CULTURES OF MALAYSIA

1.3.6 PERFORMING ARTS
Just like in most places, Performing Arts in China are an important part of society. Everyday
people in China rush to go see an opera, a program of festivities, or a puppet show, live or on
television. Such presentations bring smiles and delight to people of ages, from small children
to the elderly.
What makes Chinese Performing Arts different is the
uniqueness of its Folk Arts, Acrobatics, Opera, Dance,
and Puppetry. These are truly Chinese and nothing
else, all bring inspiration and enchantment to its
viewers, both Chinese and foreign.
Another thing that sets Chinese Performing Arts apart is
how good the performances and performers are. How
exactly do those dancers move about and leap with such alacrity
and synchronization? How can those young acrobats flip and throwChinese Opera in Beijing
each other and shoot bows from
arrows by the feet? How can those opera singers act so well and sing from this note to
that with such accuracy?
The answer is simple, and yet awe-inspiring. All performers in China are true professionals,
for they have trained day in and day out, every single day and night, since their early
childhood. Practically ever since birth these performers have enrolled in special training
schools to become professional performers, and they do not live normal lives. Such hard work
does pay off for the respect and admiration they receive from their audiences.
Acrobatics
Acrobatics is a pearl in the treasure house of the traditional Chinese performing arts having a
long and rich acrobatic art has been existent in China for more than two thousand years.
Tumble, flip, twist, and turn, the young acrobats of China pull out the most magnificent
performances.

In the long course of development, the Chinese acrobatic art
has formed its own style. The ancient acrobatics stemmed
from the people's life and had a close link with their life and
productive labor. Instruments of labor like tridents, wicker rings,
tables, chairs, jars, plates, and bowls were used in their
performances of "Flying Trident", "Balance on Chairs", "Jar
Tricks", and "Hoop Diving". Wushu and Lion Dance originated
from folk sports and games. All of these acts became
commonplace in acrobatic performances throughout China.
Traditional Acrobatic Acts
Lion Dance
This evolved from an old folk dance in China. In the dance, there
are two types of lions: big lion (played by two acrobats) and small lion the Lion Dance
(played by one man). They not only perform the
various movements of the lion such as rolling and jumping but also vividly portray the lion's
strength and agility as well as the quiet and playful side of the lion's character.

Opera
Chinese operas feature both tragic and comic elements, interspersed with singing,
dancing, and poetic narration, to dramatize historical events and popular legends. Another
style of performance features dialogue rendered in language close to everyday speech and
pantomime executed with ordinary gestures. Heartwarming humor reflects and satirizes
society while being educational and entertaining.
Tradition
Opera viewing has long been a popular entertainment enjoyed by both the common people as
well as China's royalty and aristocracy. The character roles of Peking Opera are distinguished
on the basis of sex, age, and personality. The four main character types are the sheng, tan,
ching, and chou.
The sheng is a male character, which is further subdivided into the elderly sheng, the young
sheng, and the martial sheng. The elderly sheng is a middle-aged-to-old man who wears a
beard, and delivers his lines in a serious fashion. The military sheng is skilled in martial arts;
included in this category is the role of the mischievous monkey-king, Sun Wu-k'ung. The
young sheng is a cultivated gentleman who often plays a dashing young lover.
Tan refers to various female roles, including the elderly tan, the tan dressed in green, the
flower tan, the sword-horse tan, and the martial tan. The elderly tan is the woman counterpart
of the elderly male sheng. The tan dressed in green is a younger or middle-aged woman who
is good, rational, and upright. The flower tan may be an innocent and outgoing girl or flirtatious
and sassy. The military tan is a skilled fighter who often plays a female sprite in myths. The

sword-horse tan is a cross between the flower tan and the martial tan; she is a female
general who is bold, outgoing, and equally skilled in letters and military arts.
Although the ching and chou are supporting actors, they are still very important. The ching
role is a strong-willed male character, either straightforward or scheming. His facial make-up
is greatly exaggerated, so his role can be identified at a glance. The chou, or clown character
is a very special one. The chou is a jocular, satirizing character who integrates his impromptu
comic relief into the performance. He also steps out to make objective editorial comments on
what is happening in the story.
Facial make-up in Chinese Opera, besides giving information about the personality traits and
mind set of a character, also has inherent artistic interest. The designs and colors employed
all have specific meanings. Red symbolizes loyalty and courage; black represents a bold and
swashbuckling character; blue shows a calculating nature; and white portrays a deceitful and
conniving individual. Silver and gold are reserved for the exclusive use of spirits and gods. A
face that is made up in a straightforward and consistent manner is called a "complete face";
one that incorporates many diverse elements is referred to as a "fragmented face".
The costumes worn in Chinese Opera performances are broadly based on the dress in China
about four centuries ago during the Ming Dynasty. Exaggerated flowing sleeves, pennants
worn on the backs of military officers, and pheasant feathers used in head wear were added
to heighten the dramatic effect of the stage choreography. These extra touches bring out the
different levels of gestures and the rhythm of the movement. Like facial make-up, Chinese
Opera costumes tell much about the character wearing them. In the past, Chinese Opera
singers would rather wear a worn and torn costume than one that did not correctly represent
the character he was portraying.

Chinese Opera was originally performed against only a backdrop
with the other three sides open. The set is extremely simple; It
includes a table, which might stand in for a desk, an official's
table, or even a hill or bridge. Spatial transitions from one place to
another are smooth and economic. Over the centuries, the actors
have developed a set of sophisticated stylized symbolism. The
beards worn by male characters, flowing sleeves, fans, colored
satin ribbons used in dances, and weapons used in fighting are
all different types of banners that represent extensions of human
limbs. All require a high degree of skill to manipulate and to
a Chinese Opera Performer depict rich theatrical meaning. Actors must begin receiving
disciplined training from a very young age to be able to achieve
naturally and with complete ease the singing and reciting style, eye movements, hand
gestures, and gait that express the thoughts and emotions of the opera characters.

The Present
Modern Chinese Opera, however, is now set in a box-type stage, and a director system, stage

design, and professional lighting are gradually being introduced. These new features serve
to enrich the performance and viewing experience without violating the traditional core of the
opera.
Ref: The Encyclopedia of Malaysia- Peoples and Traditions Prof: Dato’Dr Hood Salleh
Chinese orchestras have gained popularity among the Chinese community in Malaysia
since the 1970s and are promoted by cultural organizations and Chinese medium schools
as a means to develop Chinese music and culture.
Traditional Chinese instruments are mainly used, but Western instruments such as the cello,
are often added and Chinese orchestras and ensembles play Chinese classical and folk
music. While the original forms of Chinese dances are preserved, local choreographers have
also created interesting variations of folk dances by incorporating elements from other
cultures.

MARTIAL ARTS
Several forms of Chinese martial arts (known as ‘kungfu” in Cantonese and wushu in
Mandarin0 are practiced in Malaysia. The main aim of martial arts training is to instill a keen
sense of alertness and agility, to develop a strong body and to activiate the flow of ‘ ‘qi”
(energy).’
Wushu is considered both a sport and a form of self defence. Original forms and styles from
China are still maintained and practiced, while there are also Malaysian variations which are
simplified for easier learning. “Taiji” or sometimes spelt “Taichi”is the most popular form, and
is practiced for health. The essence of ‘taiji” is centred on balance, control, internal strength
and peace of mind.
‘’Qigong” is a combination of breathing exercises, body movements and mindfulness. There
are many variations of ‘qigong”. It is common to see groups of Chinese and Malaysians of
other ethnic groups practicing taiji and qiqong in parks in the urban areas.
1.3.7 FOOD
CHINESE CULINARY TRADITIONS
Ref: The Encyclopedia of Malaysia – Peoples and Traditions

: Prof Dato’ Dr Hood Salleh

:
The staple food is rice with accompaniments.

Rice
In general, rice is the major food source for people from rice farming areas in southern China.
Rice is also used to produce beers, wines and vinegars. In wheat farming areas in Northern
China, people largely rely on flour based foods such as noodles, breads, dumplings and
steamed buns. Noodles are symbolic of long life and good health according to Chinese
tradition. They come dry or fresh in a variety of sizes, shapes and textures and are often
served in soups and fried as toppings. Tofu is another popular product often used as a meat or

cheese substitute. It is a soy-based product which is highly nutritious, inexpensive and
versatile. It has a high protein/fat ratio.

The main kinds of cuisine are Cantonese, Hokkien and Szechd by Mwan. However, northern
(Shanghai, Peking) food is becoming increasingly popular too.

While the cooking styles have retained their original characteristics, clever adaptations of
indigeneous cooking reflects a rich and varied Malaysian palate. Chinese cuisine, when prepared
according to halal traditions, is enjoyed by Malaysians of other ethnic groups as well.

Regional cuisines
A number of different styles contribute to Chinese cuisine, but perhaps the best known and
most influential are Sichuan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Jiangsu cuisine and Guangdong
(Cantonese) cuisine. These styles are distinctive from one another due to factors such as
available resources, climate, geography, history, cooking techniques and lifestyle. One style
may favour the use of lots of garlic and shallots over lots of chilli and spices, while another
may favour preparing seafood over other meats and fowl. Jiangsu cuisine favours cooking
techniques such as braising and stewing, while Sichuan cuisine employs baking, scalding,
and wrapping, just to name a few. Hairy crab is a highly sought after local delicacy in
Shanghai, as it can be found in lakes within the region. Beijing Roast Duck is another popular
dish which is well known outside China. Based on the raw materials and ingredients used, the
method of preparation, and cultural differences, a variety of foods with different flavours and
textures are prepared in different regions of the country. Many traditional regional cuisines rely
on basic methods of preservation such as drying, salting, pickling and fermentation.
Cuisines from the southern Chinese province of Guangdong mainly consists of Hainanese,
Teochew, Hakka and Cantonese dishes.

HAINANESE FOOD
The Hainanese are known for their chicken rice, the one-dish meal of boiled or roast chicken
and rice cooked in chicken stock, and served with a mixture of pounded chillies and ginger.
The Hainanese took to being cooks for the British in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
and invented dishes- not quite English, not yet Chinese- of chicken and pork chips, which
have become features of Malaysian-Chinese cuisine.

They also operated restaurants and coffeeshops offering, alongside traditional
cuisine, kopi-o, strained from local coffee beans fried with butter.

HAKKA FOOD
The Hakka created Yong Tau Foo, a delicacy of fish meat spiced with salted fish, and stuffed into
beancurd and vegetables such as bitter gourd, ladies fingers and aubergine (brinjal) as well as
baked salted chicken. The Hakka were traditionally farming folk, and thus all their dishes are
meaty, cooked with garlic and ginger, with additions of black fungi and yam.

CANTONESE FOOD
Cantonese cooking in Malaysia has retained many of its original characteristics. Dishes are
subtle in flavour, and usually lightly cooked. Roasting and barbequing are also characteristic of
Cantonese and other Guangdong styles of cooking. Succulent strips of marinated prk fillets,
known as char siu (meaning skewer burnt) are slightly burnt on the outside, and tender on the
inside.

Pork is also roasted to produce a very crispy skin.

Dried sausages (lap cheong) and preserved duck may have their origins in northern
Chinese traditions, but these foods usually make an appearance at the Chinese New Year,
and are popular among the Cantonese, Hakka and Teochew.

YEE SANG
It is also during the Chinese New Year, that a purely Malaysia-Cantonese creation of great
popularity is served.
Yee sang- a salad of vegetables, pomelo, crispy dough skins, sesame seeds,oil and
sweet plum, dressing topped with fine slices of raw fish

DIM SUM

Teahouse snacks (dim sum) are a popular Cantonese speciality, and are served in restaurants
from breakfast to lunch. There are countless varieties of dim sum, deep fried, steamd, baked.
The common ones are siew mai- thimble-shaped pastries, stuffed with minced pork topped
with crab roe, Har kow- prawns wrapped in a white flour case and glutinous rice steamed with
pork and dried shrimps.
Dim sum is a Cantonese term for dishes that involves small individual portions of food, usually
served in a small steamer basket or on a small plate. Going for dim sum is usually known in
Cantonese as going to "drink tea" (yum cha, 飲 茶 )
Other Cantonese dishes are: Sar Hor Fun – wide rice noodles, cooked over high heat

Wan Tan Mee – egg noodles either cooked in a soup or tossed in soy
sauce Gravy and served with a bowl of soup.
Wan tan—are balls of minced pork or shrimp wrapped in dough

TEOCHEW FOOD
The Teochew make fish balls served in a soup and fish paste noodles, as well as braised duck,
fashioning it into a gourmet dish. They are also known for the popular Teochew porridge- soupy rice
cooked plain or with pieces of potato, and served with an array of side dishes mostly pickles

FUJIAN FOOD
Fujian cooking consist of Zhangzhou, Quanzhou and Foochow (Hokchiu) styles. Among
the best known of Fujian dishes in Malaysian are
OH CHIEN

Oyster omelettes made from small oysters fried with spring onions in egg.

HOKKIEN CHAR OR HOKKIEN MEE

So named due to its popularity among the Hokkiens in Malaysian, this speciality is a
preparation of spicy gravy ladled over blanched rice noodles, water convolvulus and
beansprouts and garnished with prawns and boiled eggs and sometimes duck meat strips or
pork ribs.
LOR BAK
Pork or fish rolls wrapped in bean curd skin and deep fried

POPIAH

The Foochow brought with them the extremely popular popiah (springs rolls) of shredded
turnip, beans, prawns and soybean curd rolled in a rice paper wrapper. They also brought the
traditional red rice wine sediment chicken soup accompanied by mee suah or rice threads,
which is made for the celebration of an infant’s first “full moon”. During the olden days,
families made their won red wine sediment and stored them in black jars. Today it can be
bought commercially.
MALAYSIAN-CHINESE FLAVOURS

BAK KUT TEH
Literally meaning tea of pork bone- is a herbal soup prepared with pork bones, ribs and
meat, served with rice and optional accompaniments of tau pok (deep fried tofu), mushrooms
and green vegetables.

It is believed that bak kut teh was first concocted in the 19th century Malaya by
Chinese harbour coolies who in an attempt to boost their health, collected herbs spilled on the
floor or the harbour stockrooms, scrounged free pork bones from the market, and boiled
everything together with garlic, thinking that the brew might prevent rheumatism, the
deterioration of organs, as well as remedy minor illness.

Bak kut teh is a popular breakfast or supper meal. A chicken version chi kut teh is also
popular.

CHAR KOAY TEOW

Char (literally meaning “to fry”)
Koay teow – flat rice noodles in the Fujian dialect.
The noodles fried with prawns, clams or cookies, egg and anchovies
1.3.8 PASTIMES
MAHJONG

Mahjong (Chinese: 將麻; pinyin: má jiàng) is a game that originated in China, commonly
played by four players. Mahjong is a game of skill, strategy and calculation and involves
a certain degree of chance. In Asia, mahjong is also popularly played as a gambling
game (though it may just as easily be played recreationally).
The game is played with a set of 152 tiles based on Chinese characters and symbols,
although some regional variations use a different number of tiles. In most variations, each
player begins by receiving thirteen tiles. In turn players draw and discard tiles until they
complete a legal hand using the fourteenth drawn tile to form four groups (melds) and a pair
(head). There are fairly standard rules about how a piece is drawn, stolen from another player
(melded), the use of basic (numbered tiles) and honours (winds and dragons), the kinds of
melds, and the order of dealing and play. However there are many regional variations in the
rules; in addition, the scoring system, the minimum hand necessary to win varies significantly
based on the local rules being used.

1.3.9 LANGUAGES/ DIALECTS

HOKKIEN
Hokkien is a dialect of Min Nan Chinese spoken in southern Fujian, Taiwan, and by
many overseas Chinese throughout Southeast Asia. The language is also known by other
terms such as Minnanyu.
It is closely related to Teochew, though mutual comprehension is difficult, and somewhat
more distantly related to Hainanese, with which it shares only minimal intelligibility.
Hokkien includes a variety of dialects of which Amoy and Taiwanese prestige dialect (based
on Tainan variant) are considered standards, being in the middle of dialectic divides and thus
enjoying the highest intelligibility amongst the varying dialects.

CANTONESE
Cantonese, or Standard Cantonese, is language originated in the vicinity of Canton (i.e.
Guangzhou) in southern China, and is often regarded as the prestige dialect of Yue Chinese. In
mainland China, it is a lingua franca in Guangdong Province and some neighbouring areas, such
as the eastern part of Guangxi Province. Outside mainland China, it is spoken by the majority
population of Hong Kong and Macau in everyday life. It is also spoken by overseas Chinese
communities in Canada, Peru, Panama, the United States and Australia, as well as

throughout Europe and Southeast Asia, being the most widely spoken Chinese language
and a lingua franca in many of these communities.
The Cantonese language is also viewed as part of the cultural identity for the native speakers
across large swathes of southern China, Hong Kong and Macau. Although Cantonese shares
much vocabulary and grammatical structure with Mandarin Chinese, the two languages are not
mutually intelligible, in large part because of pronunciation differences.
HAKKA
Hakka or Kejia is one of the main subdivisions of the Chinese language spoken
predominantly in southern China by the Hakka people
Due to its usage in scattered isolated regions where communication is limited to the local area,
the Hakka language has developed numerous variants or dialects, spoken in Guangdong,
Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan, and Guizhou provinces, including Hainan island,
Singapore and Taiwan. Hakka is not mutually intelligible with Mandarin, Wu, Minnan, and most
of the significant spoken variants of the Chinese language.

Among the dialects of Hakka, the Moi-yen/Moi-yan (縣梅, Pinyin: Méixiàn) dialect of
northeast Guangdong has been typically viewed as a prime example of the Hakka language,
forming a sort of standard dialect.

1.3.10 CHINESE ARCHITECTURE.
SOUTHERN CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
by Assoc. Prof. Dr. A. Ghafar Ahmad

ARCHITECTURAL STYLES
The Southern Chinese architecture in Malaysia can be classified into residential such as the
traditional shophouse and terrace house, religious such as Buddhist temple; and public such
as clan or association building. The traditional Chinese shophouses and terrace houses are
the two most popular residential buildings found in many urban areas in the country
(i) Shophouse
A shophouse, normally has two or more storeys, is a commercial and private structure. The
tenants usually use the first floor for commercial purposes such as sundry shop, light
industry or warehouse, and reside in the upper floors. The building is not free standing,
rather, it is connected to several other shophouses, which create a shophouse block. This
shophouse is repeated to form streets and town squares.Building materials such as brick,
plaster, concrete and timber are commonly found in shophouses

(ii) Town Terrace House
A typical traditional terrace house has one-storey with a street-level porch in front. Usually, this
type of building has big entrance doors with timber bars locked into the door head, metal-bar
and louvered-panel windows; and a few openings. The building is often designed in a
symmetrical organisation in which the entrance door is located in the middle with windows on
both sides. Depending on the tenant's wealth, the terrace house sometimes has glazed tiles at
the base of the front walls. Like the shophouse, the terrace house uses brick, plaster, concrete
and timber as major materials

(iii) Religious Building (Buddhist Temple)
Although there are a great number of Chinese embracing Christianity and Islam, the majority
are still Buddhists. Like the mosques, the Buddhist temples can be found in villages as well as
in small towns and cities. These temples possess significant characteristics which contribute
to the Southern Chinese architecture. A typical Buddhist temple will have overhanging eaves
made of clay tiles jointed by mortar, ornamented figures of people, angels, flowers or animals
located on roof ridges; a big entrance door in the middle, windows of simple geometrical
shape; and colourful mosaic tiles.

(iv) Clan or Association Building
Since the Chinese are divided into several different clans and communities, there are many
kinds of Chinese association buildings. These association buildings are intended for social
gatherings, ethnic festivals and ceremonial functions. Architecturally, a typical Chinese
association building has a one or two storeys, an ornamented clay-tile roof similar to the ones
on the Buddhist temples, a big entrance door, a front porch typically large metal bars cover
the windows which have both louvered panels and canopies

FACTORS THAT GOVERN THE STYLES
By and large, the styles of the Southern Chinese architecture in Malaysia have been
influenced by three major factors which are history, climate and religious beliefs. The historical
factors play an important role in the Southern Chinese architecture. Many traditional buildings
including shophouses and association buildings have adpated the local and colonial
architecture into their building facades. Some have arches and classical columns to support
the building structures. Large openings are provided for ventilation purposes.
A second factor that has influenced the styles is the climate. Most buildings have large
openings, louvered doors and covered walkways. These elements were designed in
response to the warm and humid climate of Malaysia. The use of jack-roof and air-wells,
which can be seen in many old shophouses and terrace houses,are a few examples of
building elements that repond to the local climatic conditions.

Finally, the beliefs among the Chinese in supernatural spirits have been a primary concern in
erecting any building. The concept of "Feng Shui", which literally means wind-water, is a
geomantic system by which orientation of sites are determined in persuant of harmonic
relationships with the cosmic forces. Ornamental symbolism plays an important part in the
convevance of meaning in placement. The use of bright colours such as red, orange and
yellow has become a characteristic of the Chinese buildings in which these colours represent
an ethnic rite. The emphasis of ornamentation on the temple and association buildings is
considered important among Chinese believers.

Rujukan”:.
http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_chinaway/2004-03/03/content_46092.htm
http://www.chinavista.com/experience/qipao/qipao.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokkien
http://www.hbp.usm.my/conservation/chinese__architecture.htm
http://library.thinkquest.org/20443/g_perform_arts.html

Ref: The Encyclopedia of Malaysia- Peoples and Traditions Prof: Dato’ Dr Hood
Salleh

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_cuisine

1.4. INDIAN CULTURE

1.4.1 DISTRIBUTION

Indian merchants traded in the Malay Archipelago as early as the first century CE, and
established a settlement in Melaka in the 15th century. However, it was only in the
19th and 20th centuries that large numbers of Indian migrants, mainly from South
India, arrived in the Peninsula, brought as indentured labour primarily to work on the
rubber plantations.

The South Indian Tamils were concentrated mainly in Perak, Selangor, and Negri
Sembilan, on the rubber estates and railways, though a significant proportion found
employment on the docks in Penang and Singapore. The Telugus are concentrated in
lower Perak,northern Selangor,Negeri sembilan,Kulim and Sg Petani in Kedah and
Pahang. The Malayalees were located predominantly in Lower Perak, Kuala Lumpur,
parts of Negri Sembilan, and Johore Bahru where they were usually in the estates or
in the civil service in the earlier days.

While the business communities, the Gujaratis, Sindhis, Chettiars, and Tamil Muslims,
were concentrated in the urban areas, principally Kuala Lumpur, Penang, Ipoh, and
Singapore. The Ceylon Tamils were also mainly an urban community, though some
were found in rural areas working as staff on the estates as well being well known in
dominating the railways.

1.4.2 HISTORY

Indian influence on Malay Peninsula started when through energetic maritime
campaigns; the Sailendra kings of Java originating from Kalinga were able to take
control of the Malay Peninsula and part of southern Thailand. The kings welcomed
Buddhist missionaries from India, accepting their teaching of the Mahayana sect,
which spread through their territories. However, central and northeastern Thailand
continued to adhere to the Hinayana teachings of the Theravada sect, which had been
introduced by missionaries sent by the emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC.

Another theory of the introduction of Buddhism after Indian arrived to the Malay
Peninsula is that after Kalinga conquered lower Burma in the 8th century their
influence gradually spread down the peninsula. Keling is a word used to describe

Indians or Hindus in Malaysia and Singapore, more specifically Malaysian Indians or
Singaporeans of Indian descent. It is now generally considered offensive by some
Indians although it may often be used by other communities in Malaysia without any
derogatory intention.

The Sejarah Melayu (the Annals of Malay history), written in the 15th century, used
the term Keling to refer to India and traced the origin of Malay sultans to Indian
princes. There is evidence of the existence of Indianized kingdoms such as Gangga
Negara, Old Kedah, Srivijaya since approximately 1500 years ago. Early contact
between the kingdoms of Tamilakkam and the Malay Peninsula had been very close
during the regimes of the Pallava Kings (from the 4th to the 9th century CE) and Chola
kings (from the 9th to the 13th century CE).

The trade relations the Tamil merchants had with the ports of Malaya led to the
emergence of Indianized kingdoms like Kadaram (Old Kedah) and Langkasuka.
Furthermore, Chola King Rajendra Chola I sent an expedition to Kadaram during the
11th century conquering that country on behalf of one of its rulers who sought his
protection and to have established him on the throne. The Cholas had a powerful
merchant and naval fleet in the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal. Three kinds of
craft are distinguished by the author of the Periplus – light coasting boats for local
traffic, larger vessels of a more complicated structure and greater carrying capacity,
and lastly the big ocean-going vessels that made the voyages to Malaya, Sumatra,
and the Ganges.

An inscription dated 779 AD has been found in Ligor, Malay Peninsula. This refers to
the trade relationship between the Tamil country and Malaya. In ancient Kedah there
is an inscription found by Dr. Quaritch Wales. It is an inscribed stone bar, rectangular
in shape, bears the ye-dharmma formula in South Indian characters of the fourth
century AD, thus proclaiming the Buddhist character of the shrine near the find-spot
(site I) of which only the basement survives. The inscriptions are on three faces in
Pallava Grantha script. The Ruler Raja Ganga fled from his empire into the forests
with his queen and an infant heir. Raja Ganga left traces of hideout on a nearby hill in
form of artefacts on stones.

British acquisition of Penang, Melaka and Singapore - the Straits Settlements from
1786 to 1824 started a steady inflow of Indian labourers, traders, sepoys and convicts
engaged in construction, commercial agriculture, defence and commerce. But large
scale migration of Indians from the subcontinent to Malaysia followed the extension of
British formal rule to the West coast Malay states from the 1870s onwards as British
brought the Indians as workers to work in the rubber plantations. The Indian
population in pre-independent Malaya was predominantly adult males who were single

with family back in India and Sri Lanka. Hence the population fluctuated frequently
with the immigration and exodus of people.

At the time of Independence in 1957 it stood at a little over 820,000. According to the
2010 statistics, Indians accounted for approximately 9 percent (1.925 million) of the
total population of Malaysia.

1.4.3 RELIGIONS, BELIEFS AND TABOOS

Religion

In the Indian communities which compose of Tamils, Telugus, Malayalees, Punjabis,
Bengalis, Gujaratis, and Sindhis reside a number of faiths.

Both Hinduism and Buddhism has been in existence in the Malay Peninsula dating
from the second century AD Indianised kingdoms such as Kadaram (Old Kedah), and
Ilangosagam (Langkasuka) have practiced Hinduism and Buddhism during the rule of
the Malay-Sri Vijaya and Tamil-Chola kingdoms. The early Indians married into
leading Indonesian families and brought Hindu ideas of kingship, just as more than a
thousand years later the Tamil Muslims married into the families of the Sultans and
Bendaharas of Malacca.

The practice of Hinduism began to rise during the second wave of people from the
Indian subcontinent during British rule. Hinduism is the most practised religion
amongst the Tamils comprising of the both the major Hindu and Tamil pantheon of
deities. Tamils of both Indian and Sri Lankan backgrounds practice Hinduism. Telugus
predominantly belong to the Vaisnavite branch of Hinduism, with a minority among
them belonging to Christianity and Islam. Amongst the North Indians are the Gujarati,
Sindhi, Bengali, and Punjabi Hindus.

Christianity is prevalent and growing amongst the Tamil people in many
denominations. Christianity has been in Tamilakkam or the Tamil country since the
times of St. Thomas, an apostle of Christ. After him, came the Portuguese who
introduced Catholicism, then the British who introduced the Protestant denominations.
In Malaysia, amongst the Malayalee community Catholicism is strong.

Islam is the religion of roughly 10% of Malaysian Indians with a population of roughly
200,000.

Beliefs

Hinduism subscribes to the existence of a pantheon of gods, in which Shiva, Vishnu,
and Brahma form the Trinity at the highest level. Other gods include Murugan,
Ganesha, Parvathi, Lakshmi and Sarasvathi. The pantheon of gods in effect reflects
the various potencies of the Supreme God, which are regarded as manifestations of
God.

Hinduism in Malaysia is in general similar to the Hinduism in India, although certain
aspects are amplified while others are played down. Lord Muruga, the quintessential
Tamil deity, is perhaps the most popular of the Hindu gods in Malaysia, with Ganesha,
Shiva and Amman also worshipped in large numbers. The Shaivite branch of
Hinduism is predominant in Malaysia, although Vaishnavism also has an important
representation especially with the recent revival of the Hare Krishna movement in the
country.

Village deities, folk beliefs and animal sacrifice are also important features of
Hinduism in Malaysia. Despite the increase in mainstream, Vedantic Hindu practices,
the lesser deities such as Madurai Veeran, Sangili Karuppan and other village deities
are widely worshipped in Malaysia. Animal sacrifices are practices in temples
dedicated to these lesser deities as they are generally prohibited in temples dedicated
to the Vedantic gods.

The basic beliefs of Hinduism are: God; prayers; law of karma; reincarnation; and
compassion. Hinduism is a way of life based upon two key concepts: dharma and
moksha (salvation). Dharma emphasises a person’s duty to behave according to
religion and social codes, and moksha refers to the ultimate release from the world
that can only be obtained by transcending physical and social limitations.

Karma is the moral law of cause and effect. Every thought and deed has and effect on
one’s destiny. Karma is tied to the journey of the soul through successive life forms
(samsara), before moksha – eternal bliss and union with the Almighty – is realised.

The worship of these deities constitutes an important element of both temple and
domestic worship, which consist of rituals and ceremonies, and offerings of fruits,
sweetened rice and flowers. There are large urban temples dedicated to specific
deities, and smaller temples located on estates all over Malaysia.

Taboos

In Hinduism, the cow is regarded as a symbol of ahimsa (non-violence), mother
goddess and bringer of good fortune and wealth. For this reason, cows are revered in
Hindu culture and feeding a cow is seen as an act of worship.

Hinduism has no specific proscriptions against eating meat, but Hindus apply the
concept of ahimsa to their diet and consider vegetarianism as ideal, and largely
practice forms of vegetarianism.

In Hinduism, where rules of untouchability could be vast and complex, bleeding
women were expected to avoid worship, cooking, and members of their own family
through restrictions that were precisely proscribed; according to the Vendidad (16.4), a
woman in her menses "should keep fifteen paces from fire, fifteen from water … and
three paces from a holy man." Visiting a consecrated holy place during menses was
highly contaminating and therefore forbidden, as were women's involvement in
ritualistic worship practices in general.

Hindus believe a person's spirit is eternal, and the body is just a shell. Some people
believe that if the organs in the body are removed after death, the person may be
reincarnated with them missing.

1.4.4 LANGUAGE

Tamil is used predominantly by Tamils, who form a majority of Malaysian Indians. It is
especially used in Peninsular Malaysia where they still maintain close cultural ties with
their homeland. However, many Indians in East Malaysia, especially the younger
generation, do not speak much Tamil and speak either Malay or English as their first
language. This is because there are far fewer Indians in East Malaysia than in the
Peninsula. Thus, the Indians in East Malaysia prioritise on Malay and English because
those languages are more useful in daily life in that region. Malaysian Tamil is a
significant dialect which is different from Tamil spoken in India, with many loan words
from Malay entering into its vocabulary.

Other south Asian languages are also widely spoken in Malaysia, for example
Malayalam, Telugu, Punjabi, Gujarati and Urdu. There's also the Chitty community in
Malacca - it is the result of the assimilation between the Indian immigrants and local
culture. Though they remain Hindu, the Chitties speak Bahasa Malaysia.

Scriptures

The Hindu faith is endowed with a wealth of knowledge contained in a series of
scriptures. The highest authority in Hinduism is given to the Vedas – four Sanskrit
texts representing some of the oldest literature in the world. Hindu scripture is
organized into two main categories – shruti, revelation or that which is heard; and
smriti, tradition or that which is remembered.

The Itihasas or the epics are, unlike the epics of other nations, are looked upon as
authorities in matters of religion. Of these the Ramayana and the Mahabharata are the
most popular. The former does not contain rules of morality or religion, but the life of
each of its chief characters is itself a rule of conduct for all who care to profit by it.
Rama, as described by Valmiki, is a perfect man physically, intellectually and morally.
Truth and duty are his watch-words. Nothing ever induces him to depart from his
ideals. Sita is a type of perfect womanhood, Lakshmana and Bharata of brotherly
devotion, and Hanuman of the duty which a servant owes to a master. Valmiki
describes his heroes as they are, and the picture he has presented is one of great
beauty and grandeur, at least for the Hindus.

1.4.5 RITES OF PASSAGE

Hindu rites of passage are not mere formalities or social observances, but serve to
purify the soul at critical junctions in life's journey. The word "samskara" means
"mental impression," for the ceremonies help create a favourable mentality for
stepping positively from one phase of life into the next. A detailed series of life-cycle
rituals (samskara, or refinements) mark major transitions in the life of the individual.
With increased urbanisation, education and a growing number of nuclear families,
many of these rites have lost their importance. However, orthodox Hindus continue to
observe most of them.

Birth

The jatakarma ceremony welcomes the baby into the world. The father places a small
amount of ghee and honey on the baby's tongue and whispers the name of God in his
ear. On about the eleventh day after birth the parents celebrate the name-giving
ceremony (namakarana) by dressing the baby in new clothes. The family astrologer
announces the child's horoscope. Traditionally the child's name is chosen according to
the position of the moon in the birth chart. Songs and sometimes a havan (fire
sacrifice) accompany these rites, followed by the obligatory feast.

After these two ceremonies, various others follow, including:

1. the first outing (normally at around two weeks) the child takes darshan of the sun,
then the temple deity and in the evening sees the moon.

2. the first grains (when teething begins)
3. the first haircut (called mundan – between 1 and 3 years)

4. piercing the ear lobes (normally 3–5 years)

Puberty

The ceremony is usually witness by very close family member in the Indian tradition
and culture circle.

The coming of age rites have to be performed on the very day the girl attained
puberty. For approximately 2 weeks, she is advised to stay home, ritual baths were
performed by the father's sisters. The isolation is deemed necessary by some Hindus
who believe that she is considered to be in a state of ritual pollution (thittu). Eggs and
selected food with gingerly oil are prepared for her consumption to gain strength in
time for the ceremony.

Traditionally, this ceremony served as an announcement that the daughter has
reached marriageable age.

Wedding

At Hindu weddings, the bride and bridegroom represent the god and the goddess,
although there is a parallel tradition that sees the groom as a prince coming to wed his
princess. The groom, decked in all his finery, often travels to the wedding site on a
caparisoned white horse or in an open limousine, accompanied by a procession of
relatives, musicians, and bearers of ornate electrified lamps.

The actual ceremonies in many cases become extremely elaborate, but orthodox
Hindu marriages typically have at their centre the recitation of mantras by priests. In a
crucial rite, the new couple takes seven steps northward from a sacred household fire,
turn, and make offerings into the flames.

A traditional Hindu wedding involves extensive prayers and ceremonial rituals. The
actual wedding ceremony itself comprises some 10 rites. But the central part of the
Hindu wedding is the tying of thali around the bride’s neck and agni parinaya, the
circumambulation of fire by the bride and groom, which symbolises divine witness to
the marriage. The groom leads the bride around the sacred fire seven times.

The bride places her feet on a grinding stone one at a time and he slips a ring each on
her second toes in a symbolic gesture of his family honouring her. The ceremony ends
with blessings for the couple from kinsmen and well-wishers, and is followed by a
feast.

Death

The funeral rites are almost universally performed and follow similar patterns. Most
Hindus cremate their dead. The rationale is that burning enables the departed soul to
abandon attachment for its previous body and move swiftly forward to the next chapter
of life. Funeral ceremonies should therefore be performed as soon as possible – by
dusk or by dawn, whichever occurs first.

There is also a period of mourning, extending to about thirteen days after the funeral
(varying according to varna and other considerations). During this time, the family is
considered impure. They will not attend religious functions nor eat certain foods (e.g.
sweets).

1.4.6 FESTIVALS

Hindu festivals like Thaipusam and Deepavali are observed in a large scale across
the country, and are public holidays in Malaysia.

Deepavali (Diwali)

Deepavali is identified as the primary Hindu festival in Malaysia. In a uniquely
Malaysian practice, open houses are held during the Deepavali holidays, where
people of different races visit Hindu homes to share in the celebrations as well as
taste Indian food and sweets. It has the advantage of being an all-Indian Hindu
festival, and hence truly national to Indian Hindus in Malaysia. Deepavali is popularly
known as the "festival of lights"

The celebration of Deepavali as the "victory of good over evil", refers to the light of
higher knowledge dispelling all ignorance, the ignorance that masks one's true nature,
not as the body, but as the unchanging, infinite, immanent and transcendent reality.
With this awakening come compassion and the awareness of the oneness of all things
(higher knowledge). This brings ananda (joy or peace). Just as we celebrate the birth
of our physical being, Deepavali is the celebration of this Inner Light.

Deepavali is celebrated during the seventh month of the Hindu solar calendar. In
many respects it resembles the traditions followed in the Indian subcontinent. 'Open
houses' are held where Hindu Malaysians (Malaysian Tamils) welcome fellow
Malaysians of different races and religions to their house for a scrumptious meal. This
is a practice unique to Malaysia and shows the goodwill and friendly ties practised by
all Malaysians during any festive occasion.

Thaipusam

One of the biggest South Indian festivals in Malaysia is Thaipusam. Thaipusam
religious festival dedicated to the Tamil deity Murugan which occurs on the day in the
Tamil month of Thai (January–February) when the asterism Poosam is on the
ascendant. It is now celebrated in grand style in the temples for several days. The
most famous celebrations are held in Batu Caves in Kuala Lumpur, drawing an
estimated one million people annually as well as tens of thousands of tourists from all
over the world. Thannir Malai in Penang is also very popular for its Thaipusam
celebrations.

Crowds from all over the country throng to the cave, including people of all classes
and groups. It is above all a day of penance, on which all kinds of vows are fulfilled. A
42.7m high statue of Lord Murugan was built at Batu Caves and was unveiled in Jan
2006, having taken 3 years to construct.

One of the most significant rites performed is the carrying of the kavadi, a large
wooden decorated arch, as an act of penance. When deities were taken on
procession from one shrine to another, they would be followed by a number of these
voluntary kavadi-bearers.

Thai Ponggal

Thai Pongal is a festival of the Tamils occurring on the first day of the month of Thai. It
is celebrated as a harvest festival when the first grains are gathered and brought in for
the ceremony. Tamil New Year is also another festival which falls on April 13 and
14th.

Other Indian Festivals

The Telugus celebrate Ugadi, Telegu New Year based on the lunar calendar as
compared to solar calendar which is celebrated by Tamils and Sikhs. Sankranthi is
another major festival for Telugus which is also celebrated as ponggal by Tamils.

1.4.7 COSTUME

Women

Indian women wear very colourful saris in a rich variety of bright and subtle dyes
during ritual prayer in the temple and for everyday living, Punjabi suit also known as
Salwar kameez. The fabric imported from India, made of the best quality silk is used in
making saris. There are two layers to a sari: a long bright coloured "dress" decorated
with colourful beads sewn on it to make it look more attractive, and a wrap, a piece of

straight fabric draped around one shoulder which ties across the body around the
waist area. Women with a high standing will have their clothing made from gold and
silver thread with elaborate beading.

Men

The Indian men wear Sherwani, Lungi, Dhoti and Kurta-Pajama. The Sherwani: a coat
like garment fitted close to the body, of knee-length or longer and opening in front with
button-fastenings. Below the men wear a garment for the lower part of the body,
baggy and wide at the top tied with a string at the waist, and tight around the legs and
ankles.

The Lungi

The traditional lungi originated in the south and today it is worn by men and women
alike. It is simply a short length of material worn around the thighs rather like a sarong.

The Dhoti

The most ancient recorded Indian drape is a dhoti. They require a piece of cloth which
seems longer and larger than what was worn in the past, but their pleating is often
simpler, and they are not adorned with belts anymore. All dhotis begin with the same
basic closing. It is the only drape that doesn't start from one pallav but from the centre
of the upper border. The middle of the cloth is tied around the hips. Each end of the
cloth is then draped around the leg on its side.

The Kurta-Pyjama

The Kurta or the top is a knee length collarless shirt which is adorned in mostly white
or pastel colours. But today you will find Kurtas made out of the most wonderful and
colourful of fabrics. Pyjama is like loose trousers with a string tie at the waist.
Traditionally white in colour.

1.4.8 CUISINE

The Malay Peninsula with its small kingdoms and chiefdoms had a long history of
trade with merchants from India. These traders have come and gone over the
centuries bringing with them Indian influences, and ultimately creating truly unique and
new versions of Indian food, not found in India. Indian cuisine can be divided into two
mainstreams, North Indian and South Indian cuisine.

The most widespread local Indian stalls, eateries and restaurants you will find in
Malaysia, are Indian-Muslim. Affectionately referred to by locals as Mamak stall or
Mamak restaurant, they serve an extraordinary cuisine of Indian-Muslim food - a
culinary assimilation of Indian and Malay cooking styles.

Popular Malaysian Indian Dishes

Teh Tarik

In spite of the equatorial climate, a hot beverage of Indian-style tea is very popular,
called teh tarik. Teh is tea in Malay and tarik means to pull or to jerk or to tug. The
milky tea is prepared by using out-stretched hands, pouring [pulling] the piping hot tea
from one mug to another several times.

Roti Canai

Roti Canai is also called Roti Prata or Paratha. Roti Canai is now well-known as a
popular 'Malaysian' appetizer - on menus in Malaysian restaurants all over the world. It
is served with a side of curry, usually a Malaysian Chicken Curry or Fish Curry.

Nasi Kandar

Nasi Kandar basically, is a meal of steamed rice which can be plain or mildly flavoured
such as nasi biryani, and served with a variety of curries and side dishes. Indian-
Muslim style curries in Malaysia are quite distinctive in taste. One such unique culinary
creation is Malaysia's famed Fish Head Curry. The word Nasi Kandar, came about
from a time when nasi (rice) hawkers or vendors would kandar (balance) a pole on the
shoulder with two huge containers of rice meals. The name has remained and today
the word Nasi Kandar is seen on most Indian restaurants and Mamak stalls offering
rice meals. Eaten with fingers, rice or bread is served on a thali or circular metal tray,
on which small metal bowls called katori are placed with the choice of entrees and
curries.

Banana Leaf Rice

Food is quaintly served on fresh banana leaves, instead of plates, in some
restaurants. Aptly called Banana Leaf restaurants, they specialize in some of the most
delicious vegetarian and non-meat entrees one can ever taste! Rice is served in the

centre of a banana leave, followed by various curries, sambal and dhals ladled around
the rice - and the meal is typically eaten with fingers.
Tandoori Chicken
Mildly-spiced spring chicken quarters are baked to tender succulence in a tandoor - a
traditional Indian clay oven. A spicy mint sauce is usually served on the side with plain
or garlic Naan bread.
Idli
Sponge Buns - shaped like a flying saucer, this steamed fluffy bread is soft, dense &
spongy; ideal for sopping up Sambar [also spelt sambhar] - a savoury gravy or stew
made with vegetables and dhal [lentils]. Fresh chutney of some sort, usually a coconut
& green chili chutney, is also served. Popular for breakfast, it can also be a satisfying
vegetarian meal for lunch or dinner.

Thosai
Sourdough Flatbread - also called Dosai or Dosa, are wafer thin pancakes made from
black gram (black lentils), rice flour and rice soaked in water for several hours or
overnight - for its sourdough taste. Served with sambar - a savoury gravy or stew
made with vegetables and dhal, and chutney of some sort, usually fresh coconut
chutney. It can also be stuffed with spiced potatoes and stewed vegetables; called
Masala Thosai or Masala Dosai.
Chapati

Whole-wheat Flatbread - resembling flat discs, this is another type of whole-wheat
flatbread. It has a delightful flavour and chewy texture.

1.4.9 ARCHITECTURE, ARTS AND CRAFTS

Architecture

With most of Malaysian Hindus originally from Southern India, local Hindu temples
exhibit the colourful architecture of that region.

Built in the late nineteenth century, the Sri Mahamariaman Temple in Kuala Lumpur is
one of the most ornate and elaborated Hindu temples in the country. The detailed
decorative scheme for the temple incorporates intricate carvings, gold
embellishments, hand-painted motifs and exquisite tiles from Italy and Spain.

Arts

Kolam

South Indian Kolams are mostly drawn by woman and young girls. Usually it is drawn
in front of the house or prayer room. On festivals like Navarathri and Ponggal, they
are traditionally drawn before sunrise and sunset. The Tamils and Maliayalis are big in
Kolam drawing. Daughters from young age will watch their mothers drawing Kolam.
So Kolam drawing is passed down from generation to generation.

Generally, a Kolam is drawn with bare fingers using predetermined dots. The dots are
either connected together to make a pattern or loops are drawn encircling the dots to
complete a design. The significant of Kolam and was made to understand that it is a
Hindu belief. It seems the geometrical patterns and designs drawn at the entrance of
the house invites Goddess Lakshimi into the household and keeps away evil spirits.

Classical and Folk Performing Arts

Indian Music

Indian music is strongly associated with religious tradition and faith. As its origins in
India, there are two systems of traditional or classical Indian music in Malaysia, viz.
Carnatic Music and Hindustani Music. Since Tamils from South India are the
predominant group among the Indian population in Malaysia, it is the South Indian
carnatic music which predominates. Simply speaking, Hindustani classical music is
more lyric-oriented, while Carnatic classical music emphasises musical structure.

Indian classical music as it is performed in Malaysia has remained true to its origin.
There is practically no other cultural influence. Other than reflecting Indian life, the
purpose of Indian classical music is to refine the soul.

Over the years, Punjabi music has established itself in Malaysia. One example of
famous Punjabi music is bhangra. Many Malaysian songs today have the Punjabi
influence. For example, the sound of the dhol, an instrument used mainly by the
Punjabis has been incorporated in many Malay, Chinese and Indian songs in

Malaysia. The increase of interest in Punjabi music has led to the birth of Malaysia's
very first Urban Bhangra themed group, called Goldkartz.

Dances
In Indian culture, dance is a form of worship and an expression of the human emotion.
It is difficult to trace the origins of Indian dance but the tradition is extremely old.
Initially dance was very much an integral part of the worship and prayer in temples
and practiced by devotees who spent their entire lives in the temple – the devadasees.

This has now changed with the times and dance has moved out to the people and the
tradition of Indian Dance is very much alive in Malaysia. Among the more popular
forms are the Odissi and Bharathanatyam.

Bharathanatyam
Bharatanatyam, considered the epitome of Indian cultural expression, is one of the
most treasured and popular of the classical Indian dance forms. It originated in Tamil
Nadu and highlights body movements and rhythm, gives emphasis to dance postures
and body movements and accords importance to drama and poems.

Odissi

Odissi evolved from two ancient dance forms — Mahari and Gotipua. Maharis were
courtesans who danced in temples, mainly that of Lord Jagannath in Puri. The present
day reconstructed Odissi is largely derived from the Gotipua tradition where a lot of
the repertoire and idioms come from.

Other Indian Dances

Kuchipudi, a traditional dance from Andhra Pradesh that was conferred classical
status a few years ago, is finding a slow but steady following among serious dance
aficionados. Genres like kathak and mohiniattam have become fashion, wellness and
cultural statements among next generation in Southeast Asia and in the West because
of their heritage and mystic pull.

1.4.10 GAMES AND PASTIMES

Kabaddi
Kabaddi is a team contact sport that originated in South Asia and in the Indo-Iranian
society, as a form of recreational combat training. Two teams occupy opposite halves
of a field and take turns sending a "raider" into the other half, in order to win points by
tagging or wrestling members of the opposing team; the raider then tries to return to
his own half, holding his breath and chanting "kabaddi, kabaddi, kabaddi" during the
whole raid. The name — often chanted during a game — derives from a Tamil word
meaning "holding of hand", which is indeed the crucial aspect of play.

1.4.11 PUNJABI

1.4.11.1 HISTORY

Originating from the Punjab region in India and Pakistan, the Punjabis are a small
minority among the approximately two millions Indians in Malaysia. There are
approximately ninety thousand Punjabi in Malaysia. They first came to Malaysia in the
19th century as British political prisoners. A second wave was brought in by the British
to serve as policemen for the British Straits Settlement communities and as night
watchmen for industries.

The Punjabis have preserved a distinct Punjabi/Sikh identity within Malaysian society
that sets them apart from the Tamil and other Indian communities that are Hindu.
Malaysians commonly refer to the Punjabi community as Bengali, which is a
misconception since they are actually from Punjab and not West Bengal. This
misconception began because their Malaysian identification cards classify them as
Bengali.

1.4.11.2 RELIGIONS, BELIEFS AND TABOOS

Religions

Punjabis come from three distinct religious groups: Sikh, Muslim and Hindu. Majority
of Punjabi in Malaysia practices Sikhism, which was founded by Guru Nanak. Their
holy book is Guru Granth Sahib. A small number of them are Muslim and Hindus.

Sikhism is a religion that was founded in northern India during the 16th century. Its
teachings have combined elements of both Hinduism and Islam in an attempt to find
one god who transcends all religious distinctions. Sikhism stresses the importance of
devotion, intense faith in the guru, the repetition of their god's name as a means of
salvation or moksha (release into god's love), opposition to the worship of idols, the
brotherhood of all men, and rejection of caste (pattern of social classes in Hinduism)
system.

The most common symbol of all Sikhs is uncut hair (including beards for men) and
turbans and the Five emblems or the 5Ks (kakkar).

Firstly, Punjabis are to wear their hair and beards unshorn (kesh). Hair is not only
regarded as a symbol of saintliness or holiness, but also as a proof of living in
harmony with the Will of God. Secondly, kangha or the comb is a necessary adjunct
for the hair. It should be on hand to keep the hair neat and tidy. It is therefore, fixed in
their hair knot. Thirdly, to wear a steel bracelet (kara) on their right wrist as a symbol
of poverty and pledge to their Gurus. Next, to wear kachha or kachhahra, the knee-
length breeches meant to cover the private parts of the body. It is a symbol of moral
restraint and conjugal fidelity. It keeps the wearer covered all the time and makes
them move with briskness and agility. Lastly, to always carry the kirpan or sword to
defend and protect the dignity or honour of others.

Beliefs and Taboos

Punjabi Sikhs believe in one god who cannot take human form. They meditate; do
charitable work and community service. Fundamental to Sikhism is living a truthful life.
Sikhs share with Hinduism a belief in karma, reincarnation and ultimate unreality of the
world. It is believed that the control of natural powers is one of the possessions of the
saints, and, therefore, many such powers have been associated with almost every
saint.

Most of the Punjabi superstitions are based upon the movements of the heavenly
bodies, because it is widely believed that what happens to man and his world is
determined by the movement of the celestial bodies. This belief is based upon
imitative magic.

There are many superstitions connected with the moon. One of them is that if a newly-
married woman sees the new moon regularly, she will deliver a male child as
handsome as the moon. It is, however, considered inauspicious to see the new moon
on the fourth lunar day. Doing so is supposed to bring a bad name. During a solar or
lunar eclipse, a pregnant woman is not supposed to move. Eating, drinking and even
changing clothes must wait till the eclipse is over. Her every movement is believed
adversely to affect the child in her womb.

Blowing off a light is not considered good. The wick of the lamp should be turned
down and then extinguished with a wave of the hand. Removing the light is not
considered a good omen. In addition, many superstitions exist regarding the direction
of the journey which one has to take. In olden times, travelling was hazardous and one
had to be very careful.

On particular days it was not considered proper to travel in certain directions. It was
bad, for instance, to travel towards the north on Tuesdays and Wednesdays, and good
to travel in this direction on Mondays and Fridays. Thursday was regarded as

bad for travelling southwards, and Wednesday good. Tuesdays and Wednesdays
were not considered good for journey towards the hills. Work started on a Wednesday
can be easily and successfully concluded.

1.4.11.3 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

Punjabi-speaking population of Malaysian comprises only 4 per cent of the total
Malaysian Indian group; other languages such as Urdu, Sinhalese, Sindhi, Gujerati
and Bengali are spoken by even smaller communities.

Even though there are some religious differences, the language, Punjabi, is common
between them. Malaysian Punjabi families are likely to also speak Bahasa Malay, the
official language of Malaysia. Punjabi language bears a lot of similarity with Hindi.
Punjabi has its origin in the eleventh century and is the successor of Sauraseni
Prakrit. It is an ancient language that has an Indo-European origin.

All the Indian languages spoken in Malaysia are taught privately at home, in temples,
and by the associations of each ethnic group. Despite not being taught in any
government schools, Punjabi is still offered as a subject for the Penilaian Menengah
Rendah (PMR) examination. There is, however, one private Punjabi school in Sentul,
Kuala Lumpur.

The written language of Sikhs is called Gurmukhi. The written language of Punjabi
Hindus is Hindi. The written language of Muslim Sikhs might be either Punjabi or Urdu.
A small number of magazines and newsletter are printed in Punjabi.

1.4.11.4 RITE OF PASSAGE

Birth

A naming ceremony occurs at the temple. A sacred book is randomly opened and the
parents choose a name that begins with the first letter of the first word on the left hand
page. In late teens the child is initiated into the Sikh religion. All Sikh males carry the
surname of Singh (meaning lion) and Sikh females carry the name Kaur (meaning
lioness/ princess) respectively. In some cases the ancestral names are included after
the surname.

Marriage
Globally, the Skihs adhere to the Rehat Maryada (The Code of Conduct). According to
the Rehat Maryada, “a Sikh should marry only a Sikh”. According to the Rehatnama, a
true Sikh (Khalsa) must maintain his tradition: “So long as the Khalsa remains distinct,
his glory and lustre will grow, once he adopts Brahmanical ways it will not be possible
to trust him.”

In recent years, Gurdwaras in Malaysia and across the world relaxed the rule, allowing
interfaith marriages (between a Sikh and non-Sikh) to be conducted in the Gurdwaras.

The traditional practices of arranged marriage have been amended to cope up with
the changing times. Love marriages are now days more accepted. Punjabis are
generally broad minded people who have been accepting the marriage between the
inter caste people. The marriage means lots of excitement and thrill for the Punjabi
people. Often lots of ceremonies are performed once boy and girl agree to marry each
other.

Roka
First ceremony that takes place is the roka. As soon as the couple agree to wed, the
roka or saith ceremony, which is an announcement that the boy and girl have found
their soul mates and will look no further for a life partner, is held. The girl's mama
(mother's brother) gives her the nath (nose ring) which she will wear on her wedding.

Sagai

The wedding celebrations begin with the tikka ceremony, held a week to ten days
before the wedding (depending on the number of functions to follow) in which the
family of the girl visits that of the boy's carrying beautifully wrapped gifts and the tikka
material: a silver tray with a few grains of rice and saffron in a tiny silver bowl, 14
chuharey (dried dates) covered with silver foil and a coconut wrapped in a gold leaf.
The father of the girl applies 'tikka' on his son-in-law's forehead and gives him his
blessings and some money. In return, the girl's family receives baskets of seven dried
fruits: almonds, cashewnuts, chuahara, coconut pieces, raisins, dried apricots and
phoolmakhana, at the kudmai (sagai or engagement)

Sangeet

A sangeet function hosted by the girl's family, in which just a few close members of the
boy's family are invited. The girl's family play the dholki (an elongated tabla) sing
songs in which they tease the boy and his family, telling them to thank their stars they
were lucky to find such a wonderful girl, who they probably didn't deserve! All in jest, of
course, but they take care not to get carried away. After this, it is the boy's turn to
retaliate, which they do in another sangeet function hosted by them. Though these are
the traditional sangeets, many families opt for live bands or a disc jockey to churn out
one dance track after another as guests shake a leg on the floor.

Mehendi

The last major function before the wedding is the mehendi. Mehendiwallis are called to
the respective houses of the boy and girl and they apply mehendi to the palms of the
female family members, and the hands and feet of the bride. A basket containing
bindis and bangles is handed around so girls can choose those that match the outfit
they plan to wear to the wedding.

The Wedding Day

The maaiyan of the bride starts three days before the wedding, which means she is
now not supposed to leave the house until the big day. These days are meant for
complete relaxation. She is not even supposed to meet the groom. The morning of the
wedding, batna, a paste of flour and turmeric, is applied to the face, hands and legs of
the bride. This is believed to beautify the skin. She then has a bath and sits for the
puja, after which she is made to wear the bridal 'chura', red and white ivory bangles

that signify her status as a bride. Her relatives then tie a kalira (jingle) on these
churas, which convey their good wishes and blessings. The eligible girls line up and
the bride lightly bangs her kaliras on their head. It is believed that by doing this, these
girls would be the next to get married.

Similarly the groom's relatives also apply batna, more as a jest than a serious
ceremony. This is followed by a puja, after which his mother ties a sehera (veil of
flowers) on his turban, praying that his life ahead will be as beautiful and fragrant as
the flowers.

The bride's family waits at the entrance to greet the baarat (the groom and his family),
who reach singing and dancing. The father, brother, uncles and grandfathers of the
groom embrace the corresponding members of the bride's family. While embracing,
they try to lift each other up as a show of strength and superiority, amidst much
laughter and cheer. When they enter the venue the bride is brought out and the couple
exchange garlands.

The wedding concludes with the pheras, where the couple exchange vows in front of
the sacred fire. The bride's parents give her hand to the groom in marriage in what is
known as the kanyadaan. In the earlier days, in exchange for the bride, her in-laws
would donate a sacred cow, but today money is accepted. The couple take four
rounds of the fire and seven steps to the North to signify advancement as they walk
together through life. Then the bride puts a foot on a stone as she says no matter what
problems come their way, she will be stable - solid as a rock. Her brother pours kheel
(a sweet) into her hands, which she pours into her husband's hands.

Once this is done the boy's father sprinkles water on the newlyweds to say that if
there are misunderstandings between them, he will help calm them down. The bride
then makes a tearful farewell to her new home in what is known as the 'bidai'.

Punjabi wedding. Photo taken from http://sakshijuneja.com/blog/2005/11/10/the-big-
fat-punjabi-wedding/

Death
The Punjabis who are Sikhs and Hindus are cremated at death. The body of a dying
or dead person, if it is on a cot, must not be taken off the cot and put on the floor. Nor
must a lit lamp be placed beside, or a cow got bestowed in donation by, him/her or for
his/her good or any other ceremony, contrary to Guru's way, performed. Only Gurbani
should be recited or "Waheguru, Waheguru" repeated by his or her side.

1.4.11.5 FESTIVALS

Vaisakhi or Baisakhi
Vaisakhi is a very important day for Sikhs and one of the most colourful events in the
Sikh calendar. It occurs during 13 April every year and traditionally concurs in Punjab
with the first harvesting of the crops for the year. So, historically, it has been a very
joyous occasion and a time for celebration. However, since 1699, it had marked the

very significant religious event of the creation of the Khalsa, the Order of Pure Ones. It
was the day, Guru Gobind Singh initiated and baptised 5 devoted Sikhs to be the
embodiment of the Guru himself.

Vaisakhi falls in the Nanakshahi calendar on the first day of Vaisakh month and marks
the sun's entering Mesha Rasi (this fact is called Mesha Sankranti, i.e. the solar transit
into Aries). Vaisakhi is therefore determined by the solar calendar. Baisakhi usually
falls on April 14, and on April 15 once every thirty-six years, however it has now been
agreed for Vaisakhi to always fall on the 13th of April of the Gregorian calendar. It is
not, as is commonly believed, a New Year for the Sikhs. This Sikh New Year is
celebrated on the 1st day of Chet which usually falls on March 13, a month earlier.

Vaisakhi Open House 2010. Photo taken from
http://www.utusan.com.my/utusan/info.asp?y=2010&dt=0424&pub=Utusan_Malaysia
&sec=Dalam_Negeri&pg=dn_11.htm

Gurupurbs
A gurpurb in Sikh tradition is a celebration of an anniversary related to the lives of the
Sikh gurus. Observance of these anniversaries is an important feature of the Sikh way
of life. Gurupurbas are remembrance days for the ten Sikh gurus in which the Adi
Granth (the Sikh scripture) is read aloud.
Among the more important gurpurbs, in the Nanakshahi calendar, are:
• The birthday of Guru Nanak, founder of Sikhism (November)
• The birthday of Guru Gobind Singh, founder of the Khalsa (January)
• The martyrdom of Guru Arjan (June)
• The martyrdom of Guru Tegh Bahadur (November/December)

Other important gurpurbs include Vaisakhi, which commemorates the creation of the
Khalsa Panth, and the martyrdom days of the young sons of Guru Gobind Singh.

During these celebrations, the Guru Granth Sahib is read through, in private homes
and in the gurdwaras, in a single continuous ceremony lasting 48 hours. This reading,
called Akhand Path, must be without interruption; the relay of reciters who take turns
at saying the Scripture ensures that no break occurs.

Special assemblies are held in gurdwaras and discourses given on the lives and
teachings of the gurus. Sikhs march in processions through towns and cities chanting
the holy hymns.

1.4.11.6 COSTUME

Women
Most Punjabi women will wear the salwar kameez (long
top worn over the pants). Women will also wear a
dupatta (a scarf) with it, which can be draped over the
head as need prescribes. The fabric imported from
India, made of the best quality silk is used.

Punjabi suits. Photos taken from http://zazrin.blogspot.com/2009_07_01_archive.html

Men

The English word pyjama derives from the loose fitting
pants worn in Punjab. The men wear a kurta, (long shirt)
tahmat (cloth wrapped around the waist and legs) or
pyjama, and a turban.

Photos taken from salwarqameez.com

1.4.11.7 CUISINE

Punjabi Cuisine
Punjabis are big-time food lovers, preferring a wide variety in their menu. They are full
of life and their food too reflects this liveliness. They generally go for spicy foods and
use oil and ghee to a considerably higher extent. There are no intricate marinades or
exotic sauces, but an exuberant use of masalas, with a liberal addition of oil or ghee.

Most of the Punjabis prefer wheat to rice; though they do have rice occasionally. In roti
itself, you find such a wide variety that you are left to wonder about Punjabi cuisine's
versatility. Makke ki Roti (chapati made of corn) and
stuffed parathas have wide popularity.

Milk and milk products are also commonly used. Curd and
butter milk are important concomitants of a Punjabi meal.
Lassi, made out of curd, is a popular drink, which
satisfactorily quenches the thirst in hot weather.

Photo taken from http://foodstreet.com.my/

Photo taken from
http://malaccatourism.blogspot.com/

Popular Delicacies
The food items that form a part of the
traditional food of Punjab are so eye-
catchy that you can hardly resist your
temptation to taste them all. Some of
the popular delicacies have been
listed below:

Vegetarian Dishes

• Sarson ka Saag (Mustard leaves curry)
• Dal Makhani/ Dal Handi (curry of pulses)
• Choley (generally eaten with Naan)
• Punj Ratani Dal (a mixtute of 5 lentils)
• Kadhai Paneer
• Shahi Paneer
• Sheer Korma

Non-vegetarian Dishes

• Tandoori Chicken
• Butter Chicken
• Kebab
• Tandoori Fish
• Fish tikka
• Chicken Biriyani

Photo taken from
http://foodstreet.com.my/

Bread & Flour Preparations
Punjabi cuisine is also famous for variety of bread and flour preparations. Some of
them are as below:

• Naan
• Tandoori Roti
• Kulcha
• Lachha paratha
• Phulka or chapatti
• Aloo paratha
• Mooli paratha
• Poori
• Bhatoora

Desserts
Punjabi cuisine is incomplete
without the flavor of its special
desserts. One of the very
delicious items in their menu is

called roh di kheer, which is prepared by cooking rice in sugarcane juice for a long
time. Besides this, there are more of Punjabi desserts, like:

• Rice Kheer
• Rabri
• Gulab Jamun
• Gaajar Halwa
• Sooji Halwa

Photo taken from http://thestar.com.my/

1.4.11.8 ARCHITECTURES, CRAFTS AND ARTS

i. Architecture

Most of the gurdwaras in Malaysia were modelled after architectures in Punjab. Prime
example is Tatt Khalsa Diwan Gurdwara in Kuala Lumpur. The design concept of the
new Gurdwara Sahib is based on the art and architecture period of Guru Arjun Dev Ji.
It incorporates the symbolic dimensions of 5 and 10 - the Darbar Sahib will be
elegantly designed with 10 full length bay windows with salient aspects of the Gurbani,
scriptures and art of the period of the Gurus.

The central dome, similar in form to that of the Golden Temple in Amritsar is covered
with gold mosaic and its interior has an inner ceiling with tiny lights depicting the stars
above Sri Guru Granth Sahib Ji.

ii. Crafts

Art is described as a creation or expression of something beautiful especially in a
visual form and Arts and Crafts as a phrase means decorative designs and

handicrafts. In this field, also, Punjab has the hoary and distinguished tradition which
its people have maintained in spite of vicissitudes of time.

Phulkari, meaning flower work, is a spectacular style of embroidery peculiar to the
Punjabis. The total effect is that of florance
magnificence. It is essentially a feminine craft and very
domestic in all its essential features. It is an art
because of harmonious colours.

The patterns of needle work done on the bed spreads,
chunnis, dupattas (these are head covers) and shirts
and Salvars, are still different. Needle work on
phulkaris is done on a deep coloured cotton cloth with
striking silk threads.

Photo taken from http://www.allaboutsikhs.com/punjab/the-sikh-way-of-life-punjabi-
culture.html

iii. Dance and Music
Known for their colourful culture, Bhangra is a traditional Punjabi musical art form that
is increasing in popularity all over the world. Bhangra is the most popular folk dance of
Punjab. It represents the liveliness and dynamism of its people. The dance mainly

involves men, who
perform to the fast beats
of drum and music.
Originally performed on
the Baisakhi festival, the
harvest festival of Punjab,
Bhangra is done at every
single festive occasion
today.

Photo taken from

http://thestar.com.my/metro/story.asp?file=/2011/2/6/sundaymetro/20110205151759&
sec=sundaymetro

Dhol, a large, high-bass drum, is the instrument that defines the Bhangra. In addition
to a drum, chimta-musical tongs and burchu and sound of the beats from earthen
vessels are used as accompanying instruments.

The term “Bhangra” now refers to several kinds of dances and arts, including Jhumar,
Luddi, Giddha, Julli, Daankara, Dhamal, Saami and Kikli. Jhumar, originally from
Sandalbar, Punjab, is an important part of Punjabi folk heritage. It is a graceful dance,
based on a specific Jhumar rhythm where dancers circle around a drum player while
singing a soft chorus.

For Bhangra performances, the men wear a chaadra, a piece of cloth wrapped around
the waist. They also wear a kurta, which is a long Indian-style shirt. In addition, the
pagadi (also known as turban) is worn to cover their head. In modern times, men also
wear turla, the fan attached to the pagadi.

Colourful vests are worn above the kurta.
Women wear the traditional Punjabi dress
known as salwar kameez, which is a
combination of long pants that are baggy
at the top and narrow at the ankles
(salwar) and a long colourful shift
(kameez). They also wear chunnis,
colourful pieces of cloth wrapped around
the neck.

Photo taken from
http://thestar.com.my/metro/story.asp?file
=/2011/2/6/sundaymetro/2011020515175
9&sec=sundaymetro

1.4.11.9 PASTIME

Many of these games have been lost in the evolution of history and the ones that
remain are losing for perhaps these are not in fashion except a few which still survive.
Some of the Punjabis played the Indian game of Kabbadi. The game is played
between two teams. A line is drawn between the two teams and each team would
send a player across the line. If the player after crossing the line is able to touch a
player of the opposite side and came back without being caught, the team doing so
would win and a point was added to its score. This process by the player crossing the

line has to be performed in a single breath. The team with higher score would be the
winner.

1.5. CULTURE OF PERANAKAN
1.5.1 DISTRIBUTION
1.5.2 HISTORY
1.5.3 RELIGIONS, BELIEFS AND TABOOS
1.5.4 LANGUAGE
1.5.5 RITES OF PASSAGE
1.5.6 FESTIVAL
1.5.7 COSTUME
1.5.8 FOOD
1.5.9 ARTS AND CRAFTS
1.5.10 PASTIME

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1.1 PENERANGAN / INFORMATION

1.5 CULTURES OF PERANAKAN:

1.5.1 DISTRIBUTION
There exists some confusion of terminology. Three terms are commonly used
interchangeably to describe this community – the Peranakan, the Straits Chinese, and
the Babas and Nyonyas. The word Peranakan is derived from the Malay word ‘anak’
which means ‘child’. The term refers to local-borns as well as the offspring of foreigner-
native union. Frank Swettenham explains that the term Baba is used for Straits born
males, whether the children of English, Chinese or Eurasian parents and is of
Hindustani origin ( Tan, 1988). Baba is the term for the male and Nyonya for the
female. The word Baba may be derived from the word bapa which means father in

Malay. Some historians think that it is an honorific and the equivalent for a tuan or
a towkay. The word Nyonya is said to have originated from Java.

The Straits Chinese regarded the Straits Settlements as their homeland and while
maintaining a basically Chinese identity, gradually abandoned the close links of kinship,
sentiment, political allegiance and financial remittances to China so characteristic of the
non-Baba Chinese ( Clammer, 1980).A clear distinction must be made between the Straits
Chinese and the Straits-born Chinese. To be defined as a Straits Chinese, he or she
would have to adopt the exterior markers of a Baba or Nyonya, in language, customs,
kinship, dress, food and even occupation.
Today, these Peranakans are found distributed throughout Malaysia and
Singapore with its strongholds in Malacca, Singapore and Penang.

While the term Peranakan is most commonly used among the ethnic Chinese for those
ofChinese descent also known as Straits Chinese (人華生土; named after the Straits
Settlements), there are also other, comparatively small Peranakan communities, such as
Indian Hindu Peranakans (Chitty), Indian Muslim Peranakans (Jawi Pekan) (Jawi being the
Javanised Arabic script, Pekan a colloquial contraction of Peranakan[1]) and Eurasian
Peranakans (Kristang[1]) (Kristang = Christians). The group has parallels to theCambodian
Hokkien, who are descendents of Hoklo Chinese. They maintained their culture partially
despite their native language gradually disappearing a few generations after settlement.

1.5.2HISTORY OF THE PERANAKAN CHINESE

The evolution of this unique ethnic group dates as far back as 500 to 600 years ago when
Chinese traders arrived in parts of the Malay Peninsula, the nucleus of which was
Malacca, the center of the Malacca Sultanate. The Chinese men did not bring their women
folk along, and many intermarried with the local women. The acute shortage of Chinese
women accounted for the frequent intermarriages between the early Chinese and the local
women. Intermarriage between the Babas and the Malays eventually ceased, and for
hundreds of years past, the Babas have married exclusively amongst their own peoples
becoming an endogamous and elite group.

Over the centuries, the Peranakans have evolved a unique culture that maintains many
Chinese traditions, such as celebrating the Lunar New Year and the Lantern Festival,
while adopting the customs of the land they settled in, as well as those of their successive
colonial rulers. There are traces of Portuguese, Dutch, British, Malay and Indonesian
influences in Baba culture.

By the middle of the twentieth century, most Peranakan were English educated, as a result
of the British colonisation of Malaya, and the natural propensity of these people who were
able to easily embrace new cultures. Because the Peranakans readily embraced English
culture and education, administrative and civil service posts were often filled by prominent
Straits Chinese. The interaction with the British also caused many in the community to
convert to Christianity. The Peranakan community thereby became very influential in
Malacca and Singapore and were known also as the King's Chinese due to their perceived
loyalty to the British Crown. Because of the interaction of the different cultures and
languages that Peranakans had, most Peranakans were (and still are) trilingual, being
able to converse with Chinese, Malays and the British. Common vocations were as
merchants, traders, and general intermediaries between China, Malaya and the West; the
latter was especially valued by the British, since the Babas also enjoyed good relations
with the Malay community and served as advisors to the royal Malay courts. In fact the
term "Baba" is an honorific term in Malay; probably derived from Hindi/Sanskrit [Baba:
literally means grandfather or father, and is used as a term of reverence and affection for
an elderly gentleman]

1.5.3. RELIGIONS/BELIEFS/TABOOS

Baba Nyonya subscribed to Chinese beliefs: Taoism, Confucianism and Chinese
Buddhism, celebrates theLunar New Year and the Lantern Festival, while adopting the
customs of the land they settled in, as well as those of their colonial rulers. There are
traces of Portuguese, Dutch, British, Malay and Indonesian influences in Baba
culture.[A certain number of Baba Nyonya families were and still are, Catholic.

BABA WEDDINGS

Peranakan weddings of old combined Chinese and Malay elements in the wedding
ceremonies. The Chinese aspect was in religion whereby traditional Chinese Taoist gods
and dieties were worshipped. The attire of the wedding couple was essentially old
Chinese dating from the Ching Dynasty in China. Most of the ceremonies performed were
old Hokkien ceremonies from the province of Fujian. The Malay influence was apparent in
the language used, the jewelry, the proceedings, the use of the mak andam and pak
chindek, the use of the pak boyan in the wedding procession and other examples.

Left : Picture of a Modern Day Baba Wedding taken in Malacca. Such Baba Weddings are
only to be found in Malacca alone. Most of these wedding ceremonies have died out in
Penang, Singapore and most of Indonesia. The picture on the right shows us a Penang
Peranakan wedding in the 1910's.Baba Weddings of old were extremely elaborate affairs,
the wedding would usually last a total of 15 days and there would be various ceremonies
to accompany the different days. They were extremely expensive and ornate events that
needed a lot of time and was very time consuming. Most Peranakans abandoned such
elaborate weddings by the end of world war II. The war was one of the main attributes
that led to the eventual decline of Peranakan wealth, culture and status in society. The
eventual conversion of most Baba families to Christianity also resulted in the death of
ancestral practices and most of the old culture which was deemed unChristian faded into
oblivion.

The photo above shows you a typical Peranakan wedding couple in traditional attire.Such
weddings were common until the mid 1940's. The headress worn by the bride is made out
of gold and silver hair pins that are put into the hair to form a crown. At her neck is the