BACKGROUNDThe two points that are being evaluated are at the same height,

THEORY so z1 and z2 are dropped out. Thus we obtain the simplified
form of Bernoulli’s equation:

——–——(13)

,where:

v1 = Velocity at stagnation pressure, m/s
v2 = Velocity at static pressure, m/s
P1 = Stagnation pressure, N/m2
P2 = Static pressure, N/m2

= Density of water, kg/m3

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EXPERIMENT MANUAL

STUDENT
MANUAL

Name : ___________________________________

Class : ___________________________________

Faculty : ___________________________________

Date : ___________________________________

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STUDENT EXPERIMENT 1
MANUAL
Pipe Bends and Tees Head Loss

Objective: 1. To study the pressure head loss in various pipe bends and
tees.

Apparatus: Losses in Piping System (D1131)
Paper
Experimental Calculator
Procedure:
1. Perform the start up procedure.
2. Select 90o mitre bend to test.
3. Connect tapping pressure in between the selected bend to

differential pressure transmitter and to manometer.
4. Fully open MBV-106, MBV-107, MBV-109 and MBV-112.
5. Ensure other ball valves are fully closed.
6. Start P-101 and slowly open MGV-101 until the level on

manometer starts to show differences in height.
7. Kindly allow the flow to be stabilised and record the reading

on the digital indicator.
8. Record the differential pressure between P1 and P2 and the

height difference in tube manometer.
9. Repeat steps 1-8 for different pipe bends and tees.

Results: Items Q A (m2) v ΔP k ΔHexp ΔHcalc
Discussion: 90o Tee
Mitre Bend (L/min) (m/s) (kPa) (m) (m)

50mm Bend

100mm Bend

150mm Bend

1. Justify the differences in ΔHexp and ΔHcalc.

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STUDENT EXPERIMENT 2
MANUAL
Valves Head Loss

Objective: 1. To study the pressure head loss in various valves.

Apparatus: Losses in Piping System (D1131)
Paper
Experimental Calculator
Procedure:
1. Perform the start up procedure.
2. Select BV-108 to study.
3. Connect tapping pressure in between the selected valve to

differential pressure transmitter and to manometer.
4. Fully open MBV-104 and MBV-105.
5. Ensure other ball valves are fully closed.
6. Start P-101 and slowly open MGV-101 until the level starts

to show up in the tube manometer.
7. Allow the flow to be stabilised and record the reading on the

digital indicator.
8. Record the differential pressure between P1 and P2 and the

height difference in tube manometer.
9. Repeat steps 1-8 for MGV-102 and MGaV-101.

Results: Items Q A (m2) v ΔP k ΔHexp ΔHcalc
Discussion: MBV - 108
(L/min) (m/s) (kPa) (m) (m)

MGV - 101

MGAV - 101

1. Justify the differences in ΔHexp and ΔHcalc.

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STUDENT EXPERIMENT 3
MANUAL
Flow Measurement

Objective: 1. To calculate the flow in a pipeline with orifice plate, venturi
tube and pitot tube.

Apparatus: Fluid Friction Apparatus (D1131)
Calculator

Experimental 1. Perform the start up procedure.
Procedure: 2. Select orifice plate to study.
3. Connect tapping pressure in between the orifice plate to
Results:
differential pressure transmitter and to manometer.
4. Fully open MBV-110 and MBV-111.
5. Ensure other ball valves are fully closed.
6. Start P-101 and slowly open MGV-101 until the level starts

to show up in the tube manometer.
7. Allow the flow to be stabilised and record the reading on the

digital indicator.
8. Record the differential pressure between P1 and P2 and the

height difference in tube manometer.
9. Repeat steps 1-8 for venturi tube and pitot tube.

Items ΔP ΔH Qexp Av Qcalc
Orifice Plate (kPa) (m) (L/min) (m2) (m/s) Cd (L/min)

Venturi Tube

Pitot Tube

Discussion: 1. Justify the differences in Qexp and Qcalc.

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STUDENT EXPERIMENT 4
MANUAL
Pipe Head Loss

Objective: 1. To study the relationship between friction factor and
Reynold’s number.
Apparatus:
Losses in Piping System (D1131)
Experimental Calculator
Procedure:
1. Perform the start-up procedure.
2. Select the desired pipe.
3. Connect tapping pressure in between the selected pipe to

differential pressure transmitter and to manometer.
4. Fully open MBV-109 and MBV-110.
5. Ensure other ball valves are fully closed.
6. Start P-101 and slowly open MGV-101 until the level starts

to show up in the tube manometer.
7. Allow the flow to be stabilised and record the reading on the

digital indicator.
8. Record the differential pressure between P1 and P2 and the

height difference in tube manometer.
9. Repeat steps 5-8 by slightly increase the flowrate.
10.Do not overflow the level in tube manometer.
11.Repeat steps 1-10 for different tubes.

Results: Q v ΔP ΔH
D (mm) Run (L/min) (m/s) (kPa) Re (m) f ln f ln Re

Stainless steel 28 1
Roughened 28 2
1
2

Discussion: 1. Plot the graph ln f versus ln Re.
Note: Take relative roughness Ɛ for stainless steel and

roughened are 0.002mm and 0.0015mm.

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STUDENT REFERENCES
MANUAL

1. Al-Atabi, M., Chin, S., Luo, X. and Al-Zuhair, S. (2006).
Pressure Drop in Laminar and Turbulent Flows in Circular
Pipe with Baffles -- An Experimental and Analytical Study.
International Journal of Fluid Mechanics Research, 33(4),
pp.303-319.

2. Eck, B. (2017). Use of a Smoothed Model for Pipe Friction
Loss. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 143(1),
p.06016022.

3. Michaelides, E. and Lai, F. (1987). Pressure loss through
return bends in air-solid flows. International Journal of
Multiphase Flow, 13(2), pp.269-274.

4. Babcock and Wilcox Company (1978). Steam: Its
Generation and Use.

5. Yunus A. Cengel and John M. Cimbala (2013). Fluid
Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications, 3rd Edition

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STUDENT APPENDIX
MANUAL
Attachment

Loss coefficient for valve, fittings, and bending.

Type of Component or Fitting Minor Loss Coefficient
-k-
Tee, Flanged, Dividing Line Flow
Tee, Threaded, Dividing Line Flow 0.2
Tee, Flanged, Dividing Branched Flow 0.9
Tee, Threaded , Dividing Branch Flow 1.0
2.0
Union, Threaded 0.08
Elbow, Flanged Regular 90o
Elbow, Threaded Regular 90o 0.3
Elbow, Threaded Regular 45o 1.5
Elbow, Flanged Long Radius 90o 0.4
Elbow, Threaded Long Radius 90o 0.2
Elbow, Flanged Long Radius 45o 0.7
Return Bend, Flanged 180o 0.2
Return Bend, Threaded 180o 0.2
1.5
Globe Valve, Fully Open 10
Angle Valve, Fully Open 2
Gate Valve, Fully Open 0.15
Gate Valve, 1/4 Closed 0.26
Gate Valve, 1/2 Closed 2.1
Gate Valve, 3/4 Closed 17
Swing Check Valve, Forward Flow 2
Ball Valve, Fully Open 0.05
5.5
Ball Valve, 1/3 Closed 200
Ball Valve, 2/3 Closed 2.3
Diaphragm Valve, Open 4.3
Diaphragm Valve, Half Open 21
Diaphragm Valve, 1/4 Open

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STUDENT APPENDIX

MANUAL Attachment

Loss coefficient for valve, fittings, and bending.

Note that the kinetic energy correction factor is
α = 2 for fully developed laminar flow, and
α = 1.05 for fully developed turbulent flow

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STUDENT APPENDIX

MANUAL Attachment

Loss coefficient for valve, fittings, and bending.

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STUDENT APPENDIX

MANUAL Attachment

Loss coefficient for valve, fittings, and bending.

Bend loss coefficients for a pipe (Babcock & Wilcox Co., 1978).

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STUDENT APPENDIX

MANUAL Attachment

Figure A1: Relationship between friction factor and Reynold’s number.

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STUDENT APPENDIX

MANUAL Attachment

Figure A2: P&ID for fluid friction apparatus.

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