Research methods
for business
students
fifth edition
Mark Saunders
Philip Lewis
Adrian Thornhill
Research Methods for Business Students
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■ Multiple choice questions to test your learning.
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■ Updated research datasets to practice with.
■ Updated additional case studies with accompanying questions.
■ Smarter Online Searching Guide – how to make the most of
the Internet in your research.
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Research Methods
for Business
Students
Fifth edition
Mark Saunders
Philip Lewis
Adrian Thornhill
Pearson Education Limited
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
England
and Associated Companies throughout the world
Visit us on the World Wide Web at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk
First published under the Pitman Publishing imprint in 1997
Second edition 2000
Third edition 2003
Fourth edition 2007
Fifth edition 2009
© Pearson Professional Limited 1997
© Pearson Education Limited 2000, 2003, 2007
© Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2009
The rights of Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill to be identified as authors
of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a
licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright
Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any
trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership
rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation
with or endorsement of this book by such owners.
ISBN: 978-0-273-71686-0
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Saunders, Mark, 1959-
Research methods for business students / Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis, Adrian Thornhill. —5th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-273-71686-0 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Business—Research. 2. Business—Research—Data
processing. I. Lewis, Philip, 1945- II. Thornhill, Adrian. III. Title.
HD30.4.S28 2009
650.072—dc22
2008054877
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
13 12 11 10 09
Typeset in ITC Slimbach Std 9.5/12.5 by 73
Printed and bound by Rotolito Lombarda, Italy
The publisher’s policy is to use paper manufactured from sustainable forests.
Brief Contents
How to use this book xvii
Guided tour xxii
Preface xxv
Contributors xxvii
Publisher’s acknowledgements xxix
1 The nature of business and management research 2
and structure of this book 20
58
2 Formulating and clarifying the research topic 106
3 Critically reviewing the literature 136
4 Understanding research philosophies and approaches 168
5 Formulating the research design 210
6 Negotiating access and research ethics 256
7 Selecting samples 288
8 Using secondary data
9 Collecting primary data through observation 318
10 Collecting primary data using semi-structured, in-depth 360
414
and group interviews 480
11 Collecting primary data using questionnaires 526
12 Analysing quantitative data
13 Analysing qualitative data 561
14 Writing and presenting your project report 573
587
Bibliography 604
Appendices
Glossary
Index
v
Contents
How to use this book xvii
Guided tour xxii
Preface xxv
Contributors xxvii
Publisher’s acknowledgements xxix
1 The nature of business and management 2
research and structure of this book
2
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2
Learning outcomes 4
1.1 Introduction 5
1.2 The nature of research 10
1.3 The nature of business and management research 10
1.4 The research process 15
1.5 The purpose and structure of this book 15
1.6 Summary 15
Self-check questions 16
Review and discussion questions 16
References 17
Further reading
Case 1: Isabelle’s research dilemma 18
Michael Savvas
20
Self-check answers
20
2 Formulating and clarifying 20
the research topic 22
24
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 32
Learning outcomes
2.1 Introduction vii
2.2 Attributes of a good research topic
2.3 Generating and refining research ideas
2.4 Turning research ideas into research projects
Contents
2.5 Writing your research proposal 41
2.6 Summary 48
49
Self-check questions 49
Review and discussion questions
Progressing your research project: from research ideas 50
to a research proposal 50
References 51
Further reading
Case 2: Media climate change reporting and environmental 52
disclosure patterns in the low-cost airline industry
in the twenty-first century 55
Richard Slack
Self-check answers
3 Critically reviewing the literature 58
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 58
Learning outcomes 58
3.1 Introduction 61
3.2 The critical review 68
3.3 Literature sources available 75
3.4 Planning your literature search strategy 80
3.5 Conducting your literature search 92
3.6 Obtaining and evaluating the literature 94
3.7 Recording the literature 97
3.8 Plagiarism 98
3.9 Summary 99
Self-check questions 100
Review and discussion questions
Progressing your research project: critically reviewing 100
the literature 100
References 102
Further reading 102
Case 3: Complexity theory and emergent change
Mike Wallace and Alison Wray 104
Self-check answers
4 Understanding research philosophies 106
and approaches
106
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 106
Learning outcomes
4.1 Introduction
viii
Contents
4.2 Understanding your research philosophy: why research 107
philosophy is important 124
128
4.3 Research approaches 129
4.4 Summary 129
Self-check questions 130
Review and discussion questions 131
Progressing your research project: diagnosing your 131
research philosophy 132
References
Further reading 134
Case 4: Consultancy research for a not-for-profit organisation
Karen Handley
Self-check answers
5 Formulating the research design 136
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 136
Learning outcomes 136
5.1 Introduction 138
5.2 The purpose of your research 141
5.3 The need for a clear research strategy
5.4 Multiple methods choices – combining data collection 151
techniques and analysis procedures 155
5.5 Time horizons 156
5.6 The credibility of research findings 160
5.7 The ethics of research design 160
5.8 Summary 161
Self-check questions 161
Review and discussion questions
Progressing your research project: deciding on your 162
research design 162
References 164
Further reading 164
Case 5: Managing the acquisition from the middle
David Coghlan 166
Self-check answers
6 Negotiating access and research ethics 168
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 168
Learning outcomes 168
6.1 Introduction 169
6.2 Issues associated with gaining access
ix
Contents
6.3 Strategies to gain access 173
6.4 Research ethics and why you should act ethically 183
6.5 Ethical issues at specific stages of the research process 187
6.6 Summary 201
202
Self-check questions 202
Review and discussion questions
Progressing your research project: negotiating access 203
and addressing ethical issues 203
References 204
Further reading 205
Case 6: Gaining access to business angels networks
Stephanie Macht 208
Self-check answers
7 Selecting samples 210
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 210
Learning outcomes 210
7.1 Introduction 214
7.2 Probability sampling 233
7.3 Non-probability sampling 243
7.4 Summary 243
Self-check questions 245
Review and discussion questions
Progressing your research project: using sampling as part 246
of your research 246
References 248
Further reading 248
Case 7: Implementing strategic change initiatives
Liz Lee-Kelley 251
Self-check answers
8 Using secondary data 256
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 256
Learning outcomes 256
8.1 Introduction 258
8.2 Types of secondary data and uses in research 263
8.3 Locating secondary data 268
8.4 Advantages and disadvantages of secondary data 272
8.5 Evaluating secondary data sources
x
Contents
8.6 Summary 280
Self-check questions 280
Review and discussion questions 281
Progressing your research project: assessing the suitability
of secondary data for your research 282
References 282
Further reading 284
Case 8: Patent grants and the implications for business 284
Deli Yang
286
Self-check answers
9 Collecting primary data through 288
observation
288
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 288
Learning outcomes 289
9.1 Introduction 293
9.2 Participant observation: an introduction 296
9.3 Participant observation: researcher roles 300
9.4 Participant observation: data collection and analysis 305
9.5 Structured observation: an introduction 309
9.6 Structured observation: data collection and analysis 310
9.7 Summary 311
Self-check questions
Review and discussion questions 311
Progressing your research project: deciding on the 311
appropriateness of observation 312
References 313
Further reading
Case 9: Online images of tourist destinations 316
Mridula Dwivedi and Anil Yadav
Self-check answers
10 Collecting primary data using semi- 318
structured, in-depth and group interviews
318
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 318
Learning outcomes 320
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Types of interview and their link to the purposes
of research and research strategy
xi
Contents
10.3 When to use non-standardised (qualitative) interviews 323
10.4 Data quality issues and preparing for the interview 326
10.5 Interviewing competence 336
10.6 Managing logistical and resource issues 342
10.7 Group interviews and focus groups 343
10.8 Telephone, Internet- and intranet-mediated interviews 348
10.9 Summary 351
351
Self-check questions 352
Review and discussion questions
Progressing your research project: using semi-structured 353
or in-depth interviews in your research 353
References 355
Further reading 355
Case 10: Students’ and former students’ debt problems
Bill Lee 358
Self-check answers 360
11 Collecting primary data using 360
questionnaires 360
362
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 366
Learning outcomes 371
11.1 Introduction 395
11.2 An overview of questionnaire techniques 401
11.3 Deciding what data need to be collected 402
11.4 Designing the questionnaire 404
11.5 Administering the questionnaire
11.6 Summary 404
Self-check questions 405
Review and discussion questions 406
Progressing your research project: using questionnaires 407
in your research
References 409
Further reading
Case 11: Downsizing in the Middle East
Mohammad Al-Kilani
Self-check answers
12 Analysing quantitative data 414
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis, Adrian Thornhill 414
and Catherine Wang
Learning outcomes
xii
Contents
12.1 Introduction 414
12.2 Preparing, inputting and checking data 416
12.3 Exploring and presenting data 428
12.4 Describing data using statistics 444
12.5 Examining relationships, differences and trends
449
using statistics 467
12.6 Summary 468
469
Self-check questions
Review and discussion questions 470
Progressing your research project: analysing your 470
data quantitatively 472
References
Further reading 473
Case 12: Small business owner
managers’ skill sets 476
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill
480
Self-check answers
480
13 Analysing qualitative data 480
482
13.1 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 485
13.2 Learning outcomes 489
13.3 Introduction 490
13.4 Differences between qualitative and quantitative data 498
13.5 Preparing your data for analysis 500
13.6 Approaches to qualitative analysis 502
13.7 Types of qualitative analysis processes 514
13.8 Analytical aids 516
13.9 Deductively based analytical procedures 517
13.10 Inductively based analytical procedures 517
Using CAQDAS for qualitative analysis
Summary 517
Self-check questions 518
Review and discussion questions 520
Progressing your research project: analysing your
data qualitatively 520
References
Further reading 524
Case 13: The influence of film on tourist
decision making xiii
Peter Bolan
Self-check answers
Contents 526
14 Writing and presenting your 526
project report 526
528
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 531
Learning outcomes 541
14.1 Introduction 544
14.2 Getting started with writing 550
14.3 Structuring your project report 550
14.4 Organising the project report’s content 555
14.5 Developing an appropriate writing style 555
14.6 Meeting the assessment criteria 556
14.7 Oral presentation of the report
14.8 Summary 556
Self-check questions 557
Review and discussion questions 557
Progressing your research project: writing your
project report 558
References
Further reading 560
Case 14: James’ consultancy report on managers’ 561
financial information needs
Peter Harris 573
Self-check answers 581
Bibliography 583
584
Appendices 587
604
1 Styles of referencing
2 Calculating the minimum sample size
3 Random sampling numbers
4 Guidelines for non-discriminatory language
Glossary
Index
xiv
Contents
Supporting resources
Visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/saunders to find valuable online resources:
Companion Website for students
■ Multiple choice questions to test your learning.
■ Tutorials on Excel, NVivo and SPSS.
■ Updated research datasets to practice with.
■ Updated additional case studies with accompanying questions.
■ Smarter Online Searching Guide – how to make the most of the Internet
in your research.
For instructors
■ Complete, downloadable Instructor’s Manual.
■ PowerPoint slides that can be downloaded and used for presentations.
Also – the regularly maintained Companion Website provides the following
features:
■ Search tool to help locate specific items of content.
■ E-mail results and profile tools to send results of quizzes to instructors.
■ Online help and support to assist with website usage and troubleshooting.
For more information please contact your local Pearson Education sales
representative or visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/saunders
xv
How to use this book
This book is written with a progressive logic, which means that terms and concepts are
defined when they are first introduced. One implication of this is that it is sensible for you
to start at the beginning and to work your way through the text, various boxes, self-check
questions, review and discussion questions, case studies and case study questions. You
can do this in a variety of ways depending on your reasons for using this book. However,
this approach may not necessarily be suitable for your purposes, and you may wish to
read the chapters in a different order or just dip into particular sections of the book. If this
is true for you then you will probably need to use the glossary to check that you under-
stand some of the terms and concepts used in the chapters you read. Suggestions for
three of the more common ways in which you might wish to use this book are given
below.
As part of a research methods course
or for self-study for your research project
If you are using this book as part of a research methods course the order in which you read
the chapters is likely to be prescribed by your tutors and dependent upon their perceptions
of your needs. Conversely, if you are pursuing a course of self-study for your research proj-
ect, dissertation or consultancy report, the order in which you read the chapters is your
own choice. However, whichever of these you are, we would argue that the order in which
you read the chapters is dependent upon your recent academic experience.
For many students, such as those taking an undergraduate degree in business or man-
agement, the research methods course and associated project, dissertation or consultancy
report comes in either the second or the final year of study. In such situations it is proba-
ble that you will follow the chapter order quite closely (see Figure P.1). Groups of chapters
within which we believe you can switch the order without affecting the logic of the flow
too much are shown on the same level in this diagram and are:
• those chapters associated with data collection (Chapters 8, 9, 10 and 11);
• those associated with data analysis (Chapters 12 and 13).
In addition, you might wish to read the sections in Chapter 14 on writing prior to start-
ing to draft your critical review of the literature (Chapter 3).
Alternatively, you may be returning to academic study after a gap of some years, to
take a full-time or part-time course such as a Master of Business Administration, a Master
of Arts or a Master of Science with a Business and Management focus. Many students in
such situations need to refresh their study skills early in their programme, particularly
those associated with critical reading of academic literature and academic writing. If you
feel the need to do this, you may wish to start with those chapters that support you in
xvii
How to use this book
Chapter 1: The nature of business
and management research
Chapter 2: Formulating and
clarifying the research topic
Chapter 3: Critically
reviewing the literature
Chapter 4: Understanding research
philosophies and approaches
Chapter 5: Formulating
the research design
Chapter 6: Negotiating access
and research ethics
Chapter 7: Selecting samples
Chapter 8: Chapter 9: Chapter 10: Chapter 11:
Using secondary Collecting primary Collecting primary Collecting primary
data using interviews
data data through and focus groups data using
observation questionnaires
Chapter 12: Analysing Chapter 13: Analysing
quantitative data qualitative data
Chapter 14: Writing
and presenting
your project report
Figure P.1 Using this book in your second or final year of study
developing and refining these skills (Chapters 3 and 14), followed by Chapter 8, which
introduces you to the range of secondary data sources available that might be of use for
other assignments (Figure P.2). Once again, groups of chapters within which we believe
you can switch the order without affecting the logic of the flow too much are shown on
xviii
How to use this book
Chapter 1: The nature of business
and management research
Chapter 3: Critically
reviewing the literature
Chapter 14: Writing and
presenting your project report
Chapter 8: Using
secondary data
Chapter 2: Formulating and
clarifying the research topic
Chapter 4: Understanding research
philosophies and approaches
Chapter 5: Formulating the
research design
Chapter 6: Negotiating access
and research ethics
Chapter 7: Selecting samples
Chapter 9: Chapter 10: Collecting Chapter 11:
Collecting primary primary data Collecting primary
data through using interviews and data using
observation focus groups questionnaires
Chapter 12: Analysing Chapter 13: Analysing
quantitative data qualitative data
Chapter 14: Writing and
presenting your project report
Figure P.2 Using this book as a new returner to academic study
the same level in the diagram and are:
• those chapters associated with primary data collection (Chapters 9, 10 and 11);
• those associated with data analysis (Chapters 12 and 13).
xix
How to use this book
In addition, we would recommend that you re-read Chapter 14 prior to starting to
write your project report, dissertation or consultancy report.
Whichever order you choose to read the chapters in, we would recommend that
you attempt all the self-check questions, review and discussion questions and those ques-
tions associated with the case studies. Your answers to the self-check questions can be
self-assessed using the answers at the end of each chapter. However, we hope that you
will actually have a go at each question prior to reading the answer! If you need further
information on an idea or a technique, then first look at the references in the further read-
ing section.
At the end of Chapters 2–14 the section headed ‘Progressing your research project’ lists
a number of tasks. Such tasks might involve you in just planning a research project or,
alternatively, designing and administering a questionnaire of your own. When completed,
these tasks will provide a useful aide-mémoire for assessed work and can be used as the
basis for the first draft of your project report. It is worth pointing out here that many con-
sultancy reports for organisations do not require you to include a review of the academic
literature.
As a guide through the research process
If you are intending to use this book to guide you through the research process for a
research project you are undertaking, such as your dissertation, we recommend that you
read the entire book quickly before starting your research. In that way you will have a
good overview of the entire process, including the range of techniques available, and will
be better able to plan your work.
After you have read the book once, we suggest that you work your way through the
book again following the chapter order. This time you should attempt the self-check ques-
tions, review and discussion questions and those questions associated with each case
study to ensure that you have understood the material contained in each chapter prior to
applying it to your own research project. Your responses to self-check questions can be
assessed using the answers at the end of each chapter.
If you are still unsure as to whether particular techniques, procedures or ideas are rel-
evant, then pay special attention to the ‘focus on student research’, ‘focus on manage-
ment research’ and ‘focus on research in the news’ boxes. ‘Focus on student research’
boxes are based on actual students’ experiences and illustrate how an issue has been
addressed or a technique or procedure used in a student’s research project. ‘Focus on
management research’ boxes discuss recent research articles in established refereed aca-
demic journals, allowing you to see how research is undertaken successfully. These arti-
cles are easily accessible via online databases. ‘Focus on research in the news’ boxes
provide topical news stories of how particular research techniques, procedures and ideas
are used in the business world. You can also look in the ‘further reading’ for other exam-
ples of research where these have been used. If you need further information on an idea,
technique or procedure then, again, start with the references in the further reading
section.
Material in some of the chapters is likely to prove less relevant to some research topics
than others. However, you should beware of choosing techniques because you are happy
with them, if they are inappropriate. Completion of the tasks in the section headed
‘Progressing your research project’ at the end of Chapters 2–13 will enable you to gener-
ate all the material that you will need to include in your research project, dissertation or
xx
How to use this book
consultancy report. This will also help you to focus on the techniques and ideas that are
most appropriate to your research. When you have also completed these tasks for Chapter
14 you will have written your research project, dissertation or consultancy report.
As a reference source
It may be that you wish to use this book now or subsequently as a reference source. If this
is the case, an extensive index will point you to the appropriate page or pages. Often you
will find a ‘checklist’ box within these pages. ‘Checklist’ boxes are designed to provide
you with further guidance on the particular topic. You will also find the contents pages
and the glossary useful reference sources, the latter defining over 400 research terms.
In addition, we have tried to help you to use the book in this way by including cross-
references between sections in chapters as appropriate. Do follow these up as necessary.
If you need further information on an idea or a technique then begin by consulting the
references in the further reading section. Wherever possible we have tried to reference
books that are in print and readily available in university libraries.
xxi
Guided tour
3Chapter
Critically reviewing the literature tutor, will argue that this critical review of the literature is necessary. Although you may feel
that you already have a good knowledge of your research area, we believe that reviewing the
Learning outcomes literature is essential. Project assessment criteria usually require you to demonstrate awareness
of the current state of knowledge in your subject, its limitations, and how your research fits in
By the end of this chapter you should: this wider context (Gill and Johnson 2002). In Jankowicz’s (2005:161) words:
• understand the importance and purpose of the critical literature review
There is little point in reinventing the wheel . . . the work that you do is not done in a
to your research project; vacuum, but builds on the ideas of other people who have studied the field before you.
• be able to adopt a critical perspective in your reading; This requires you describe what has been published, and to marshal the information in
• know what you need to include when writing your critical review; a relevant and critical way.
• be aware of the range of primary, secondary and tertiary literature
Recently, we were discussing the difficulties students A page from a book catalogue Chapter openers
sources available; have when writing their literature reviews for their Source: Pearson Education Ltd provide a clear and
• be able to identify key words and to undertake a literature search using research projects. Mark summarised what he felt we concise introduction
and fellow project tutors were saying: critical review of the literature. We obviously need to to the topics to be
a range of methods; explain better what we mean by a critical review of covered, together
• be able to evaluate the relevance, value and sufficiency of the literature ‘So what happens sometimes is . . . a student the literature to our students.’ with a list of
comes to see their project tutor having obviously Learning outcomes
found; done a great deal of work. The student presents the that you should
• be able to reference the literature found accurately; tutor with what they say is the finished literature have achieved by
• understand what is meant by plagiarism; review. Yet, the purpose of their review is unclear. It is the end of the
• be able to apply the knowledge, skills and understanding gained to your little more than a summary of the articles and books chapter.
read, each article or book being given one paragraph.
own research project. Some students have arranged these paragraphs
alphabetically in author order, others have arranged
3.1 Introduction them in chronological order. None have linked or jux-
taposed the ideas. Their literature reviews look more
As part of your studies, you have almost certainly already been asked by your tutors to ‘review like adjacent pages from a catalogue rather than a
the literature’, ‘write a literature review’ or ‘critically review the literature’ on topics they have critical review. Just like the items on these pages, each
specified. Indeed, you may be like many students and have grown to fear the literature review, article or book has some similarities in terms of
not because of the associated reading but because of the requirement both to make judgements subject matter and so are grouped together. As in the
as to the value of each piece of work and to organise those ideas and findings that are of value catalogue, the reasons for these groupings are not
into a review. It is these two processes in particular that people find both difficult and time made explicit. In addition, like the summary descrip-
consuming. tions of items on the pages of a home shopping cata-
logue, each book or article is accorded equal status
Two major reasons exist for reviewing the literature (Sharp et al. 2002). The first, the prelim- rather than the amount written reflecting its value to
inary search that helps you to generate and refine your research ideas, has already been dis- the student’s research project.’
cussed in Section 2.3. The second, often referred to as the critical review or critical literature He concluded:
review, is part of your research project proper. Most research textbooks, as well as your project ‘Whilst such an approach obviously makes good sense
for a shopping catalogue, it does not work for the
58
59
Attributes of a good research topic Case 12: Small business owner managers’ skill sets
Practical illustra- Box 2.1 Archive the questions Case 12
tions bring to life Focus on student Small business owner managers’ skill sets
some of the issues research Next Zaynab recorded who originally asked the ques-
and challenges you tion and left a space by each one to record answers Since arriving at university, Ishmael had become increasingly interested in small businesses.
will encounter dur- Turning ideas into a viable project or places to look for answers. Then she highlighted He had taken all the modules concerned with Small Businesses and Entrepreneurship and
ing your course and the questions that she found most challenging, the chosen to answer a question about small business owner managers for his research
beyond. These Zaynab was not short of ideas for her research. But ones that really grabbed her attention. She thought project:
include short Focus she was much less sure about how she would move that archiving questions would encourage her to
on student research from a topic of interest for her research to a question articulate them well. Forming thoughts as questions ‘How important do small business owner managers consider the different skill sets needed
and longer Cases. that could be answered for her research project. It helped her to be clear about what she needed to to run a small business and why?’
was emphasised to her by her tutors that ideas were research.
easy, turning them into viable research projects was Although the project tutor had felt Ishmael’s question needed more refinement and sug-
another matter altogether. Blog it gested that he needed to read widely before collecting any data, Ishmael was pleased with
his research question and his method. During his reading to prepare his research proposal
Having explored various websites and looked at Zaynab was a keen blogger so she posted summaries he had come across a paper by Brown et al. (2006) in the journal Accounting Forum. This
some publications in the library, she drew up a plan of of her ideas and questions on a weblog. She asked included, as an appendix, the questions Brown and colleagues had asked small business
action which she was sure would give her the mate- for site visitors to suggest further reading, new managers in their questionnaire. He had decided to adapt some of these questions for his
rial necessary to write her research proposal. research methods or for answers to answer her own Internet-mediated questionnaire that he administered to small business managers
questions. She received a healthy amount of feedback including:
Charting the ideas from which she made real progress in turning
favourite idea into question that could be answered Source: question layout created by SurveyMonkey.com (2008), Portland, Oregon, USA; author/owner:
At the start her project, Zaynab got a huge sheet of for her research project. Ryan Finley. Reproduced with permission.
paper to make a map of all of her ideas, questions,
associations, sources and leads. She marked her most Thinking about the application In his initial analysis, Ishmael used SPSS to produce a set of descriptive statistics for each of
compelling thoughts in a red. Then she marked the of the findings his questions. For questions three and four these were:
main links to those ideas in that red too. She was
careful not to throw out the weaker or isolated Zaynab knew that she would be expected to com- 473
thoughts. She felt this map would help her know the ment on the practical implications of her findings
place of all her thoughts. She thought that she could when writing up her research. Therefore, an impor-
make another map later in the project if she felt there tant part of her plan of action at the outset was to ask
was too much information. herself what would be the implications for practice
for the various outcomes that might be expected.
knowledge of the literature, enable you to assess the extent to which your research is
likely to provide fresh insights into the topic. Many students believe this is going to be dif-
ficult. Fortunately, as pointed out by Phillips and Pugh (2005), there are many ways in
which such insight can be defined as ‘fresh’ (Section 2.5).
If you have already been given a research idea (perhaps by an organisation) you will
need to ensure that your questions and objectives relate clearly to the idea (Kervin 1999).
It is also important that your topic will have a symmetry of potential outcomes: that is,
your results will be of similar value whatever you find out (Gill and Johnson 2002).
Without this symmetry you may spend a considerable amount of time researching your
topic only to find an answer of little importance. Whatever the outcome, you need to
ensure you have the scope to write an interesting project report.
Finally, it is important to consider your career goals (Creswell 2002). If you wish to
become an expert in a particular subject area or industry sector, it is sensible to use the
opportunity to develop this expertise.
It is almost inevitable that the extent to which these attributes apply to your research
topic will depend on your topic and the reasons for which you are undertaking the
23
xxii
Planning your literature search strategy
Box 3.8 • Material evaluation: the material was analysed and Literature sources available
Focus on sorted according to the classification context. This
management allowed identification of relevant issues and inter- Books
research pretation of the results. Problem context and
related methodology/approaches allowed classifi- Books and monographs are written for specific audiences. Some are aimed at the academic
Using an archival research method cation of the reviewed literature. Srivastava argues market, with a theoretical slant. Others, aimed at practising professionals, may be more
in the framework for conducting that this can be derived deductively or inductively. applied in their content. The material in books is usually presented in a more ordered and
and evaluating research accessible manner than in journals, pulling together a wider range of topics. They are,
• Collecting publications and delimiting the field: therefore, particularly useful as introductory sources to help clarify your research
In one of the most recently read articles from the Srivastava’s literature review focuses upon books, question(s) and objectives or the research methods you intend to use. Some academic text-
International Journal of Management Reviews, edited volumes and journal articles only, from books, such as this one, are now supported by web pages providing additional information.
Srivastava (2007) uses a sophisticated method of liter- 1990. Library databases were used where a key- However, books may contain out-of-date material even by the time they are published.
ature review in a review of supply chain management. word search using some important keywords such
The article argues that there is a growing need for as ‘green supply chain’, remanufacturing’, ‘green Newspapers
integrating environmentally sound choices into supply- purchasing’, ‘green design’, ‘industrial ecology’,
chain management research and practice. The author ‘industrial ecosystems’, ‘RL’, ‘remanufacturing’ Newspapers are a good source of topical events, developments within business and govern-
peruses the literature and concludes that a broad and ‘waste management’ were conducted. ment, as well as recent statistical information such as share prices. They also sometimes
frame of reference for green supply-chain manage- review recent research reports (Box 3.6). The main ‘quality’ newspapers have websites
ment (GrSCM) is not adequately developed and that To delimit the number of publications, empirical
a succinct classification to help academicians, papers mainly addressing firm-level or specific Box 3.6 FT groups are also concerned that forests could be cleared
researchers and practitioners in understanding inte- operational issues were excluded from the review. for food crops that have been displaced by biofuel plan-
grated GrSCM from a wider perspective is needed. Similarly, highly technical work on topics such as life- Focus on research tations. Corn and palm oil are among the most popular
cycle assessment, inventory, pollution prevention and biofuel sources, though only sugar from Brazil is consid-
Srivastava covers the literature on GrSCM exhaus- disassembly were also excluded from the review. in the news ered sufficiently ‘green’ by the Joint Research Centre as
tively from its conceptualisation, primarily taking a Research with a highly ecological rather than supply it grows quickly and produces a lot of energy.
‘reverse logistics angle’. Using the rich body of avail- chain perspective (green purchasing, industrial ecology Biofuel targets in EU ‘will outweigh
able literature, including earlier reviews that had rela- and industrial ecosystems) was also excluded. Srivastava benefits’ A Commission spokeswoman said the centre’s
tively limited perspectives, the literature on GrSCM is used the published literature from 1990 onwards to go report had not been peer reviewed. She said: ‘It is a
classified on the basis of the problem context in sup- back to other papers by cross-referencing. As the pub- A plan to increase the use of biofuels in Europe may contribution to the debate. We are looking at the
ply chain’s major influential areas. It is also classified lished literature is interlinked to a considerable degree, do nothing to help fight climate change and incur whole picture and we will have sustainability criteria’.
on the basis of methodology and approach adopted. one paper (stem) leads to others (branches). So, one costs that outweigh the benefits, says an internal
Various mathematical tools/techniques used in litera- thread, leads to others. As references accumulated, it European Union report. The unpublished study by the In the draft directive, only those biofuel sources
ture vis-à-vis the contexts of GrSCM are mapped. A was found that some of them were more central and Joint Research Centre, the European Commission’s grown on land that was not forest or peat bog can be
timeline indicating relevant papers is also provided as useful than others. Srivastava considered such refer- in-house scientific institute, may complicate the counted. There would also be a minimum level of
a ready reference. ences as seminal papers. These were also found to be Commission’s plans to set a new biofuels target so greenhouse-gas saving, as some require more carbon
generally referenced a number of times in subsequent that by 2020 they account for 10 per cent of trans- to make than fossil fuels burn. Countries would have
The literature research is driven by theoretical precon- literature. Thus, within the defined objective, this work port fuels in the 27-member EU. to monitor imports to check their origin. However,
siderations and may be classified as an archival research integrates and takes forward the literature on GrSCM since the World Trade Organisation governs trade in
method in the framework for conducting and evaluat- since its conceptualisation. About 1500 books, articles ‘The costs will almost certainly outweigh the bene- biofuels, it is not possible to block them on environ-
ing research suggested by Searcy and Mentzer (2003). from journals and edited volumes were covered and fits’, says the report, a copy of which has been obtained mental grounds.
The process of analysis comprises the following steps: generated a list of 227 cited references which are given by the Financial Times. ‘The decrease in welfare caused
at the end of the article. by imposing a biofuels target’ is between €33 bn ($48 bn, The Joint Research Centre suggests that it would
• Defining unit of analysis: the unit of analysis was £25 bn) and €65 bn, the study says. ‘The uncertainty is be more efficient to use biomass to generate power
defined as a single research paper/book. References too great to say whether the EU 10 per cent biofuel tar- and that the separate transport target be scrapped. It
get will save greenhouse gas or not’, it adds. is even doubtful of the merits of using waste prod-
• Classification context: the classification context to Searcy, D.L. and Mentzer, J.T. (2003) ‘A framework for ucts, such as straw, since transporting large quantities
be applied in the literature review to structure and conducting and evaluating research’, Journal of EU leaders called for the target last year as part of to biofuel factories itself requires fuel.
classify the material was selected and defined. Accounting Literature, 22, pp. 130–67. a move to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 20 per
There were two contexts: the problem context cent of 1990 levels by 2020. Adrian Bebb, of Friends of the Earth, said: ‘The
and methodology/approach context. Srivastava, S. (2007) ‘Green supply-chain management: report has a damning verdict on the EU policy. It
A state-of-the-art literature review’, International However, some commissioners have expressed con- should be abandoned in favour of real solutions to
Journal of Management Reviews, 9(1), pp. 53–80. cern about the knock-on effects of using plants for fuel. climate change.’
Indonesia has seen mass street protests this week over
77 record soyabean prices triggered by US farmers opting Source: article by Bounds, Andrew (2008) Financial Times, 18 Jan.
to grow corn to supply the biofuel industry. Green Copyright 2008 The Financial Times Limited Ltd.
Explore recent articles and up-to-date
issues in research practice through the 73
Focus on management research and
Research in the news features.
Save time and improve your research results by using the
Tutorials on Excel, NVivo and SPSS, and the Smarter
Online Searching Guide. Both of these valuable resources
are accessible at www.pearsoned.co.uk/saunders.
xxiii
Guided tour (continued )
3Chapter Critically reviewing the literature 3Chapter Critically reviewing the literature
• to discover explicit recommendations for further research. These can provide you with Review and discussion questions
a superb justification for your own research question(s) and objectives;
3.6 Go to the website of the general search engine Google (http://www.google.com). Use the
• to help you to avoid simply repeating work that has been done already; different Google services such as ‘Google Search’, ‘Google Scholar’ and ‘University Search’ to
• to sample current opinions in newspapers, professional and trade journals, thereby search for articles on a topic which you are currently studying as part of your course.
a Make notes regarding the types of items that each of these services finds.
gaining insights into the aspects of your research question(s) and objectives that are b How do these services differ?
considered newsworthy; c Which service do you think is likely to prove most useful to your research project?
• to discover and provide an insight into research approaches, strategies (Section 4.3)
and techniques that may be appropriate to your own research question(s) and 3.7 Agree with a friend to each review the same article from a refereed academic journal, which
objectives. contains a clear literature review section. Evaluate independently the literature review in your
chosen article with regard to its content, critical nature and structure using the checklists in
Adopting critical perspective in your reading Boxes 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4 respectively. Do not forget to make notes regarding your answers to
each of the points raised in the checklists. Discuss your answers with your friend.
Harvard College Library (2006) provides for its students a useful check list of skills to be
practised for effective reading. These skills include: 3.8 Visit an online database or your university library and obtain a copy of an article that you
think will be of use to an assignment you are both currently working on. Use the checklist
Previewing, which is looking around the text before you start reading in order to in Box 3.16 to assess the relevance and value of the article to your assignment.
establish precisely its purpose and how it may inform your literature search;
Progressing your literature. Begin with those tertiary sources that
Annotating; that is conducting a dialogue with yourself, the author, and the issues research project abstract and index academic journal articles and
and ideas at stake. books. At the same time, obtain relevant literature
Critically reviewing the literature that has been referenced in articles you have
Here the Harvard advice, we think, is very useful. It urges readers to be ‘thinking- already read. Do not forget to record your
intensive’ (see Box 3.1). • Consider your research questions and objectives. searches systematically and in detail.
Use your lecture notes, course textbooks and • Expand your search via other sources such as the
Summarising. The best way to determine that you’ve really got the point is to be relevant review articles to define both narrow Internet and by browsing and scanning.
able to state it in your own words. Outlining the argument of a text is a version of and broader parameters of your literature search, • Obtain copies of items, evaluate them systemati-
annotating, and can be done quite informally in the margins of the text. considering language, subject area, business cally and make notes. Remember also to record
sector, geographical area, publication period and bibliographic details, a brief description of the
Box 3.1 reading. Throughout your research these literature type. content and supplementary information on an
Checklist annotations will be useful memory index card or in your reference database.
triggers. • Generate key words and search terms using one • Start drafting your critical review as early as
Annotating your critical reading. ✔ Develop your own symbol system: asterisk a key or a variety of techniques such as reading, possible, keeping in mind its purpose and
Advice on how to read in a idea, for example, or use an exclamation point for brainstorming and relevance trees. Discuss your taking care to reference properly and avoid
‘thinking-intensive’ way the surprising, absurd, bizarre . . . Like your mar- ideas widely, including with your project tutor plagiarism.
gin words, your hieroglyphs can help you recon- and colleagues. • Continue to search the literature throughout your
✔ First of all: throw away the highlighter in favour struct the important observations that you made research project to ensure that your review
of a pen or pencil. Highlighting can actually at an earlier time. And they will be indispensable • Start your search using both database and printed remains up to date.
distract from the business of learning and dilute when you return to a text later in the term, in tertiary sources to identify relevant secondary
your comprehension. It only seems like an active search of a particular passage that you may want
reading strategy; in actual fact, it can lull you into to include in your project report. References
a dangerous passivity. ✔ Get in the habit of hearing yourself ask
questions – ‘what does this mean?’ ‘why is he or Bell, J. (2005) Doing Your Research Project (4th edn). Maidenhead: Open University Press.
✔ Mark up the margins of your text with words: she drawing that conclusion?’ Write the questions Clausen, H. (1996) ‘Web information quality as seen from libraries’, New Library World 97: 1130,
ideas that occur to you, notes about things down (in your margins, at the beginning or end
that seem important to you, reminders of how of the reading, in a notebook, or elsewhere). They pp. 4–8.
issues in a text may connect with your research are reminders of the unfinished business you still Dees, R. (2003) Writing the Modern Research Paper (4th edn). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
questions and objectives. This kind of interaction have with a text: to come to terms with on your Denyer, D. and Neely, A. (2004) ‘Introduction to special issue: innovation and productivity performance
keeps you conscious of the reason you are own, once you’ve had a chance to digest the
material further, or have done further reading. in the UK’, International Journal of Management Reviews, Vol. 5/6, Nos. 3 and 4, pp. 131–5.
62 100
You will be given lots of opportunities to review your
progress! Every chapter includes handy Checklists,
tips on Progressing your research project, as well as
Self-check questions (at the end of the chapter).
There are additional interactive Multiple choice
questions on the Companion Website.
A Summary, Self-check questions Self-check questions
and Review and discussion
questions, and recommended Self-check questions
Further reading at the end of each
chapter enable you to reflect upon Help with these questions is available at the end of the chapter.
key points and pursue topics in
more depth. 3.1 The following extract and associated references are taken from the first draft of a critical
literature review. The research project was concerned with the impact of direct insurers on
the traditional motor insurer.
List the problems with this extract in terms of its:
a content;
b structure.
Jackson (1995) suggests that businesses must be developed from a customer rather than
a product perspective. Lindesfarne (1994) demonstrates that direct selling gives the con-
sumer increased control as it is up to them when and if they wish to respond to adverts or
direct mail. MacKenzie (1995) comments that free gifts are useful for getting responses to
adverts, which is ultimately what all direct insurers need. Bowen (1995) suggests that this
type of company can be split into three equally important parts: marketing, insurance and
information technology. Motor insurance is particularly price sensitive because of its com-
pulsory nature and its perception by many to have no real ‘value’ to themselves.
Bowen, I. (1994) ‘Short cut to success’, Post Magazine 2, 26 July.
Jackson, D.R. (1995) ‘Prudential’s prudent parochialism’, Direct Marketing, 26–29 April.
Lindisfarne, I. (1995) ‘Death of a salesman’, Post Magazine 15, 30–31 June.
MacKenzie, G. (1995) ‘Rise of the freebie’, Post Magazine 2, 5–6 February.
3.2 Outline the advice you would give a colleague on:
a how to plan her search;
b which literature to search first.
3.3 Brainstorm at least one of the following research questions, either on your own or with a
colleague, and list the key words that you have generated.
a How effective is profit-related pay as a motivator?
b How do the opportunities available to a first-time house buyer through interpersonal
discussion influence the process of selecting a financial institution for the purposes of
applying for a house purchase loan?
c To what extent do new methods of direct selling of financial services pose a threat to
existing providers?
3.4 You are having considerable problems with finding relevant material for your research
when searching online databases. Suggest possible reasons why this might be so.
3.5 Rewrite the following passage as part of a critical literature review using the Harvard
system of referencing:
From what I’ve read, the English Language Teaching market, which this company serves,
remains attractive for publishers despite a decline in growth as this quote shows: ‘Overall,
the ELT materials market has continued to show growth, because, globally, the demand
for English learning persists, albeit on a lower growth track than in the 1980s’.1 The latest
published statistics that I’ve been able to find (1999) tell us that there are 1,300 million
ELT learners worldwide.2 I therefore think that the need for good ELT authors is growing
and, as Francis says: ‘the name of the author remains a critical success factor, and an
important sub-brand in many cases’.3
1R. Francis, ‘Youngsters drive ELT growth’, Bookseller, 23 May 2003, p. 26.
2Gasson, C. (ed.), Book Publishing in Britain (London: Bookseller Publications, 1999).
3R. Francis ‘ELT Publishing’, p. 93 in C. Gasson (ed.), Book Publishing in Britain (London: Bookseller
Publications, 1999) pp. 86–104.
99
xxiv
Preface
For WEB LIN In writing the fifth edition of Research Methods for Business Students we have responded to
the many comments we have received regarding previous editions. In particular, this has
.uk/saundersEB KS visit www led us to substantially revise Chapter 4 ‘Understanding research philosophies and
.pearsoned.coW approaches’, Chapter 5 ‘Formulating the research design’ and discuss consultancy projects
where appropriate (e.g. in Chapter 14 ‘Writing and presenting your project report’). We
have also revised Chapter 13 ‘Analysing qualitative data’ to reflect the variety of types of
processes to analyse these data. In our revisions throughout the book and our sourcing of
all new cases we have taken into account the growing importance of the Internet as a
means of accessing academic literature and research data sets. This has necessitated sub-
stantial updating for Chapter 3, ‘Critically reviewing the literature’, and Chapter 8, ‘Using
secondary data’. We have also taken the opportunity to check and revise the tables of
Internet addresses fully and to further develop our discussions regarding issues associated
with the use of email, Internet chat rooms in interviewing (Chapter 10) and Internet and
intranet-mediated questionnaires (Chapter 11).
The reality of relatively inexpensive and easily accessible computer processing power
for almost all students has had significant implications for business and management
students’ research. As in previous editions, we have taken a predominantly non-software-
specific approach in our writing. By doing this, we have been able to focus on the general
principles needed to utilise a range of analysis software and the Internet effectively for
research. However, recognising that many students have access to sophisticated data-
analysis software and may need help in developing these skills, we continue to provide
access to ‘teach yourself’ guides to SPSS™, Excel™, NVivo™ and Internet searching via the
book’s website (www.pearsoned.co.uk/saunders). Where appropriate, these guides are
provided with data sets. In the preparation of the fifth edition we were fortunate to
receive considerable feedback from colleagues in universities throughout the world. We
are extremely grateful to all the reviewers who gave their time and shared their ideas.
Inevitably, the body of knowledge of research methods has developed further since
2006, and we have revised the chapters accordingly. Our experiences of teaching and
supervising students and working through the methods in classes have suggested alterna-
tive approaches and the need to provide additional material. Consequently, we have
taken the opportunity to update and refine existing worked examples and develop new
ones where appropriate. The new case studies at the end of each chapter have been
developed with colleagues, providing up-to-date scenarios through which to illustrate
issues associated with undertaking research. However, the basic structure remains much
the same as the previous four editions.
Other minor changes and updating have been made throughout. Needless to say, any
errors of omission and commission are our responsibility.
As with previous editions, much of our updating has been guided by comments from
students and colleagues, to whom we are most grateful. We should like to thank students
from Oxford Brookes University and on the Research Methods’ Summer Schools for their
xxv
Preface
comments on all of the chapters. Colleagues in both our own and other universities have
continued to provide helpful comments and advice. We are particularly grateful to Levent
Altinay (Oxford Brookes University), Murray Clark (Sheffield Hallam University), Joanne
Duberley (Birmingham University), David Hart (Northumbria University), Tracey Panther
(Oxford Brookes University) and Christine Williams (University of Gloucestershire).
Colleagues and friends again deserve thanks for their assistance in providing examples of
research across the spectrum of business and management, co-authoring chapters, writ-
ing case studies and in reviewing parts of this book, in particular, Mohammad Al-Kilani
(Al-Hussein Bin Talal University, Jordan), Peter Bolan (University of Ulster), David
Coghlan (Trinity College, Dublin), Mridula Dwivedi (Institute for International
Management and Technology, Gurgaon, India), Karen Handley (Oxford Brookes
University), Peter Harris (Oxford Brookes University), Bill Lee (University of Sheffield),
Liz Lee-Kelley (Cranfield University), Stephanie Macht (Northumbria University),
Michael Savvas (Aberystwyth University), Richard Slack (Northumbria University), Mike
Wallace (Cardiff University and Advanced Institute of Management Research), Catherine
Wang (Royal Holloway, University of London), Alison Wray (Cardiff University), Anil
Yadav (Institute for International Management and Technology, Gurgaon, India) and Deli
Yang (Bradford University).
The contributions of Lynette Bailey, Darren Bolton and Martin Jenkins to Chapters 3
and 8 and of Andrew Guppy to Chapter 12 in earlier editions of this book are gratefully
acknowledged.
We would also like to thank all of the staff at Pearson Education (both past and pres-
ent) who supported us through the process of writing the fifth edition. Our thanks go, in
particular, to Matthew Walker, our commissioning editor, for his support and enthusiasm
throughout the process and to Stuart Hay for his insightful comments. We would also like
to express our thanks to Elizabeth Rix as desk editor.
Once again, our thanks are due to Jane, Jenny, Jan, Jemma, Ben, Andrew and Katie,
who still allow us the time to absent ourselves to think and write.
MNKS
PL
AT
July 2008
xxvi
Contributors
Mark N.K. Saunders BA, MSc, PGCE, PhD, FCIPD, is Professor of Business Research
Methods in the School of Management at the University of Surrey. He was formerly
professor of Business Research Methods and Assistant Dean (Director of Research and
Doctoral Programmes) at Oxford Brookes University Business School. He is a visiting pro-
fessor at Newcastle Business School, University of Northumbria. He teaches research
methods to masters and doctoral students as well as supervising masters dissertations
and research degrees. Mark has published articles on research methods, service quality,
and trust and organisational justice perspectives on the management of change. He is
co-author with Phil and Adrian of Employee Relations: Understanding the Employment
Relationship; with Phil, Adrian, Mike Millmore and Trevor Morrow of Strategic Human
Resource Management and with Adrian, Phil and Mike Millmore of Managing Change: A
Human Resource Strategy Approach, all published by Financial Times Prentice Hall. He
has also co-authored two books on business statistics, the most recent being Statistics:
What You Need to Know co-authored with Reva Berman-Brown. He continues to under-
take consultancy in the public, private and not-for-profit sectors. Prior to becoming an
academic, he had a variety of research jobs in local government.
Philip Lewis BA, PhD, MSc, MCIPD, PGDipM, Cert Ed, began his career in HR as a train-
ing adviser with the Distributive Industry Training Board. He then taught HRM and
research methods in three UK universities. He studied part-time for degrees with the Open
University and the University of Bath, from which he gained an MSc in industrial relations
and a PhD for his research on performance pay in retail financial services. He is co-author
with Adrian and Mark of Employee Relations: Understanding the Employment Relationship
and Managing Change: A Human Resource Strategy Approach; with Mark, Adrian, Mike
Millmore and Trevor Morrow of Strategic Human Resource Management and with Adrian,
Mark and Mike Millmore of Managing Change: A Human Resource Strategy Approach, all
published by Financial Times Prentice Hall. He has undertaken consultancy in both public
and private sectors.
Adrian Thornhill BA, PhD, PGCE, FCIPD, was formerly Head of the Department of
Human Resource Management at Gloucestershire Business School, University of
Gloucestershire. He has taught HRM and research methods to postgraduate, undergradu-
ate and professional students, and supervised research degrees. Adrian has published a
number of articles principally associated with employee and justice perspectives related
to managing change and the management of organisational downsizing and redundancy.
He is co-author with Phil and Mark of Employee Relations: Understanding the
Employment Relationship; with Phil, Mark, Mike Millmore and Trevor Morrow of Strategic
Human Resource Management and with Phil, Mark and Mike Millmore of Managing
Change: A Human Resource Strategy Approach, all published by Financial Times Prentice
Hall. He has also co-authored a book on downsizing and redundancy and undertaken
consultancy in both public and private sectors.
xxvii
Contributors
Dr Mohammad H. Al-Kilani is an Assistant Professor in Organisational Behaviour and
Organisation Theory at the Faculty of Business and Economics, Al-Hussein Bin Talal
University.
Peter Bolan is Director of International Travel and Tourism at the University of Ulster
School of Hospitality and Tourism Management.
Dr David Coghlan is a Lecturer in Organisational Development and Action Research at
Trinity College Dublin School of Business Studies.
Dr Mridula Dwivedi is Assistant Professor at the Institute for International
Management and Technology, Gurgaon, India.
Dr Karen Handley is a Senior Lecturer in Human Resource Management and
Organisational Behaviour at Oxford Brookes University Business School.
Professor Peter Harris is Professor of Management Accounting in the Department of
Hospitality, Leisure and Tourism Management at the Business School, Oxford Brookes
University
Dr Bill Lee is a Senior Lecturer in Accounting and Financial Management at the
Management School, University of Sheffield.
Dr Liz Lee-Kelley is a Senior Lecturer in Programme and Project Management at
Cranfield School of Management, Cranfield University.
Stephanie Macht is a Lecturer in Strategic Management at Newcastle Business School,
Northumbria University.
Dr Michael Savvas is a Visiting Lecturer in International and Human Resource
Management at the School of Management and Business, Aberystwyth University.
Richard Slack is Reader in Accounting and Programme Director for Research
Development PhD at Newcastle Business School, Northumbria University.
Professor Mike Wallace is a Professor of Public Management at Cardiff Business
School and Associate Director for Capacity Building, Advanced Institute of Management
Research.
Catherine L. Wang is a Senior Lecturer in Strategy at the School of Management,
Royal Holloway, University of London.
Professor Alison Wray is a Research Professor of Language and Communication at
Cardiff University.
Anil Yadav is Registrar at Institute for International Management and Technology,
Gurgaon, India.
Dr Deli Yang is Reader in International Business, Bradford University School of
Management.
xxviii
Publisher’s acknowledgements
Reviewers
We would like to express thanks to the reviewers who have been involved in the devel-
opment of the fifth edition of this book. We are grateful for their insight and helpful
recommendations.
Ragnhild Silkoset, BI Norwegian School of Management
Kristian Nielsen, Rotterdam Business School
Poul Houman Andersen, The Aarhus School of Business
Frits Wijbenga, Durham Business School, Durham University
Loic Ple, IESEG School of Management
Judith Thomas, Oxford Brookes University
David Douglas, Staffordshire University
Angela Byrne, Manchester Met University
Aileen Corley, Liverpool John Moores University
Jeff Newall, University of Derby
xxix
Publisher’s acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material:
Illustrations
Figure 1.2 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2009; Figure 3.1 Mark
Saunders, Philip Lewis, Adrian Thornhill and Martin Jenkins 2003; Figure 3.3
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis, Adrian Thornhill and Martin Jenkins 2003; Figure 4.1 Mark
Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2008; Figure 5.1 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis
and Adrian Thornhill 2008; Figure 8.1 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill
2006; Figure 9.2 from Management and Organisational Behaviour, 6e Financial Times
Prentice Hall; (Mullins, L.J., 2002); Chapter 11 unnumbered screenshot, page 361: Extract
from Nando’s online questionnaire (2008), reproduced with permission; Figure 11.2 from
Constructing Questions for Interviews and Questions, Cambridge University Press,
Foody, W., 1993); Chapter 11 unnumbered screenshot, page 383: Question layout created
by SurveyMonkey.com (2008), reproduced with permission; Chapter 11 unnumbered
screenshot, page 386: Question layout created by SurveyMonkey.com (2008), reproduced
with permission.
Tables
Table 1.1 from Realigning the stakeholders in management research: lessons form indus-
trial, work and organizational psychology in British Journal of Management Vol. 12 Special
issue, pp. 41–8, Blackwell Publishing, (Hodgkinson, G.P., Herriot, P. and Anderson, N.,
2001; Table 3.1 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2008; Table 7.2 Mark
Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2008; Table 9.3 from Real WorldResearch: A
Resource for Social Scientists and Practitioner – Researchers, 2e Blackwell Publishing,
(Robson 2002); Table 11.4 from Translation techniques for questionnaires in International
and Cross-Cultural Management Research, Sage Publications, (Usunier, 1998); Table 12.2
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2008; Table 12.4 Mark Saunders, Philip
Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2008; Table 12.5 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian
Thornhill 2008; Table 14.1 from How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper 5e, Phoenix.
AZ: Oryx Press, Greenwood Publishing Group Inc., Westport CT, (Day, R., 1998:160).
Photos
3 Mark Saunders;17 Alamy Images: Baron Bratby; 21 Alamy Images: Nicholas Linton (b);
52 Alamy Images: Anthony Kay; 102 Alamy Images: Rob Judges/Oxford; 107 Science
Photo Library Ltd: Astrid & Hanns-Frieder Michler; 132 Alamy Images: David Hoffmann
Photo Library; 137 Philip Lewis; 163 Getty Images/Lifestock; 164 Alamy Images: Paul
Repson; 205 Alamy Images: Freddie Jones; 211 Rex Features: Giuseppe Aresu; 248 Corbis:
Leif Skoogtors; 257 Philip Lewis, 284 Corbis: E Streichan/Zefa; 289 Philip Lewis, 313
Mridula Dwivedi; 319 Getty Images: Eamonn McCormack; 355 Corbis: Gregor
Schuster/Zefa; 407 Mohammad Al Kilani; 415 Mark Saunders; 481 Alamy Images:
Marshall Ikonography; 520 Mark Saunders; 527 Ben Saunders; 558 Alamy Images:
Alex Segre.
xxx
Publisher’s acknowledgements
For WEB LIN Text
.uk/saundersEB KS visit www Box 3.5 from Structure of the literature review, Taylor & Francis Ltd (Williams, C.S, and
.pearsoned.coW Saunders M.N.K, 2006); Box 3.15 from Microsoft reveals answer to Google Scholar
Candace Lombardi, ZDNet News, 12th April 2006, The YGS Group; Box 14.2 from How
to . . . . write an abstract from http://www.emeraldinsight.com; Box 14.3 from The chang-
ing travel behaviour of Austria’s ageing population and its impact on tourism in Tourism
Review. 62 (3/4): 15–20, Emerald Group Publishing, (Moller, C, Weiermair, K and
Wintersberger, E 2008); Box 14.5 from Real World Research 2e, Blackwell Publishing,
(Robson, 2002).
We are also grateful to the Financial Times Limited for permission to reprint the follow-
ing material:
Box 1.1 Research that aids publicists but not the public, © FT.com, 30 October 2007; Box 2.6
Many workers feel too qualified for jobs, © Financial Times, 29th October 2007; Box 2.9
The e-sport revolution Korean-style, © Financial Times, 15 September 2007; Box 3.6 Biofuel
targets in EU will outweigh benefits, © Financial Times, 18 January 2008; Box 3.9 Google in
challenge to Wikipedia, © Financial Times, 15 December 2007; Box 6.3 Star performers on
back of the Internet, © Financial Times, 14 April 2007; Box 6.16 Watchdog in call for crim-
inal sanctions, © Financial Times, 22 November 2007; Box 7.1 You don’t need to be a
mechanical engineer to drive a car, © Financial Times, 12 February 2007; Box 7.15 ‘How I
did it’ books give me a sinking feeling, © Financial Times, 28 August 2007; Box 10.13 Sir
Adrian’s thorn, © Financial Times, 29 May 2008; Box 10.18 BT keeps an eye on surfing
habits in quest for better advert targeting, © Financial Times, 24 May 2008; Box 11.6 George
Lucas is a god in Britain. Literally, © Financial Times, 14 February 2003; Box 11.8 TNS
warns over reliability of data collected online, © Financial Times, 4 September 2007;
Box 12.21 Rock faces FTSE 100 exit, © Financial Times, 12 December 2007; Box 13.1 Wide
range of weapons in analysts’ armoury, © Financial Times, 16 May 2008; Box 13.10 Sales
Manager wins ‘Apprentice’, © Financial Times, 12 June 2008; Box 12.10 FSA warns on
derivatives dangers, © Financial Times, 11 February 2008.
In some instances we have been unable to trace the owners of copyright material and
we would appreciate any information that would enable us to do so.
xxxi
1Chapter
The nature of business and management
research and structure of this book
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter you should:
• be able to outline the purpose and distinct focus of management
research;
• be able to place your research project on a basic-applied research
continuum according to its purpose and context;
• understand the stages you will need to complete (and revisit) as part of
your research process;
• have an overview of this book’s purpose, structure and features;
• be aware of some of the ways you can use this book.
1.1 Introduction
This book is designed to help you to undertake your research project, whether you are an under-
graduate or postgraduate student of business and management or a manager. It provides a clear
guide on how to undertake research as well as highlighting the realities of undertaking research,
including the more common pitfalls. The book is written as an introductory text to provide you
with a guide to the research process and with the necessary knowledge and skills to undertake
a piece of research from thinking of a research topic to writing your project report. As such, you
will find it useful as a manual or handbook on how to tackle your research project.
After reading the book you will have been introduced to and explored a range of approaches,
strategies and methods with which you could tackle your research project. Of equal importance,
you will know that there is no one best way for undertaking all research. Rather you will be
aware of the choices you will have to make and how these choices will impact upon what you
can find out. This means you will be able to make an informed choice about the approaches,
strategies and methods that are most suitable to your own research project and be able to justify
this choice. In reading the book you will have been introduced to the more frequently used tech-
niques and procedures for collecting and analysing different types of data, have had a chance to
practise them, and be able to make a reasoned choice regarding which to use. When selecting
and using these techniques you will be aware of the contribution that the appropriate use of
information technology can make to your research.
2
However, before you continue, a word of caution. In your study, you will inevitably
read a wide range of books and articles. In many of these the terms ‘research method’ and
‘research methodology’ will be used interchangeably, perhaps just using methodology as
a more verbose way of saying method. In this book we have been more precise in our use
of these terms. Throughout the book we use the term methods to refer to techniques and
procedures used to obtain and analyse data. This, therefore, includes questionnaires,
observation and interviews as well as both quantitative (statistical) and qualitative (non-
statistical) analysis techniques and, as you have probably gathered from the title, is the
main focus of this book. In contrast, the term methodology refers to the theory of how
research should be undertaken. We believe that it is important that you have some under-
standing of this so that you can make an informed choice about your research. For this
reason, we also discuss a range of philosophical assumptions upon which research can be
based and the implications of these for the method or methods adopted.
The Post-it® note is one of the best known and most the company,
widely used office products in the world. Yet, despite Post-it® notes
the discovery of the repositionable adhesive that were launched
made the Post-it® note possible in 1968, it was not in 1980. One
until 1980 that the product was introduced to the year after their
market (Lemelson-MIT Program 2007). In the 1960s launch, they
3M research scientist, Spence Silver, was looking for were named
ways to improve the adhesive used in tapes. However, 3M’s out-
he discovered something quite different from what he standing new
was looking for, an adhesive that did not stick product.
strongly when coated onto the back of tapes! What
was unclear was how it might be used. Over the next Whilst your
five years he demonstrated and talked about his new research proj- Post-it® notes in use
adhesive to people working within the company. ect will be Source: © Mark Saunders 2006
within the busi-
Most people working for 3M know the story of what ness and management discipline rather than natural
happened next and how the Post-it® note concept science (such as developing a new adhesive), our
came about. A new product development researcher introductory example still offers a number of insights
working for 3M, Art Fry, was frustrated by how the into the nature of research and in particular the busi-
scraps of paper he used as bookmarks kept falling out ness and management research you will be undertak-
of his church choir hymn book. He realised that Silver’s ing. In particular, it highlights that when undertaking
adhesive would mean his bookmarks would not fall research we should be open to finding the unex-
out. Soon afterwards the Post-it® note concept was pected and how sometimes the applicability of our
developed and market research undertaken. This was research findings may not be immediately obvious. It
extremely difficult as the product was revolutionary and also emphasises the importance of discussing your
was, in effect, designed to replace pieces of torn scrap ideas with other people.
paper! However, despite some initial scepticism within
3
1Chapter The nature of business and management research and structure of this book
1.2 The nature of research
When listening to the radio, watching the television or reading a daily newspaper it is difficult
to avoid the term ‘research’. The results of ‘research’ are all around us. A debate about the find-
ings of a recent poll of people’s opinions inevitably includes a discussion of ‘research’, nor-
mally referring to the way in which the data were collected. Politicians often justify their policy
decisions on the basis of ‘research’. Newspapers report the findings of research companies’
surveys (Box 1.1). Documentary programmes tell us about ‘research findings’, and advertisers
may highlight the ‘results of research’ to encourage you to buy a particular product or brand.
However, we believe that what these examples really emphasise is the wide range of meanings
given to the term ‘research’ in everyday speech.
Box 1.1 FT they present to potential clients and conducting these
surveys is an increasingly large part of the activity of
Focus on research market research organisations.
in the news There is even a term for this kind of activity. It is
called ‘thought leadership’. That term illustrates the
Research that aids publicists problem. It probably does not matter much that
but not the public the bogus survey is used to generate spurious news.
The danger is that opinion polls designed to produce
This is the age of the bogus survey. I woke up recently eye-catching answers displace serious thought and
to the news that 95 per cent of children in Britain had analysis. The organisation that announced that 95
been victims of crime. Of course they had. From a cent of children had been victims of crime judged,
legal perspective, pushing a classmate or taking a correctly, that its survey better served its needs than
pencil without the intention of returning it is a crime. serious research into the problems with which it was
School playgrounds are hotbeds of crime and always concerned, that had not been done.
have been.
The study of business is afflicted by confusion
The difference between the bogus survey and real between the results of a survey of what people think
research is that real research has the objective of about the world and a survey of what the world is
yielding new information, while bogus surveys are really like. At another recent meeting I heard a plat-
designed to generate publicity. The organisation that form speaker announce that 40 per cent of books
had undertaken this bogus survey – I forbear from would be electronically published by 2020. A pesky
mentioning its name – did not disguise that it had academic asked exactly what this number meant and
done so in order to draw attention to the problem of what evidence it was based on. The speaker assured
abuse of children. the audience that the number had been obtained in a
survey by eminent consultants of the opinions of the
Statistics about the incidence of real criminal activity industry’s thought leaders.
against and among children are hard to come by and
hard to interpret. We do not really know whether Newspapers, broadcasters and consultants will
things are getting better or worse, or by how much – at start to distinguish bogus surveys from substantive
least not without careful research and analysis, which knowledge only when their audience demonstrates
would be hard to explain on television. Programme that it knows the difference. When you are asked for
producers will not ask you to appear to spell out these your opinion in your role as thought leader, put the
complexities, but will allow you to horrify viewers and phone down. You will be serving the public interest as
listeners with alarming news. well as saving your time.
Public relations professionals understand these Source: article by John Kay, Financial Times, FT.Com site. 30 Oct. 2007.
triggers, to such an extent that commissioning a Copyright © 2007 The Financial Times Ltd.
bogus survey is now a standard element in the pitch
4
The nature of business and management research
Walliman (2005) argues that many of these everyday uses of the term ‘research’ are not
research in the true meaning of the word. As part of this, he highlights ways in which the
term is used wrongly:
• just collecting facts or information with no clear purpose;
• reassembling and reordering facts or information without interpretation;
• as a term to get your product or idea noticed and respected.
The first of these highlights the fact that, although research often involves the collec-
tion of information, it is more than just reading a few books or articles, talking to a few
people or asking people questions. While collecting data may be part of the research
process, if it is not undertaken in a systematic way, on its own and, in particular, with a
clear purpose, it will not be seen as research. The second of these is commonplace in
many reports. Data are collected, perhaps from a variety of different sources, and then
assembled in a single document with the sources of these data listed. However, there is
no interpretation of the data collected. Again, while the assembly of data from a variety
of sources may be part of the process of research, without interpretation it is not research.
Finally, the term ‘research’ can be used to get an idea or product noticed by people and to
suggest that people should have confidence in it. In such instances, when you ask for
details of the research process, these are either unclear or not forthcoming.
Based upon this brief discussion we can already see that research has a number of
characteristics:
• Data are collected systematically.
• Data are interpreted systematically.
• There is a clear purpose: to find things out.
We can therefore define research as something that people undertake in order to find
out things in a systematic way, thereby increasing their knowledge. Two phrases are impor-
tant in this definition: ‘systematic way’ and ‘to find out things’. ‘Systematic’ suggests that
research is based on logical relationships and not just beliefs (Ghauri and Grønhaug 2005).
As part of this, your research will involve an explanation of the methods used to collect the
data, will argue why the results obtained are meaningful, and will explain any limitations
that are associated with them. ‘To find out things’ suggests there are a multiplicity of pos-
sible purposes for your research. These may include describing, explaining, understand-
ing, criticising and analysing (Ghauri and Grønhaug 2005). However, it also suggests that
you have a clear purpose or set of ‘things’ that you want to find out, such as the answer to
a question or number of questions.
1.3 The nature of business and
management research
Using our earlier definition of research it would seem sensible to define business and
management research as undertaking systematic research to find out things about busi-
ness and management.
Easterby-Smith et al. (2008) argue that four things combine to make business and
management a distinctive focus for research:
• the way in which managers (and researchers) draw on knowledge developed by other
disciplines;
5
1Chapter The nature of business and management research and structure of this book
• the fact that managers tend to be powerful and busy people. Therefore, they
are unlikely to allow research access unless they can see personal or commercial
advantages.
• The fact that managers are educated. Many now have undergraduate and postgraduate
degrees and, as such, tend often to be as well educated as those conducting research
about them.
• The requirement for the research to have some practical consequence. This means it
either needs to contain the potential for taking some form of action or needs to take
account of the practical consequences of the findings.
Ongoing debate within the British Academy of Management has explored the status of
management research. One feature, which has gained considerable support, is the trans-
disciplinary nature of such research. While this has similarities to Easterby-Smith et al.’s
(2008) point regarding the use of knowledge from other disciplines, it also emphasises
that the research ‘cannot be reduced to any sum of parts framed in terms of contributions
to associated disciplines’ (Tranfield and Starkey 1998:352). In other words, using knowl-
edge from a range of disciplines enables management research to gain new insights that
cannot be obtained through all of these disciplines separately. Another feature of manage-
ment research highlighted in the debate is a belief that it should be able to develop ideas
and to relate them to practice. In particular, that research should complete a virtuous
circle of theory and practice (Tranfield and Starkey 1998) through which research on man-
agerial practice informs practically derived theory. This in turn becomes a blueprint for
managerial practice, thereby increasing the stock of relevant and practical management
knowledge. Thus, business and management research needs to engage with both the
world of theory and the world of practice. Consequently, the problems addressed should
grow out of interaction between these two worlds rather than either on their own.
In the past decade debate about the nature of management research has focused on
how it can meet the double hurdle of being both theoretically and methodologically rigor-
ous, while at the same time embracing the world of practice and being of practical rele-
vance (Hodgkinson et al. 2001). Much of this debate has centred around the work by
Gibbons et al. (1994) on the production of knowledge and, in particular, the concepts
of Mode 1 and Mode 2 knowledge creation. Mode 1 knowledge creation emphasises
research in which the questions are set and solved by academic interests, emphasising a
fundamental rather than applied nature, where there is little if any focus on utilisation of
the research by practitioners. In contrast, Mode 2 emphasises a context for research gov-
erned by the world of practice, highlighting the importance of collaboration both with
and between practitioners (Starkey and Madan 2001) and the need for the production of
practical relevant knowledge. Based upon this, Starkey and Madan (2001) observe that
research within the Mode 2 approach offers a way of bringing the supply side of knowl-
edge represented by universities together with the demand side represented by businesses
and overcoming the double hurdle.
Drawing from these debates, it could be argued that business and management
research not only needs to provide findings that advance knowledge and understanding,
it also needs to address business issues and practical managerial problems. However, this
would negate the observation that Mode 2 practices develop from Mode 1. It might also
result in business and management research that did not have obvious commercial bene-
fit not being pursued. This, Huff and Huff (2001) argue, could jeopardise future knowl-
edge creation as research that is currently not valued commercially might have value in
the future. Building upon these ideas Huff and Huff, rather like Fukami (2007) who found
a third road in addition to the two academic career roads of research and teaching, high-
light a further form of knowledge production: Mode 3. Mode 3 knowledge production
focuses on an appreciation of the human condition as it is and as it might become, its
6
The nature of business and management research
purpose being to ‘assure survival and promote the common good at various levels of
social aggregation’ (Huff and Huff 2001:53). This emphasises the importance of broader
issues of human relevance of research. Consequently, in addition to research that satisfies
your intellectual curiosity for its own sake, the findings of business and management
research might also contain practical implications, and these findings may have societal
consequences far broader and complex than perhaps envisaged by Mode 2.
Tranfield and Denyer (2004) draw attention to concerns resulting from the separation of
knowledge producers from knowledge users. This had the effect of introducing a schism,
or what (Starkey and Madan 2001) call the ‘relevance gap’ which, they argue, has become
more marked over recent years. More encouragingly, academic management research can
be seen as a design science (Huff et al. 2006), its mission being to develop valid knowledge
to support thoughtful, designing practitioners. From the design science perspective, the
main purpose of academic management research is to develop valid knowledge to support
organisational problem solving in the field. That support can be direct, instrumental or
more indirect – giving general enlightenment on the type of problem at hand.
Rousseau (2006) has drawn attention to ways of closing what she terms the prevailing
‘research-practice gap’ – the failure of organisations and managers to base practices on
best available evidence. She extols the virtues of ‘evidence-based management’, which
derives principles from research evidence and translates them into practices that solve
organisational problems. Rousseau’s argument is that research findings do not appear to
have transferred well to the workplace. Instead of a scientific understanding of human
behaviour and organisations, managers, including those with MBAs, continue to rely
largely on personal experience, to the exclusion of more systematic knowledge.
However, perhaps the most telling comment on the so-called ‘relevance gap’ is from
Tranfield and Denyer (2004:13) who assert that ignoring such a gap would be ‘unthink-
able in other professional fields, such as medicine or engineering, where a national scan-
dal would ensue if science base and practice were not inextricably and necessarily
interlinked’. The article by Hodgkinson et al. (2001) offers a useful four-fold taxonomy for
considering this in relation to managerial knowledge. Using the dimensions of theoretical
and methodological rigour and of practical relevance they identify four quadrants (see
Table 1.1).
Hodgkinson et al. argue that pedantic science is characterised by a focus on increasing
methodological rigour at the expense of results that are relevant and can sometimes be
found in refereed academic journals. In contrast, popularist science is characterised by a
focus on relevance and usefulness whilst neglecting theoretical and methodological
rigour, examples being found in some books targeted at practising managers.
Consequently, whilst findings might be useful to managers, the research upon which they
are based is unlikely to be valid or reliable. Puerile science both lacks methodological
rigour and is of limited practical relevance and, although unlikely to be found in refereed
Table 1.1 A taxonomy for considering the ‘relevance gap’ in relation
to managerial knowledge
Theoretical and methodological rigour Practical relevance Quadrant
Higher
Lower Lower Pedantic science
Lower
Higher Higher Popularist science
Lower Puerile science
Higher Pragmatic science
Source: developed from Hodgkinson et al. (2001).
7
1Chapter The nature of business and management research and structure of this book
Box 1.2 different questions. To say that the knowledge of
Focus on theory and practice are different is not to say that they
management are in conflict, or that they substitute for each other;
research rather, they complement one another.
In an Academy of Management Review article Van De This leads to a third view – namely, that the gap
Ven and Johnson (2006) examine three related ways in between theory and practice is a knowledge-
which the gap between theory and practice has been production problem which questions the traditional
framed. One approach views it as a knowledge trans- mode of research practised in business and profes-
fer problem. Practitioners fail to adopt the findings of sional schools and has led to the proposal that a key
research in fields, such as management because defining characteristic of management research is its
the knowledge is produced in a form that cannot be applied nature.
readily applied in practical contexts.
Having reviewed the problems and assumptions of
A second approach views knowledge of theory and the first two approaches, Van De Ven and Johnson
practice as distinct kinds of knowledge. Each reflects propose a method of engaged scholarship in which
a different fundamental approach for addressing researchers and practitioners coproduce knowledge
that can advance theory and practice in a given
domain.
academic journals, can be found in other media. Finally, pragmatic science is both theo-
retically and methodologically rigorous and relevant.
Within these boundaries of advancing knowledge, addressing business issues, solving
managerial problems and promoting the common good, the purpose and the context of
your research project can differ considerably. For some research projects your purpose
may be to understand and explain the impact of something, such as a particular policy.
You may undertake this research within an individual organisation and suggest appropri-
ate action on the basis of your findings. For other research projects you may wish to
explore the ways in which various organisations do things differently. In such projects
your purpose may be to discover and understand better the underlying processes in a
wider context, thereby providing greater understanding for practitioners. For yet other
research projects you may wish to place an in-depth investigation of an organisation
within the context of a wider understanding of the processes that are operating.
Despite this variety, we believe that all business and management research projects
can be placed on a continuum (Figure 1.1) according to their purpose and context. At one
extreme of the continuum is research that is undertaken purely to understand the
processes of business and management and their outcomes. Such research is undertaken
largely in universities and largely as the result of an academic agenda. Its key consumer
is the academic community, with relatively little attention being given to its practical
applications. This is often termed basic, fundamental or pure research. Given our earlier
discussion it is unlikely that Mode 2 and Mode 3 business and management research
would fulfil these criteria due to at least some consideration being made of the practical
consequences. Through doing this, the research would start to move towards the other
end of the continuum (Figure 1.1). At this end is research that is of direct and immediate
relevance to managers, addresses issues that they see as important, and is presented in
ways that they understand and can act on. This is termed applied research. In our view
applied research is very similar to consultancy in many cases, particularly when the latter
is conducted in a thorough manner.
8
The nature of business and management research
Basic research Applied research
Purpose: Purpose:
• Expand knowledge of processes of business • Improve understanding of particular business
and management or management problem
• Results in universal principles relating to the • Results in solution to problem
process and its relationship to outcomes • New knowledge limited to problem
• Findings of significance and value to society in • Findings of practical relevance and value to
general manager(s) in organisation(s)
Context: Context:
• Undertaken by people based in universities • Undertaken by people based in a variety of
• Choice of topic and objectives determined by settings including organisations and universities
the researcher • Objectives negotiated with originator
• Flexible time scales • Tight time scales
Figure 1.1
Basic and applied research
Sources: authors’ experience; Easterby-Smith et al. 2008; Hedrick et al. 1993.
Research by Shapiro et al. (2007) indicates that many managers and academics do per-
ceive a problem with a gap between basic, fundamental or pure research and applied
research. Clearly this has implications for the take up of research findings. Echoing the
work of Van De Ven and Johnson (2006) (see Box 1.1 above), Shapiro et al. (2007:250)
argue that if managers and academics believe that there is problem in which management
research is ‘lost in translation’, then proposed solutions might focus on changes in the
way research findings are disseminated. Alternatively, if the belief is that there is a knowl-
edge production problem, so that any chance for impact on practice is ‘lost before trans-
lation’ (Shapiro et al. 2007:250), then proposed solutions might focus on ways to foster
more researcher practitioner collaboration as research programs are developed and car-
ried out.
Wherever your research project lies on this basic–applied continuum, we believe that
you should undertake your research with rigour. To do this you will need to pay careful
attention to the entire research process.
Inevitably, your own beliefs and feelings will impact upon your research. Although
you might feel that your research will be value neutral (we will discuss this in greater
detail later, particularly in Chapter 4), it is unlikely that you will stop your own beliefs
and feelings influencing your research. Your choice of what to research is also likely to be
influenced by topics that excite you, and the way you collect and analyse your data by the
skills you have or are able to develop. Similarly, as we discuss in Chapter 2, practical con-
siderations such as access to data and the time and resources you have available will also
impact upon your research process.
9
1Chapter The nature of business and management research and structure of this book
1.4 The research process
Most research textbooks represent research as a multi-stage process that you must follow in
order to undertake and complete your research project. The precise number of stages
varies, but they usually include formulating and clarifying a topic, reviewing the literature,
designing the research, collecting data, analysing data and writing up. In the majority of
these the research process, although presented with rationalised examples, is described as
a series of stages through which you must pass. Articles you have read may also suggest
that the research process is rational and straightforward. Unfortunately, this is very rarely
true, and the reality is considerably messier, with what initially appear as great ideas some-
times having little or no relevance (Saunders and Lewis 1997). While research is often
depicted as moving through each of the stages outlined above, one after the other, this is
unlikely to be the case. In reality you will probably revisit each stage more than once. Each
time you revisit a stage you will need to reflect on the associated issues and refine your
ideas. In addition, as highlighted by some textbooks, you will need to consider ethical and
access issues during the process.
This textbook also presents the research process as a series of linked stages and gives
the appearance of being organised in a linear manner. However, as you use the book you
will see from the text, extensive use of cross-referencing, examples of research by well-
known researchers and how research is reported in the news, examples of student research
and case studies that we have recognised the iterative nature of the process you will
follow. As part of this process, we believe that it is vital that you spend time formulating
and clarifying your research topic. This we believe should be expressed as one or more
research questions that your research must answer, accompanied by a set of objectives
that your research must address. However, we would also stress the need to reflect on your
ideas continually and revise both these and the way in which you intend to progress your
research. Often this will involve revisiting stages (including your research question(s) and
objectives) and working through them again. There is also a need to plan ahead, thereby
ensuring that the necessary preliminary work for later stages has been undertaken. This is
emphasised by Figure 1.2, which also provides a schematic index to the remaining chap-
ters of the book. Within this flow chart (Figure 1.2) the stages you will need to complete
as part of your research project are emphasised in the centre of the chart. However, be
warned: the process is far messier than a brief glance at Figure 1.2 suggests!
1.5 The purpose and structure of this book
The purpose
As we stated earlier (Section 1.1), the overriding purpose of this book is to help you to
undertake research. This means that early on in your research project you will need to be
clear about what you are doing, why you are doing it, and the associated implications of
what you are seeking to do. You will also need to ensure that you can show how your ideas
relate to research that has already been undertaken in your topic area and that you have a
clear research design and have thought about how you will collect and analyse your data.
As part of this you will need to consider the validity and reliability of the data you intend
to use, along with associated ethical and access issues. The appropriateness and suitabil-
ity of the analytical techniques you choose to use will be of equal importance. Finally,
you will need to write and present your research project report as clearly and precisely as
possible.
10
The purpose and structure of this book
Wish to do
research
Formulate and clarify your
research topic (Chapter 2)
Critically review the literature
(Chapter 3)
Understand your philosophy
and approach (Chapter 4)
Formulate your research
design (Chapter 5)
Negotiate access and address
ethical issues (Chapter 6)
Plan your data collection and collect data using one or more of:
Sampling Secondary Observation Semi- Questionnaires
(Chapter 7) data (Chapter 9) structured, (Chapter 11)
in-depth and
(Chapter 8) group interviews
(Chapter 10)
Analyse your data using one or both of:
Quantitative methods Qualitative methods
(Chapter 12) (Chapter 13)
Write your project report
and prepare your presentation
(Chapter 14)
Forward Submit your project Reflection
planning report and give and revision
your presentation 11
Figure 1.2
The research process
Source: © Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2009.
1Chapter The nature of business and management research and structure of this book
EB EB The structure of each chapterW
W
Each of the subsequent chapters deals with part of the research process outlined in
Figure 1.2. The ideas, techniques and methods are discussed using as little jargon as is
possible. Where appropriate you will find summaries of these, using tables, checklists or
diagrams. When new terms are introduced for the first time they are shown in bold, and
a definition or explanation follows shortly afterwards. They are also listed with a brief
definition in the glossary. The application of appropriate information technology is
considered in most instances as an integral part of the text. Discussion of information
technology is not software specific but is concerned with general principles. However,
we recognise that you may wish to find out more about how to use data analysis software
packages and so have included tutorials for the quantitative data analysis software
SPSS™, the spread sheet Excel™ and the qualitative data analysis software NVivo™ (with
practice data sets) on this book’s Companion Website. These will enable you to utilise
whatever software you have available most effectively. We have also included the Smarter
Online Searching Guide to help you with your Internet searches. Chapters have been
cross-referenced as appropriate, and an index is provided to help you to find your way
around the book.
Included within the text of each chapter is a series of boxes which are called Focus on stu-
dent research. These are based on actual research projects, undertaken by students, in
which points made in the text are illustrated. In many instances these examples illustrate
possible pitfalls you may come across while undertaking your research. Further illustrations
are provided by Focus on management research and Focus on research in the news boxes.
Focus on management research boxes discuss recent research in business and management.
These are normally derived from refereed academic journal articles and you are likely to be
able to download the actual articles from online databases at your university. Focus on
research in the news boxes provide topical newspaper articles that illustrate pertinent
research-related issues. All these will help you to understand the technique or idea and to
assess its suitability or appropriateness to your research. Where a pitfall has been illus-
trated, it will, it is hoped, help you to avoid making the same mistake. There is also a series
of boxed Checklists to provide you with further focused guidance for your own research. At
the end of each chapter there is a Summary of key points, which you may look at before and
after reading the chapter to ensure that you have digested the main points.
To enable you to check that you have understood the chapter a series of Self-check
questions is included at the end. These can be answered without recourse to other
(external) resources. Answers are provided to all these self-check questions at the end
of each chapter. Self-check questions are followed by Review and discussion questions.
These suggest a variety of activities you can undertake to help you further develop your
knowledge and understanding of the material in the chapter, often involving discussion
with a friend. Self-test multiple choice questions are available on this book’s
Companion Website. Each chapter also includes a section towards the end headed
Progressing your research project. This contains a series of questions that will help you
to consider the implications of the material covered by the chapter for your research
project. Answering the questions in the section Progressing your research project for
each chapter will enable you to generate all the material that you will need to include
in your project report. Each chapter’s questions involve you in undertaking activities
that are more complex than self-check questions, such as a library-based literature
search or designing and piloting a questionnaire. They are designed to help you to focus
on the techniques that are most appropriate to your research. However, as emphasised
by Figure 1.2, you will almost certainly need to revisit and revise your answers as your
research progresses.
12
EB The purpose and structure of this book
W Each chapter is also accompanied by References, Further reading and a Case study.
Further reading is included for two distinct reasons:
• to direct you to other work on the ideas contained within the chapter;
• to direct you to further examples of research where the ideas contained in the chapter
have been used.
The main reasons for our choice of further reading are therefore indicated.
The new case studies at the end of each chapter are drawn from a variety of business
and management research scenarios and have been based on the case study’s authors’
and students’ experiences when undertaking a research project. They have been written
to highlight real issues that occur when undertaking business and management research.
To help to focus your thoughts or discussion on some of the pertinent issues, each case is
followed by evaluative questions. Additional case studies relating to each chapter are
available from the book’s companion website. A case study follows every chapter.
An outline of the chapters
The book is organised in the following way.
Chapter 2 is written to assist you in the generation of ideas, which will help you to choose
a suitable research topic, and offers advice on what makes a good research topic. If you have
already been given a research topic, perhaps by an organisation or tutor, you will need to
refine it into one that is feasible, and should still therefore read this chapter. After your idea
has been generated and refined, the chapter discusses how to turn this idea into clear research
question(s) and objectives. (Research questions and objectives are referred to throughout the
book.) Finally, the chapter provides advice on how to write your research proposal.
The importance of the critical literature review to your research is discussed in
Chapter 3. This chapter outlines what a critical review needs to include and the range of
primary, secondary and tertiary literature sources available. The chapter explains the
purpose of reviewing the literature, discusses a range of search strategies, and contains
advice on how to plan and undertake your search and to write your review. The processes
of identifying key words and searching using online databases and the Internet are
outlined. It also offers advice on how to record items and to evaluate their relevance.
Chapter 4 addresses the issue of understanding different research philosophies, includ-
ing positivism, realism, interpretivism, objectivism, subjectivism and pragmatism. Within
this the functionalist, interpretive, radical humanist and radical structuralist paradigms
are discussed. Deductive and inductive approaches to research are also considered. In
this chapter we challenge you to think about your own values and how you view the
world and the impact this will have on the way you undertake your research.
These ideas are developed further in Chapter 5 which explores formulating your
research design. As part of this, a range of research strategies are discussed and the differ-
ence between quantitative and qualitative methods explained. The use of multiple meth-
ods is explored and consideration given to the implications of design choices for the
credibility of your research findings and conclusions.
Chapter 6 explores issues related to gaining access and to research ethics. It offers
advice on how to gain access both to organisations and to individuals. Potential ethical
issues are discussed in relation to each stage of the research process and different data
collection methods. Issues of data protection are also introduced.
A range of the probability and non-probability sampling techniques available for use in
your research is explained in Chapter 7. The chapter considers why sampling is neces-
sary, and looks at issues of sample size and response rates. Advice on how to relate your
choice of sampling techniques to your research topic is given, and techniques for assess-
ing the representativeness of those who respond are discussed.
13
1Chapter The nature of business and management research and structure of this book
Chapters 8, 9, 10 and 11 are concerned with different methods of obtaining data. The
use of secondary data is discussed in Chapter 8, which introduces the variety of data that
are likely to be available and suggests ways in which they can be used. Advantages and
disadvantages of secondary data are discussed, and a range of techniques for locating
these data, including using the Internet, is suggested. Chapter 8 also offers advice on how
to evaluate the suitability of secondary data for your research.
In contrast, Chapter 9 is concerned with collecting primary data through observation.
The chapter examines two types of observation: participant observation and structured
observation. Practical advice on using each is offered, and particular attention is given to
ensuring that the data you obtain are both valid and reliable.
Chapter 10 is also concerned with collecting primary data, this time using semi-
structured, in-depth and group interviews. The appropriateness of using these interviews
in relation to your research strategy is discussed. Advice on how to undertake such inter-
views is offered, including the conduct of focus groups, Internet-mediated (including
online) and telephone interviews. Particular attention is given to ensuring that the data
collected are both reliable and valid.
Chapter 11 is the final chapter concerned with collecting data. It introduces you to the
use of both self-administered and interviewer-administered questionnaires, and explores
their advantages and disadvantages. Practical advice is offered on the process of design-
ing, piloting and administering Internet-mediated, postal, delivery and collection, and
telephone questionnaires to enhance their response rates. Particular attention is again
given to ensuring that the data collected are both reliable and valid.
Analysis of data is covered in Chapters 12 and 13. Chapter 12 outlines and illustrates the
main issues that you need to consider when preparing data for quantitative analysis and
when analysing these data by computer. Different types of data are defined, and advice is
given on how to create a data matrix and to code data. Practical advice is also offered on the
analysis of these data using computer based analysis software. The most appropriate dia-
grams to explore and illustrate data are discussed, and suggestions are made about the most
appropriate statistics to use to describe data, to explore relationships and to examine trends.
Chapter 13 outlines and discusses the main approaches available to you to analyse
data qualitatively both manually and using computer aided qualitative data analysis soft-
ware (CAQDAS). The nature of qualitative data and issues associated with transcription
are discussed. Following an overview of the analysis process, the use of deductively
based and inductively based analytical procedures is discussed. These include pattern
matching, explanation building, data display and analysis, template analysis, analytic
induction, grounded theory, discourse analysis and narrative analysis.
Chapter 14 helps you with the structure, content and style of your final project report and
any associated oral presentations. Above all, it encourages you to see writing as an intrinsic
part of the research process that should not be left until everything else is completed.
Appendices and glossary
This book contains four appendices designed to support you at different stages of your
research project. In the early stages, as you begin to read, you will need to keep a refer-
ence of what you have read using a recognised system, the most frequently used of which
are detailed in Appendix 1. When selecting your sample you may need to calculate the
minimum sample size required and use random sampling numbers (Appendices 2 and 3).
Finally, when designing your data collection tools and writing your project report you will
need to ensure that the language you use is non-discriminatory. Guidelines for these are
given in Appendix 4. A separate glossary of over 400 research-methods-related terms is
also included for quick reference.
14
Review and discussion questions
1.6 Summary
• This book is designed to help you to undertake a research project whether you are an under-
graduate or postgraduate student of business and management or a manager. It is designed
as an introductory text and will guide you through the entire research process.
• Business and management research involves undertaking systematic research to find out
things. It is transdisciplinary, and engages with both theory and practice.
• All business and management research projects can be placed on a basic–applied continuum
according to their purpose and context.
• Wherever your research project lies on this continuum, you should undertake your research
with rigour. To do this you will need to pay careful attention to the entire research process.
• In this book, research is represented as a multi-stage process; however, this process is rarely
straightforward and will involve both reflecting on and revising stages already undertaken and
forward planning.
• The text of each chapter is supported through a series of boxed examples. These include,
focus on student research and focus on research in the news. In addition, there are checklists,
self-check questions and review and discussion questions, an assignment and a case study
with questions. Answers to all self-check questions are at the end of the appropriate chapter.
• Answering the questions in the section ‘Progressing your research project’ for Chapters 2–13
will enable you to generate all the material that you will need to include in your project report.
When you have also answered the questions in this section for Chapter 14, you will have writ-
ten your research report.
Self-check questions
Help with these questions is available at the end of the chapter.
1.1 Outline the features that can make business and management research distinctive from
research in other disciplines.
1.2 What are the key differences between basic and applied research (and consultancy)?
1.3 Examine Figure 1.2. What does this suggest about the need to plan and to reflect on and
revise your ideas?
Review and discussion questions
1.4 Agree with a friend to each read a different quality newspaper. Make a note of at least
10 articles in your newspaper that mention the word ‘research’. Now examine the articles
one at a time. As you examine each article, does the reference to research . . .
• . . . refer to the collection of facts or information with no clear purpose?
• . . . refer to the reassembling and reordering of facts or information without
interpretation?
• . . . provide a means of getting the reader to respect what is being written?
• . . . refer to the systematic collection and interpretation of data with a clear purpose?
Discuss your answers with your friend.
1.5 Obtain a copy of one or two of the articles referred to in Section 1.3. Read the article
carefully. To what extent do you believe that business and management research should
always meet the twin requirements of rigour and relevance? Give reasons for your
answer.
15
1Chapter The nature of business and management research and structure of this book
References
Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. Jackson, P. and Lowe, A. (2008) Management Research (3rd edn).
London: Sage.
Fukami, C. (2007) ‘The third road’, Journal of Management Education, Vol. 31, pp. 358–64.
Ghauri, P. and Grønhaug, K. (2005) Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practical Guide
(3rd edn). Harlow: Financial Times Prentice Hall.
Gibbons, M.L., Limoges, H., Nowotny, S., Schwartman, P., Scott, P. and Trow, M. (1994) The New
Production of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies.
London: Sage.
Hedrick, T.E., Bickmann, L. and Rog, D.J. (1993) Applied Research Design. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Hodgkinson, G.P., Herriot, P. and Anderson, N. (2001) ‘Re-aligning the stakeholders in management
research: Lessons from industrial, work and organizational psychology’, British Journal of
Management, Vol. 12, Special Issue, pp. 41–8.
Huff, A.S. and Huff, J.O. (2001) ‘Re-focusing the business school agenda’, British Journal of
Management, Vol. 12, Special Issue, pp. 49–54.
Huff, A., Tranfield, D. and van Aken, J. (2006) ‘Management as a design science mindful of art and
surprise. A conversation between Anne Huff, David Tranfield, and Joan Ernst van Aken’, Journal
of Management Inquiry, Vol. 15. No. 4, pp. 413–24.
Lemelson-MIT Program (2007) ‘Art Fry and Spencer Silver’. Available at: http://web.mit.edu/invent/
iow/frysilver.html [Accessed 19 December 2007.]
Rousseau, D. (2006) ‘Is there such a thing as “evidence-based management?”’, Academy of
Management Review, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 256–69.
Saunders, M.N.K. and Lewis, P. (1997) ‘Great ideas and blind alleys? A review of the literature on
starting research’, Management Learning, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 283–99.
Shapiro, D., Kirkman, B. and Courtney, H. (2007) ‘Perceived causes and solutions of the translation
problem in management research’, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 50, No. 2, pp. 249–66.
Starkey, K. and Madan, P. (2001) ‘Bridging the relevance gap: aligning stakeholders in the future of
management research’, British Journal of Management, Vol. 12, Special Issue, pp. 3–26.
Tranfield, D. and Starkey, K. (1998) ‘The nature, social organization and promotion of management
research: towards policy’, British Journal of Management, Vol. 9, pp. 341–53.
Tranfield, D. and Denyer, D. (2004) ‘Linking theory to practice: a grand challenge for management
research in the 21st century?’, Organization Management Journal, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 10–14.
Van De Ven, A. and Johnson, P. (2006) ‘Knowledge for Theory and Practice’, Academy of
Management Review, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 802–21.
Walliman, N. (2005) Your Research Project: A Step by Step Guide for the First-Time Researcher
(2nd edn). London: Sage.
Further reading
Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. Jackson, P. and Lowe, A. (2008). Management Research.
(3rd edn). London: Sage. Chapter 1 provides a very clear and readable introduction to manage-
ment research and how it is distinct from other forms of research.
Starkey, K. and Madan, P. (2001) ‘Bridging the relevance gap: aligning stakeholders in the
future of management research’, British Journal of Management, Vol. 12, Special Issue,
pp. 3–26. This paper argues the need for relevant management research within a Mode 2
framework, emphasising a need for research partnership.
16
Case 1: Isabelle’s research dilemma
Case 1
Isabelle’s research dilemma
Isabelle was very thoughtful. She had a puzzled look on her face. The
dilemma she had was one experienced by many students in conducting
research for a dissertation. Her research was concerned with managers
and how they coped with pressure in the workplace. She particularly
wanted to find out the coping strategies they used. This required
consideration of theory and method and whether the research would
have practical relevance. After her preliminary reading around the topic
she decided that it was necessary to engage in both the world of theory
and the world of practice and that the problems addressed would
develop out of the interaction between these two worlds.
Theory in management could be seen as problematic, because for
some researchers management is not a discipline. It is perceived as multi-
disciplinary with many of its early practitioners receiving their training in
the social sciences (Pettigrew 2001). Isabelle thought this could be
advantageous in that it enables management research to gain new
insights that may not be obtained through a number of disciplines sepa-
rately. She also considered that a topic on pressure and coping could be
understood at a number of levels of analysis from an individual to a
structural level. In doing this she would be considering theoretical ideas
and attempting to perceive them in a pragmatic way. It also meant
Source: Baron Bratby/Alamy looking at them anew which would provide some imaginative and
original insights for her dissertation.
Isabelle found that more traditional research on managing pressure focused on positivistic
approaches with an emphasis on being scientific and rigorous. This approach often uses
quantitative methods with an emphasis on measuring and the use of factor analysis.
Researchers hope this allows them to find statistical correlations between two variables and
demonstrate some relationship between sources of pressure and possible physical, psychological
or even physiological outcomes, if coping strategies were not successful. Research of this kind
can be found in the work of Sadri and Marcoulides (1997) and Wheatley (2000).
Isabelle decided she would not use this approach. She felt that a number of students’ disser-
tations had already used this approach and she wanted to get away from statistical analysis and
examining pressure on managers using a positivistic approach. She also thought that this
traditional research ignored the managers’ biography which could prove to be important in
understanding how the manager coped with pressure. The more traditional approach seems to
perceive the individual as passive and playing little part in making and constructing his/her
reality. It was as if the researcher with questions asked in the questionnaire had already
structured the reality. However, people working in organisations do have histories, futures and
expectations and pursue their individual goals. For example, long-term sources of a person’s
distress may be traced back to experiences at work many years before. To study this would
require Isabelle to use a different method. She decided to adopt in-depth interviews as primary
sources so that she could study the turning-points in the lives of her participants over a period
of time. This may indicate why they took particular decisions and the consequences of making
those decisions.
In terms of method Isabelle decided that the approach she would adopt would be qualita-
tive rather than quantitative. This would involve using in-depth interviews. She would also use
life stories and family histories because this kind of biographical approach was more holistic
17
1Chapter The nature of business and management research and structure of this book
(Miller 2007). This holistic viewpoint manifested itself in two ways. Firstly, biographical data
range across time. Hence, ‘a biographical approach is indicated where the area of interest is
either the effect of change across time, historical events as these events have impinged upon
the individual, or his or her movement along their life course’ (Miller 2007:74). Secondly, the
biographical approach is a bridge between social structure and the individual. Social structure is
a complex concept in which there was some disagreement among social scientists. But it can be
understood to mean a relative enduring pattern of social arrangements within a particular soci-
ety, group or social organisation. Thus, social structures may constrain the individual’s behaviour
and expectations. Discussing your biography means telling about the constraints and opportuni-
ties, and turning-points that were available in the past and how one dealt with them. The biog-
raphical approach is about the intersection between the individual and social structure.
In conducting such research Isabelle knew she had to deal with complex issues with the
subject-matter and the method she wanted to adopt. The relationship between the interviewee
and interviewer is central to this type of research. She felt she had the emotional maturity to
manage the process. Most importantly she felt that the research was rigorous, systematic and
relevant to managers in the workplace.
References
Miller, R.L. (2007) Researching Life Stories and Family Histories. London: Sage Publications.
Pettigrew, A.M. (2001) ‘Management research after modernism’, British Journal of Management,
Vol. 12, pp. 61–70.
Sadri, G. and Marcoulides, G.A. (1997) ‘An examination of academic and occupational stress in the
USA’, International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 32–43.
Wheatley, R. (2000) Taking the Strain. A Survey of Managers and Workplace Stress. London: Institute
of Management.
Questions
1 How do you think Isabelle’s understanding of theory and method changed in adopting the
approach she chose?
2 What particular knowledge and skills did she develop in preparing this research?
3 What problems do you think she would have anticipated in conducting research into
pressure and coping among managers that her literature review may not have identified?
Self-check answers
1.1 The features you outline are likely to include the:
• transdisciplinary nature of business and management research;
• development of ideas that are related to practice and in particular the requirement for
the research to have some practical consequence;
• need for research to complete the virtuous circle of theory and practice;
• addressing of problems that grow out of the interaction between the worlds of theory
and practice.
1.2 The key differences between basic and applied research relate to both the purpose and
the context in which it is undertaken. They are summarised in Figure 1.1.
18
EB Self-check answers
1.3 Figure 1.2 emphasises the importance of planning during your research project. Forward
W
planning needs to occur at all stages up to submission. In addition, you will need to
reflect on and to revise your work throughout the life of the research project. This reflec-
tion needs to have a wide focus. You should both consider the stage you have reached
and revisit earlier stages and work through them again. Reflection may also lead you to
amend your research plan. This should be expected, although large amendments in the
later stages of your research project are unlikely.
Get ahead using resources on the Companion Website at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk/saunders
• Improve your SPSS and NVivo research analysis with practice tutorials.
• Save time researching on the Internet with the Smarter Online Searching Guide.
• Test your progress using self-assessment questions.
• Follow live links to useful websites.
19
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