276 Notes
The rebuilding of the Ka‘ba can be found in al-Tabari, pp. 1130–39. The tradi-
tions imply that Muhammad was somehow dragged into the process, though that
does not disprove Muhammad’s full cooperation in the reconstruction of the pagan
sanctuary. A complete discussion of the date of the Abyssinian attack and the birth of
Muhammad is offered by Lawrence I. Conrad, “Abraha and Muhammad,” Bulletin
of the School of Oriental and African Studies (1987). Muhammad’s infancy narratives
can be found in Ibn Hisham, pp. 101–19, and in al-Tabari, pp. 1123–27.
2. The Keeper of the Keys
Rubin discusses Qusayy’s religious innovations in “The Ka’ba.” Mecca’s geographi-
cal position on the north-south trade route is just one of the many issues analyzed by
Richard Bulliet in The Camel and the Wheel (1975). Those scholars who tend to
maintain the traditional view of Mecca’s role as the dominant trading center in the
Hijaz include W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad at Mecca (1953), and M. A. Sha-
ban, Islamic History: A New Interpretation (1994). Patricia Crone’s rejection of this
theory can be found in Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam (1987). Peters’s compromise
comes from Muhammad and the Origins of Islam (1994), pp. 27, 74–75, and 93. Those
interested in Crone’s theories regarding Muhammad and the rise of Islam can
see her books Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World (1977) (coauthored with
M. A. Cook) and God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam (1986)
(coauthored with Martin Hinds).
For the role and function of the Shaykh in pre-Islamic Arabia, see W. Mont-
gomery Watt, Islamic Political Thought (1968). The role of the Hakam in developing
the normative legal tradition (Sunna) is most clearly described by Joseph Schacht,
An Introduction to Islamic Law (1998). The quote regarding the loyalty of the Hanifs
to the Quraysh is from Rubin, “The Hanafiyya and Ka‘ba,” p. 97. It is interesting to
note, by the way, that the protection of orphans and widows has always been the pri-
mary criterion for just rule. The great Babylonian king, Hammurabi, whose famous
stele represents the first written code of laws for governing society, states that he
conquered his enemies in order to give “justice to the orphan and the widow.”
For more on the various meanings of an-nabi al-ummi, see Kenneth Cragg’s
marvelous book on the history and meaning of the Quran, The Event of the Qur’an
(1971). Conrad’s quote is from “Abraha and Muhammad,” 374–75. For the nar-
ratives concerning Muhammad’s first revelatory experience and his marriage to
Khadija, see Ibn Hisham, pp. 150–55, and al-Tabari, pp. 139–56.
As noted in the sixth chapter, the Quran is not chronologically organized, so it
is difficult to determine exactly which revelations came first. While there is a great
deal of disagreement, it is generally accepted that the two best compilations of the
earliest verses were completed individually by Theodor Noeldeke and Richard Bell.
Montgomery Watt has combined those verses about which both men agree to create
a list of what he considers to be the earliest verses in the Quran. I will not comment
on Watt’s list, which most scholars accept, except to say that, whether it is a faultless
list or not, it provides a very good template of what the first message entailed. The
verses in Watt’s list are taken from major sections of the following chapters: 96, 74,
106, 90, 93, 86, 80, 87, 84, 51, 52, 55; I would add to this list Noeldeke’s inclusion of
104 and 107, which, because they indicate the presence of the first opposition to
Muhammad’s message, may have been delivered right on the heels of the earliest
verses. See Watt’s Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (1974). Richard Bell provides a
four-column analysis of the Uthmanic and Egyptian chronologies, alongside
Noeldeke’s and William Muir’s, in his Introduction to the Qur’an (1953), pp. 110–14.
Notes 277
The names of Muhammad’s earliest followers are listed in Ibn Hisham, pp.
159–65. Al-Tabari explicitly states that this group was “few in number.” There is a
disagreement between Sunnis and Shi‘ites as to whether Abu Bakr or Ali was the
first male convert, but this is an ideological argument. There can be no serious ques-
tion that Ali, as the closest person to Muhammad at the time, was the first male con-
vert to Islam. For the Qurayshi defense of polytheism see al-Tabari, p. 1175, and
Richard Bell (1968), p. 55. The quotation regarding religion and trade in Mecca is
from Muhammad Shaban, “Conversion to Early Islam,” in Conversion to Islam,
edited by Nehemia Levtzion (1979). For more on Luqman the Wise see The Fables
of Luqman, edited by Reyes Carboneli (1965). Maxime Rodinson’s book Mohammad
(1971) offers an interesting, if outdated, perspective on the life of the Prophet. His
comments about Muhammad’s marriage to Khadija can be found on page 51. My
physical description of Muhammad comes from the beautiful description of him
written by Tirmidhi as quoted in Annemarie Schimmel, And Muhammad Is His Mes-
senger (1985).
3. The City of the Prophet
Ibn Batuta provides what is probably the earliest description of the Prophet’s
mosque in his famous Travels (1958). There is evidence to suggest that Yathrib’s
inhabitants already referred to the oasis as Medina (the City) before Muhammad’s
arrival, though Muhammad’s presence obviously changed the connotation of that
name.
Ali Abd ar-Raziq’s Islam and the Bases of Power is available in French as “L’Islam
et les Bases du Pouvoir,” translated by L. Bercher in Revue des Etudes Islamiques, VIII
(1934). An English translation of important sections of the work can be found in
Islam in Transition, edited by John J. Donohue and John L. Esposito (1982). Ahmed
Rashid’s The Taliban (2000) is the best introductory text on the history of the Taliban
in Afghanistan.
The Banu Nadir and the Banu Qurayza, each of which consisted of several
branches, may have had an alliance with each other. Together they were known as
the Banu Darih. But like all tribal relationships, this was a political and economic
affiliation and had nothing to do with their shared religious tradition. There is still
debate over whether Yathrib’s Jews were converts or immigrants. The majority of
scholars believe them to be Arab converts and, as we shall see, the evidence seems to
agree. For an outline of this argument see Watt, Muhammad at Medina (1956) and
S. D. Goiten, Jews and Arabs (1970). Barakat Ahmad calculates the Jewish popula-
tion of Yathrib to have been between 24,000 and 36,000 inhabitants in Muhammad
and the Jews: A Re-Examination (1979); that may be a bit high.
For more on the brief period of Persian control over the region, as well as the
division of Yathrib between the Jews and Arabs, see Peters, Muhammad; al-Waqidi’s
quote is from page 193 of Peters’s text. See Michael Lecker, Muslims, Jews, and
Pagans: Studies on Early Islamic Medina (1995) for a discussion of the late conversion
of the Aws.
A full discussion of the controversy over the date and meaning of the Constitu-
tion of Medina can be found in Moshe Gil, “The Constitution of Medina: A Recon-
sideration,” in Israel Oriental Studies (1974). For more on Muhammad’s role as
Shaykh of the Emigrants, see Watt, Islamic Political Thought. Watt also provides an
English translation of the Constitution of Medina in his appendix, pp. 130–34.
For a further discussion of the origins of the word Ummah, I suggest the
entry in Encyclopedia of Islam. Bertram Thomas’s portrayal of the Ummah as a
278 Notes
“super-tribe” is from The Arabs (1937); Marshall G. S. Hodgson’s term “neo-tribe”
is from The Venture of Islam, vol. 1 (1974). Anthony Black provides a valuable insight
into the similarities between the purpose and function of rituals of the Ummah and
the pagan tribes in The History of Islamic Political Thought (2001).
I am convinced that the shahadah was originally addressed not to God, but to
Muhammad, because a great many of those who had proclaimed the shahadah (and
thereby joined the Ummah) while Muhammad was alive considered their oaths to
be annulled with the Prophet’s death (according to tribal custom, the bay‘ah never
survived the death of the tribe’s Shaykh). As we shall see in Chapter 5, the annul-
ment of the bay‘ah eventually led to the Riddah Wars. Incidentally, the word “Islam”
to designate Muhammad’s movement may not have been applied by the Prophet
until his farewell pilgrimage: “Today I have perfected your religion, I have com-
pleted my blessings upon you, and I have approved Islam as your religion” (5:5).
There are many versions of the al-Ayham story. Mine is taken from Watt,
Muhammad at Medina, p. 268. For more on Muhammad’s market, see M. J. Kister,
“The Market of the Prophet,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
(1965).
There are, of course, two creation stories in Genesis. The first, which is derived
from what is referred to as the Priestly tradition, can be found in the first chapter, in
which God creates man and woman simultaneously. The second and better-known
tradition of Adam and Eve is from the second chapter.
For Muhammad’s reforms aimed at women and the reactions to them, see
Fatima Mernissi, The Veil and the Male Elite (1991); al-Tabari’s quote is taken from
page 125 of Mernissi’s book. How exactly the inheritance was to be divided between
the male and female heirs can be found in the Quran 4:9–14, and is explained ade-
quately by Watt in Muhammad at Medina, pp. 289–93. Watt also provides a valuable
discussion of the transition from matriliny to patriliny in Meccan society on pp.
272–89. For more on the rules regarding the wife’s dowry, see Hodgson (1974), p.
182. The traditions of pre-Islamic marriage and divorce, as well as the imposition of
the veil, are dealt with in detail in Leila Ahmed’s excellent book Women and Gender
in Islam (1992).
Those interested in the issue of stoning as punishment for adultery should see
my article “The Problem of Stoning in Islamic Law: An Argument for Reform,”
UCLA Journal of Islamic and Near Eastern Law (2005); also Ahmad Von Denffer,
Ulum Al-Qur’an (1983), pp. 110–11. The punishment of stoning to death was actu-
ally derived from Hebrew law, where it was prescribed for a number of crimes
including adultery (Deut. 22:13–21), blasphemy (Deut. 24:14), calling up spirits
(Deut. 20:27), and disobeying one’s parents (Deut. 21:18–21). The Quran estab-
lishes the punishment of lashes for the adulterer in one verse (24:2) and lifelong
imprisonment in another (4:15–16). However, both Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih al-
Hajjaj claim that Muhammad had himself ordered stoning for adultery. But there is
a great deal of confusion within these traditions. For instance, Abdullah ibn Aufa
reports that Muhammad did indeed carry out stoning, but when asked whether
Muhammad prescribed stoning before or after the Surah an-Nur, which clearly
endorses lashes for the adulterer, Ibn Aufa replies that he did not know (al-Bukhari
8.824). For more on Umar’s misogynist innovations, see Leila Ahmed (1992), pp.
60–61.
For the commentary on sufaha and Abu Bakra’s hadith, see Mernissi, 126; 49
(also 45–46). The hadith on the rights of women is from Kitab al-Nikah, no. 1850;
the Prophet’s quote about women’s deficiencies is from al-Bukhari, vol. 1, no. 304;
Notes 279
and ar-Razi’s commentary is from his massive work at-Tafsir al-Kabir. (For Muham-
mad’s consultation with Umm Salamah at Hudaybiyya, see al-Tabari, p. 1550.) The
origin of and problems with the hadith are dealt with well in Ignaz Goldziher, Intro-
duction to Islamic Theology and Law (1981). Goldziher also outlines the remarkable
contribution of female textual scholars in his brief article “Women in the Hadith
Literature,” in Muslim Studies (1977).
Lord Cromer’s quote is from Leila Ahmed (1992), pp. 152–53. Ali Shariati’s
quote is from Fatima Is Fatima (1971), p. 136. Shirin Ebadi’s quote is from the pre-
sentation speech by Professor Ole Danbolt Mjos, Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel
Committee, and is available at http://www.payvand.com/news/03/dec/1065.html.
There are a number of excellent studies on the role of women in contemporary
Muslim society. I recommend Faith and Freedom, edited by Mahnaz Af khami (1995);
Islam, Gender, and Social Change, edited by Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and John L.
Esposito (1998); In the Eye of the Storm: Women in Post-Revolutionary Iran, edited by
Mahnaz Af khami and Erika Friedl (1994); and Haideh Moghissi’s Feminism and
Islamic Fundamentalism (1999). See also my critique of Moghissi’s text in Iranian
Studies (2002).
4. Fight in the Way of God
The description of the battle of Uhud that begins this chapter is drawn from the
account in al-Tabari, pp. 1384–1427. Samuel Huntington’s quote is from his article
“The Clash of Civilizations?” in Foreign Affairs (Summer 1993), pp. 35. Bernard
Lewis’s quote can be found in Hilmi M. Zawati, Is Jihad a Just War? (2001), on p. 2;
Zawati outlines the use of jihad as defensive war in pages 15–17, 41– 45, and 107.
Weber’s quote is from Bryan S. Turner, Weber and Islam: A Critical Study (1974), p.
34. The quote about the scimitar-brandishing Arab warrior is from Rudolph Peters,
Islam and Colonialism: The Doctrine of Jihad in Modern History (1979), p. 4.
For more on the use, function, and development of the doctrine of jihad, see
Rudolph Peters’s other work, Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam (1996); also Jihad
and Shahadat, edited by Mehdi Abedi and Gary Legenhausen (1986), especially the
definitions on pages 2 and 3; and Mustansir Mir’s insightful article “Jihad in Islam,”
in The Jihad and Its Times, edited by Hadia Dajani-Shakeel and Ronald A. Messier
(1991). Hadith forbidding the killing of women and children can be found in Sahih
al-Hajjaj, nos. 4319 and 4320. For more on Vaisnava and Saiva traditions and the
kingdoms they inspired, see Gavin Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism (1996).
The role of the Crusades in shaping Muslim ideas of jihad is discussed in Hadia
Dajani-Shakeel’s article “Perceptions of the Counter Crusade,” in The Jihad and Its
Times, pp. 41–70. Mustansir Mir’s quote is on page 114. Those interested in the
comparative ethics of war, as well as the doctrine of jihad as a just war theory, should
see Michael Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars (1977) and John Kelsay, Islam and War
(1993), especially pp. 57–76. Dr. Azzam’s quote is from Peter L. Bergen, Holy War,
Inc.: Inside the Secret World of Osama bin Laden (2001), p. 53. For Moulavi Chiragh
Ali’s views on jihad, see A Critical Exposition of the Popular Jihad (1976); Mahmud
Shaltut’s views are discussed in Kate Zabiri, Mahmud Shaltut and Islamic Modernism
(1993).
For more on Muhammad’s enemies among the Hanif of Medina, see Uri
Rubin, “Hanafiyya and Ka‘ba,” in Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam (1990). In-
cidentally, Moshe Gil is almost alone in his conviction that the Constitution of
Medina did not originally include the Jews; see “The Constitution of Medina:
A Reconsideration,” in Israel Oriental Studies (1974), pp. 64–65. Otherwise, there is
280 Notes
almost unanimous agreement among scholars that the document is authentic and
that it included the Jews. For the traditions regarding the Banu Qurayza, see M. J.
Kister, “The Massacre of the Banu Qurayza: A Reexamination of a Tradition,” in
Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam (1986), and Hodgson (1974), p. 191. Kister puts
the number at about four hundred. Ahmad estimates the number of Jews remaining
in Medina to have been between 24,000 and 28,000. For the Jewish perspective see
H. Graetz, History of the Jews, vol. 3 (1894); Salo Wittmayer Baron, A Social and Reli-
gious History of the Jews, vol. 3 (1964); and Francesco Gabrieli, Muhammad and the
Conquests of Islam (1968): Gabrieli’s quote regarding Badr is on page 68.
For Arab responses to the massacre of Banu Qurayza, see Ahmad (1976), pp.
76–94, and W. N. Arafat, “New Light on the Story of Banu Qurayza and the Jews of
Medina,” in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1976). Tor Andrae’s quote is from
Mohammad: The Man and His Faith (1935), pp. 155–56.
For more objective studies on the massacre, see Karen Armstrong, Muhammad
(1993), and Norman A. Stillman, The Jews of Arab Lands (1979). As the allies of the
Qurayza, some members of the Aws asked Muhammad for leniency. It was for this
reason that he chose one of their number as Hakam. However, after Sa‘d’s decision
was made, there were no objections from the Aws, or from anyone else for that
matter.
The story of the mosque demolished by Umar in Damascus is recounted in
J. L. Porter, Five Years in Damascus: With Travels and Researches in Palmyra, Lebanon,
the Giant Cities of Bashan, and the Hauran (1855). Muhammad’s instructions to his
armies are discussed in Ignaz Goldziher, Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law, pp.
33–36. Maria Menocal’s excellent book The Ornament of the World (2002) describes
the culture of religious tolerance founded by the Umayyads in medieval Spain. S. D.
Goiten provides a more academic perspective on Jews under Muslim rule in Jews
and Arabs (1970); his quotation is from page 63. Muhammad’s quotation regarding
the protection of Jews and Christians is taken from The Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam,
p. 17. Peters’s quote is from Muhammad, p. 203 (original italics); Watt’s from
Muhammad at Medina (1956), 195.
H. G. Reissener’s views on the Jews of Medina are best described in “The
Ummi Prophet and the Banu Israil,” in The Muslim World (1949), while D. S. Mar-
goliouth’s views are discussed in his The Relations Between Arabs and Israelites Prior to
the Rise of Islam (1924). For the Arabian Jews’ knowledge of the Bible, see footnote
87 in S. W. Baron (1964), p. 261. Gordon Newby outlines the economic dominance
of the Jewish clans in Yathrib in A History of the Jews in Arabia (1988), pp. 75–79 and
84–85. For a treatment of the relationship between Muhammad and the Jewish
clans of Medina, see Hannah Rahman’s excellent essay “The Conflicts Between the
Prophet and the Opposition in Medina,” in Der Islam (1985); also Moshe Gil, “The
Medinan Opposition to the Prophet,” in Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam (1987),
as well as his “Origin of the Jews of Yathrib,” in Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam
(1984). The issue of archeology and Jewish identity is examined by Jonathan L.
Reed in his Archeology and the Galilean Jesus (2000).
For a history of Ibn Sayyad, see David J. Halperin, “The Ibn Sayyad Traditions
and the Legend of al-Dajjal,” in Journal of the American Oriental Society (1976). Even
though Ibn Sayyad may have accepted Muhammad’s prophetic mission, Muham-
mad seems to have denied Ibn Sayyad’s. In fact, Halperin shows how later Islamic
tradition transformed Ibn Sayyad into an Antichrist figure. For the connection
between Jesus and Muhammad, see Neal Robinson, Christ in Islam and Christianity
(1991).
Notes 281
The break with the Jews and Christians is examined in M. J. Kister, “Do Not
Assimilate Yourselves . . . ,” in Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam (1989). For more
on Muhammad’s monotheistic pluralism, see Mohammed Bamyeh, The Social Ori-
gins of Islam (1999), pp. 214–15. With the conquest of Persia, the Zoroastrians, who
are given special mention in the Quran (22:17) and who have a “book” (the Gathas)
which is older than both the Jewish and Christian texts, eventually become included
in the ahl al-Kitab. Who the Sabians were is difficult to say. Apparently, some reli-
gious groups, including a few Christian and Hindu sects, eagerly took on the Sabian
identity during the Muslim conquests in order to be counted as People of the Book
and thus be considered dhimmi. Nabia Abbot’s research on the early Muslim rela-
tions with the Jews can be found in Studies in Arabic Literary Papyri, vol. 2 (1967).
The practice of reading the Torah was, according to Abbot, characteristic of “the
early Muslims’ preoccupation with non-Islamic thought and literature,” especially
the literature of the Peoples of the Book.
5. The Rightly Guided Ones
The story of Muhammad’s death is derived from Ibn Hisham, trans. Guillaume,
pp. 1012–13. Goldziher’s quote is from Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law, p.
31–32; see also his Muslim Studies (1971). John Wansbrough’s theories can be found
in the previously cited Quranic Studies: Sources and Methods of Scriptural Interpretation
(1977), as well as The Sectarian Milieu: Content and Composition of Islamic Salvation
History (1978). Sarjeant’s review of Wansbrough’s Quranic Studies and Cook and
Crone’s Hagarism is from the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1978). Dale F. Eick-
elman provides a social anthropologist’s perspective on the “false prophets” in
“Musaylima,” Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient (1967). For more on
the ahl al-bayt, see M. Sharon, “Ahl al-Bayt—People of the House,” in Jerusalem
Studies in Arabic and Islam (1986). It should be noted that Sharon considers the term
ahl al-bayt to be a designation that was not formulated until the Umayyad period.
While this may be true, the sentiment behind the term (that it gave the Banu
Hashim a preeminent role in society) was thoroughly understood even before
Muhammad’s death. For the opposite view on the religious influence of the early
Caliphate, see Patricia Crone and Martin Hinds, God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in
the First Centuries of Islam (1986).
By far the best analysis of the succession question is Wilferd Madelung’s The
Succession to Muhammad (1997). To say that this chapter relies on Professor
Madelung’s work would be an understatement. I also recommend Rafiq Zakaria’s
The Struggle Within Islam (1988); Abu Bakr’s speech is from page 47. Zakaria also
provides a valuable analysis of Umar’s Caliphate on pages 48–53. See also M. A. Sha-
ban’s Islamic History (1994), pp. 16–19, and Moojan Momen’s fabulous primer on
Shi‘ism, An Introduction to Shi‘i Islam (1985), pp. 9–22; Momen notes that Ibn Han-
bal records ten different traditions in which Ali is referred to as Muhammad’s
“Aaron,” p. 325. Watt’s quote is from Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, p. 36.
Umar’s physical description as well as his quote regarding kinghood is taken
from the New Encyclopedia of Islam, edited by Cyril Glasse, p. 462. For the affair of
the necklace see al-Tabari, pp. 1518–28. Though traditions claim that Umar was the
first Caliph to use the title Amir al-Mu’manin, there is evidence to suggest that this
title was used by Abu Bakr as well.
Noeldeke’s excellent essay on the Quran can be found in the Encyclopaedia
Britannica, 9th ed., vol. 16 (1891); Caetani’s article “Uthman and the Recension
of the Koran” is from The Muslim World (1915). For examples of variant readings of
282 Notes
the Quran that have survived, see Arthur Jeffery, “A Variant Text of the Fatiha,” in
Muslim World (1939). Once again, I am indebted in these pages to Wilferd
Madelung’s analysis of Uthman’s assassination in The Succession to Muhammad, espe-
cially pages 78–140.
There are many books on the life and Caliphate of Ali. Particularly helpful to
this section was Momen’s An Introduction to Shi‘i Islam, as well as S. Husain M. Jafri,
The Origins and Early Development of Shi‘a Islam (1979). See also Mohamad Jawad
Chirri, The Brother of the Prophet Mohammad (1982). For more on the doctrine and
history of the Kharijites, see Montgomery Watt, The Formative Period of Islamic
Thought, pp. 9–37. Ali’s quote is from A Selection from “Nahjul Balagha,” translated
by Ali A. Behzadnia and Salwa Denny, p. 7. Ali was not the first to be called Imam;
all four Caliphs shared that title, though with Ali, the title of Imam emphasizes his
special relationship to the Prophet.
Sir Thomas W. Arnold’s quote is from The Caliphate (1966), p. 10. For various
views on the relationship between religion and politics in Islam, see Abu-l Ala
(Mawlana) Mawdudi’s Nationalism and India (1947), Abd ar-Raziq’s previously cited
Islam and the Bases of Power, Sayyid Qutb’s Social Justice in Islam (1953), and Ruhollah
Khomeini’s Islamic Government (1979).
6. This Religion Is a Science
There are numerous accounts of the inquisition of Ahmad ibn Hanbal before al-
Mu’tasim, most of which are compiled and brilliantly analyzed by Nimrod Hurvitz
in The Formation of Hanbalism: Piety into Power (2002). For biographies of both Ibn
Hanbal and al-Ma’mun, see Michael Cooperson, Classical Arabic Biography: The
Heirs of the Prophets in the Age of al-Ma’mun (2000). I draw my physical description of
Ibn Hanbal, as well as the deathbed quote of al-Ma’mun, from Cooperson’s text. For
more on the impact of the Inquisition, see Jonathan Berkey (2003), pp. 124–29, and
Richard Bulliet, Islam: The View from the Edge (1994), p. 115–27. The issue is also
treated quite well by Patricia Crone in her newest work, God’s Rule: Government and
Islam (2004). Malik ibn Anas is quoted in Mernissi, p. 59.
Wilfred Cantwell Smith’s description of Islamic orthodoxy is from his Islam in
Modern History (1957), p. 20. For general treatments of the Five Pillars, see
Mohamed A. Abu Ridah, “Monotheism in Islam: Interpretations and Social Mani-
festations,” in The Concept of Monotheism in Islam and Christianity, edited by Hans
Kochler (1982) and John Renard, Seven Doors to Islam (1996).
There is evidence (apart from the apocryphal story of Muhammad’s ascension
to heaven, when he negotiates the number of salats down from fifty to five) that the
early tradition prescribed only three salats a day. The Quran says “Hold the salat at
the two ends of the day as well as at the ends of the night” (11:114). Eventually, two
more salats must have been added, though no one is certain why or when. Ibn
Jubayr’s quote about Mecca and the Hajj is taken from his Voyages (1949–51). Mal-
colm X’s quote is from The Autobiography of Malcolm X (1965).
Al-Ghazali’s The Ninety-nine Beautiful Names of God has been translated into
English by David B. Burrell and Nazih Daher (1970), while his Revival of the Reli-
gious Sciences has been translated into English by Nabih Amin Faris as The Founda-
tions of the Articles of Faith (1963). Ali Shariati’s reflections on tawhid can be found in
his On the Sociology of Islam (1979).
The debate between the Traditionalists and the Rationalists is wonderfully illu-
minated in Binyamin Abrahamov’s Islamic Theology: Traditionalism and Rationalism
(1998). I also recommend the essays in Religious Schools and Sects in Medieval Islam,
Notes 283
edited by Wilferd Madelung (1985), as well as Montgomery Watt’s previously cited
The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. The beliefs of the Mu‘tazilah are discussed
in detail by Richard S. Martin, Mark R. Woodward, and Dwi S. Atmaja in Defenders
of Reason in Islam (1997), while the Ash‘arite position is laid out in Richard
McCarthy, The Theology of the Ash‘ari (1953). Al-Tahawi’s quote, as well as the creeds
of Abu Hanifah, Ibn Hanbal, and al-Ash‘ari, are all taken from Montgomery Watt’s
invaluable compilation, Islamic Creeds: A Selection (1994). See also George F.
Hourani, Islamic Rationalism: The Ethics of Abd al-Jabbar (1971).
Excellent translations of Ibn Rushd include his commentary on Aristotle’s
Metaphysics, translated by Charles Genequand (1984); The Epistle on the Possibility of
Conjunction with the Active Intellect, translated by Kalman P. Bland (1982); and Aver-
roes’ Three Short Commentaries on Aristotle’s “Topics,” “Rhetoric,” and “Poetics,” trans-
lated by Charles E. Butterworth (1977). It is important to note that the two-truth
theory is a misnomer, because according to Ibn Rushd, philosophical truth is the
only truth. For Ibn Sina, see his biography, The Life of Ibn Sina, translated by Wil-
liam E. Gohlman (1974), and his Treatise on Logic, translated by Farhang Zabeeh
(1971).
For more on oral peoples, see Denise Lardner Carmody and John Tully Car-
mody, Original Visions: The Religions of Oral Peoples (1993). For the role of poets and
poetry in the cult of the Ka‘ba, see Michael Sells, Desert Tracings: Six Classical Ara-
bian Odes (1989). Mohammed Bamyeh presents a wonderful discussion of the field
of miracle in his chapter titled “The Discourse and the Path” in The Social Origins of
Islam, pp. 115–40. My argument is completely indebted to his. See also Cragg, The
Event of the Qur’an, p. 67. Daya’s quote is from Annemarie Schimmel, And Muham-
mad Is His Messenger (1985) p. 67.
As will become apparent, there are some Muslims whose devotionalism has led
to a number of apocryphal stories about the miraculous acts of Muhammad and his
Companions. However, orthodox Islam flatly rejects these stories, considering
Muhammad to be just an empty vessel through which the Quran was revealed—
someone who should be emulated, but not worshipped like Christ. Incidentally, al-
Tabari narrates a particularly strange account of Muhammad snapping his fingers to
uproot a date tree and transport it to himself (p. 1146). But this story, like similar
ones about Ali raising people from the dead or walking on water, were primarily
apologetic in nature and meant to silence those critics who were accustomed to
prophets doing tricks to prove their divine mission.
For a more comprehensive examination of the debate over the created Quran, I
suggest Harry Austryn Wolfson, The Philosophy of Kalam, especially pages 235–78.
My quotations of Ibn Hazm and Ibn Kullab are from Wolfson’s text. For more on
the role and function of baraka in Islamic calligraphy, see Seyyed Hossein Nasr,
Islamic Art and Spirituality (1987). For general comments on baraka in the Quran,
see the first chapter of John Renard, Seven Doors to Islam (1996). William Graham’s
insightful article, “Qur’an as Spoken Word,” can be found in Approaches to Islam in
Religious Studies, edited by Richard C. Martin (2001). There are two kinds of
Quranic recitation: tajwid (embellished) and tartil (measured). The latter is less
musical and used primarily for worship. See Lois Ibsen al-Faruqi, “The Cantillation
of the Qur’an,” in Asian Music (1987), and Kristina Nelson, “Reciter and Listener:
Some Factors Shaping the Mujawwad Style of Qur’anic Reciting,” in Ethnomusicol-
ogy (1987).
There are six collections of hadith that are considered canonical: al-Bukhari’s;
al-Hajjaj’s; as-Sijistani’s (d. 875); al-Tirmidhi’s (d. 915); al-Nasa’i’s (d. 915); and Ibn
284 Notes
Maja’s (d. 886). Added to this list is the Shi‘ite compilation of Malik Ibn Anas
(d. 795), which was the first such collection to be written down. See Joseph Schacht,
Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (1950) and An Introduction to Islamic Law
(1964). Schacht’s quote is from “A Revaluation of Islamic Traditions,” in the Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Society (1949). See also Jonathan Berkey, The Formation of Islam,
pp. 141–51. The Pakistani scholar is Abdul Qadir Oudah Shaheed, and his quote is
from Criminal Law of Islam (1987), p. 13.
Mahmoud Taha’s views on the Quran can be found in The Second Message of
Islam (1996); see also Abdullahi an-Na’im, Toward an Islamic Reformation (1996). For
Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, see his brief article, “Divine Attributes in the Qur’an: Some
Poetic Aspects,” in Islam and Modernity, edited by John Cooper et al. (1998). Al-
Ghazali’s quote is from Zakaria’s Appendix 1, page 303.
For more on naskh see Ahmad Von Denffer, Ulum al-Qur’an: An Introduction to
the Sciences of the Qur’an (1983). There are scholars who reject the concept of naskh
altogether; see Ahmad Hasan, The Early Development of Islamic Jurisprudence (1970),
pp. 70–79. However, even Hasan recognizes the importance of historical context in
interpreting the Quran.
7. In the Footsteps of Martyrs
My narrative of Karbala relies on Syed-Mohsen Naquvi, The Tragedy of Karbala
(1992), and Lewis Pelly, The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain, 2 vols. (1879). For the
development and function of the Muharram ceremonies in Shi‘ism, see Heinz
Halm, Shi‘a Islam: From Religion to Revolution (1997); Halm’s quote is from page 41.
See also the sociological works on the subject done by Vernon Schubel, Religious
Performance in Contemporary Islam (1993), and David Pinault, The Shi‘ites (1992),
from which the two testimonials are taken (pp. 103–106). I also recommend Pin-
ault’s The Horse of Karbala (2001). Ehsan Yarshater traces the origins of lamentation
rituals in “Ta‘ziyeh and Pre-Islamic Mourning Rites” in Ta‘ziyeh: Ritual and Drama
in Iran, edited by Peter Chelowski (1979).
There are a few superb introductory texts on Shi‘ism, including the previously
cited Moojan Momen, An Introduction to Shi‘i Islam (1985), and S. Husain M. Jafri,
The Origins and Early Development of Shi‘a Islam (1979). An English translation of
Tabataba‘i’s work, Shi‘ite Islam, by Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1977) is available. For
Shi‘ite conceptions of Shariah, see Hossein Modarressi, An Introduction to Shi‘i Law
(1984). The concept of the “pre-existent Imam” is discussed in great detail in
Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi, The Divine Guide in Early Shi‘ism (1994). For the
Shi‘ite view of the Quran, see Tabataba‘i, The Qur’an in Islam (1987). Ja‘far as-Sadiq’s
exegesis of the Verse of Light is taken from Helmut Gatje, The Qur’an and Its Exege-
sis (1976).
However, very few books deal adequately with the origins and evolution of
the Mahdi in Islam. The books most useful to this study include Jassim M. Hussain,
The Occultation of the Twelfth Imam (1982), and Abdulaziz Abdulhussein Sachedina,
Islamic Messianism (1981). Sachedina also deals with the role of the Imam’s deputies
in The Just Ruler in Shi‘ite Islam (1988).
Ibn Khaldun’s seminal history The Muqaddimah is available in complete and
abridged English translations by the eminent Islamist Franz Rosenthal. Those
interested in an in-depth look at the machinations of the clerical establishment in
Iran should see Roy Mottahedeh’s marvelous book, The Mantle of the Prophet (1985).
There are too many general histories of the Iranian revolution to list, though I rec-
Notes 285
ommend Said Amir Arjomand’s The Turban for the Crown (1988) and the recently
released book by Charles Kurzman, The Unthinkable Revolution in Iran (2004). For a
more contemporary perspective see Dariush Zaheri, The Iranian Revolution: Then
and Now (2000). Sandra Mackey provides a delightful and readable account of Iran-
ian history in The Iranians (1996).
For more on Khomeinism see Ervand Abrahamian, Khomeinism: Essays on the
Islamic Republic (1993). For translations of Khomeini’s writings into English see
Islamic Government (1979); Islam and Revolution (1981); and A Clarification of Ques-
tions (1984). Khomeini’s reinterpretation of Shi‘ism is severely criticized by Moham-
mad Manzoor Nomani in Khomeini, Iranian, Revolution, and the Shi‘ite Faith (1988).
Khomeini’s poem is from Baqer Moin’s biography titled Khomeini: Life of the Ayatol-
lah (1999).
8. Stain Your Prayer Rug with Wine
There are a number of exquisite English translations of Nizami’s The Legend of Layla
and Majnun, including Colin Turner’s (1970), R. Gelpke’s (1966), and James Atkin-
son’s lovely verse rendition (1968). Mine is a loose combination of the three along
with my own translation of the Persian text. See also the critical analysis of the poem
by Ali Asghar Seyed-Gohrab, Layli and Majnun: Love, Madness and Mystic Longing in
Nizami’s Epic Romance (2003). For a discussion of the early development of Sufism I
suggest Shaykh Fadhlalla Haeri, The Elements of Sufism (1990) and Julian Baldick,
Mystical Islam (1989). Baldick provides a useful analysis of the various religious and
cultural influences on Sufism and also explores the meanings of the term. R. A.
Nicholson’s texts include The Mystics of Islam (1914) and Studies in Islamic Mysticism
(1921). Two of Idris Shah’s many invaluable texts on Sufism are The Sufis (1964) and
The Way of the Sufi (1969). See also Martin Lings, What Is Sufism? (1993); Inayat
Khan, The Unity of Religious Ideals (1929); Ian Richard Netton, Sufi Ritual (2000);
Nasrollah Pourjavady and Peter Wilson, Kings of Love (1978); J. Spencer Triming-
ham, The Sufi Orders in Islam (1971); Carl Ernst, Teachings of Sufism (1999); and
Titus Burckhardt, An Introduction to Sufi Doctrine (1976).
For the teachings of Shaykh Muhammad al-Jamal ar-Rafa’i ash-Shadhili, see
his Music of the Soul (1994). The historical and theological relationship between
Shi‘ism and Sufism is outlined in Kamil M. al-Shaibi, Sufism and Shi‘ism (1991).
Finally, there exists a helpful though not easily digested series of Sufi Essays by
Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1972).
Al-Ghazali’s The Alchemy of Happiness is translated by Claud Field (1980), while
The Niche of Lights is translated by David Buchman (1998). For more on al-Ghazali’s
philosophy see Montgomery Watt, The Faith and Practice of al-Ghazali (1953). Al-
Hujwiri’s The Revelation of the Mystery is translated by Reynold Nicholson (1911).
Without question the best translation of Farid ad-Din Attar’s The Conference of the
Birds is by Afkham Darbandi and Dick Davis (1984). The Persian scholar and Sufi
Javad Nurbakhsh delves into the relationship between teacher and taught in his
short tract, Master and Disciple in Sufism (1977). On the stations along the Way,
see Shaykh Abd al-Khaliq al-Shabrawi, The Degrees of the Soul (1997), and Abu’l
Qasim al-Qushayri, Sufi Book of Spiritual Ascent, translated by Rabia Harris (1997).
Al-Hallaj’s Kitab al-Tawasin is available only in a French translation by the great
scholar of Sufism, Louis Massignon (1913). Massignon’s Essay on the Origins of the
Technical Language of Islamic Mysticism (1997) is a helpful tool for those students
already familiar with the rudiments of Sufism.
286 Notes
The concept of monism in Sufism is discussed at length by Molana Salaheddin
Ali Nader Shah Angha in The Fragrance of Sufism (1996). Ibn al-Arabi’s Fusus al-
Hikam is available in English as The Wisdom of the Prophets (1975). For more on
Rabia and other Sufi women, see Camille Adams Helminski, Women of Sufism
(2003), and Margaret Smith, Rabi’a the Mystic and Her Fellow-Saints in Islam (1928).
Rabia’s poems are nicely collected and translated by Charles Upton in Doorkeeper of
the Heart: Versions of Rabi’a (1988).
The best translations of Rumi include Colman Barks, The Essential Rumi
(1995), and the two-volume Mystical Poems of Rumi translated by A. J. Arberry
(1968); see also Reynold Nicholson’s Rumi: Poet and Mystic (1950). For more on
Rumi’s life see Annemarie Schimmel, I Am Wind, You Are Fire: The Life and Works of
Rumi (1992). For Hafiz see Nahid Angha, Selections (1991) and Ecstasy (1998). Gen-
eral treatises on Sufi poetry include Ali Asani and Kamal Abdel-Malek, Celebrating
Muhammad (1995), and J.T.P. de Bruijn, Persian Sufi Poetry (1997).
With regard to Sufism in India I suggest Muhammad Mujeeb, Indian Muslims
(1967) and Carl W. Ernst, Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History, and Politics at a South
Asian Sufi Center (1992). See also Bruce Lawrence, “The Early Chisti Approach to
Sama‘,” in Islamic Societies and Culture: Essays in Honor of Professor Aziz Ahmad, edited
by Milton Israel and N. K. Wagle (1983).
Iqbal’s quote is from Ali Shariati’s commentary, Iqbal: Manifestations of the
Islamic Spirit (1991). See also Muhammad Iqbal, The Reconstruction of Religious
Thought in Islam (1960).
9. An Awakening in the East
Frederick Cooper’s description of the execution of the 26th N.I. infantry is
excerpted in Edward J. Thompson, The Other Side of the Medal (1925), though for
historical context and literary enhancement I have had to add a little bit to Cooper’s
account and rearrange the order of his narrative. Trevelyan’s comment to the House
of Commons is quoted in Thomas R. Metcalf, The Aftermath of Revolt (1964); see
also C. E. Trevelyan, On the Education of the People of India (1838). Benjamin Disraeli
and Alexander Duff are both quoted in Ainslee T. Embree’s collection 1857 in India
(1963). Bahadur Shah’s appeal to the Indian people is from the Azimgarh Proclama-
tion, printed in Charles Ball, The History of the Indian Mutiny (1860). For firsthand
accounts of the British response to the Indian Revolt see C. G. Griffiths, Siege of
Delhi (1912), and W. H. Russell, My Indian Diary (1957). Cecil Rhodes’s description
and quote are from The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed., 2001.
For Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan’s writings and views see his The Causes of the Indian
Revolt (1873), and his “Lecture on Islam,” excerpted in Christian W. Troll, Sayyid
Ahmed Khan: A Reinterpretation of Muslim Theology (1978). For more on the Aligarth,
see The Aligarth Movement: Basic Documents 1864–1898, collected by Shan Muham-
mad (1978). Moulavi Chiragh Ali’s quote is from The Proposed Political, Legal, and
Social Reforms in the Ottoman Empire and Other Mohammadan States (1883). For more
on Abu-l Ala (Mawlana) Mawdudi see Nationalism and Islam (1947) and The Islamic
Movement (1984).
For texts on colonialism in Egypt, see Joel Gordon, Nasser’s Blessed Movement
(1992); Juan R. I. Cole, Colonialism and Revolution in the Middle East (1993); and
William Welch, No Country for a Gentleman (1988). Al-Afghani’s life and works are
analyzed in Nikki R. Keddie, Sayyid Jamal al-Din “al-Afghani”: A Political Biography
(1972); M. A. Zaki Badawi, The Reformers of Egypt (1979); and Charles C. Adams,
Notes 287
Islam and Modernism in Egypt (1933). For Muhammad Abdu, see Osman Amin,
Muhammad ‘Abduh (1953), and Malcolm H. Kerr, Islamic Reform: The Political and
Legal Theories of Muhammad ‘Abduh and Rashid Rida (1966). For Hasan al-Banna I
suggest his Memoirs of Hasan al-Banna Shaheed (1981) as well as Richard P. Mitchell,
Society of the Muslim Brothers (1969) and Pioneers of Islamic Revival, edited by Ali Rah-
nema (1995).
Good texts on Pan-Arabism include Sylvia G. Haim’s collection, Arab National-
ism (1962); Nissim Rejwan, Arabs Face the Modern World (1998); Abd al-Rahman al-
Bazzaz, Islam and Nationalism (1952); Michael Doran, Pan-Arabism Before Nasser
(1999); and Taha Husayn, The Future of Culture in Egypt (1954).
For Sayyid Qutb see his masterpiece, Milestones (1993), and his Social Justice in
Islam, translated by William Shepard as Sayyid Qutb and Islamic Activism (1996). See
also Jalal-e Ahmad, Gharbzadeghi (1997).
Saudi Arabia’s history is recounted in Madawi al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi
Arabia (2003). For Wahhabism I suggest Hamid Algar’s short introduction Wah-
habism: A Critical Essay (2002). It should be noted that Wahhabis prefer to call them-
selves ahl al-tawhid, or al-Muwahhidun.
There are few better general introductions to the history of political Islam than
Gilles Kepel’s Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam (2002) and The War for Muslim Minds
(2004). See also Anthony Shadid, The Legacy of the Prophet (2002). Osama bin Laden’s
quote is from an interview he gave to ABC reporter John Miller in May 1998.
10. Slouching Toward Medina
There were two draft constitutions after the revolution in 1979. The first draft,
which did not give the clerics an important role in the government, was, ironically,
rejected by Iran’s leftist parties. The second draft, completed in November by a
seventy-three-member Assembly of Experts, revamped the original documents to
establish clerical domination of the state.
The activities of the CDC and the American Type Culture Collection before
and during the Iran-Iraq war have been documented by recently declassified gov-
ernment papers. See “Report: U.S. Supplied the Kinds of Germs Iraq Later Used
for Biological Weapons,” in USA Today, September 30, 2002.
For more on the Taliban see Ahmed Rashid, The Taliban (2000). Harvey Cox’s
The Secular City (1966) is essential reading for all students of religion and politics;
see also Will Herberg, Protestant, Catholic, Jew (1955).
Abdulaziz Sachedina’s The Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism (2001) is an
excellent discussion of Islamic pluralism. While there are few books by Abdolkarim
Soroush in English, a collection of his essential writings has been compiled and
translated by Mahmoud and Ahmad Sadri under the title Reason, Freedom, and
Democracy in Islam: Essential Writings of Abdolkarim Soroush (2002). The quotation is
from his acceptance speech for the “Muslim Democrat of the Year” award given by
the Center for the Study of Islam and Democracy in Washington, D.C., in 2004.
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Index
Aaron, 9, 117, 182 Abu Bakr: and Ali, 119–22; and Ali-Aisha
Abassid Dynasty/Empire, 136–37, 140–43, conflict, 131; death of, 121–22; and
disinheritance of Ali and Fatima,
186, 205. See also specific caliph 119–20; and Medinan ideal, 258; and
Abbott, Nabia, 101 Muhammad’s death, 108–9; as Mu-
Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud, 243, 244–45, 247 hammad’s follower, 41–42; and
Abd al-Jabbar, Ahmad, 153 Muhammad’s marriages, 64; and
Abd al-Malik, 178 Muhammad’s pilgrimage to Mecca,
Abd al-Muttalib, Abbas ibn, 19, 22 105; and Muhammad’s withdrawal
Abd al-Rahman al-Bazzaz, 124, 125, 137, from Mecca, 48, 49; and nature and
function of Caliphate, 133; and Quran,
234 126; and Quraysh-Muhammad con-
Abd al-Rahman III, 95 flict, 48, 49, 88, 105; and Riddah Wars,
Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad ibn, 241, 242, 134; as successor to Muhammad,
112–13, 114–15, 117, 118–22, 124,
243 125, 126; and successors to Muham-
Abd ar-Raziq, Ali, 53, 138 mad, 107, 128, 129, 130, 133; and
Abd Manaf (clan), 116 Sufism, 217; Umar as successor to,
Abd Sham (clan), 116, 125 121–22, 124; and Yathrib migration, 51
Abdallah (Muhammad’s father), 19
Abdu, Muhammad, 231–33, 235, 242, Abu Bakra, 68–69
Abu Dujanah, 78
258 Abu Gakr, 128
Abraham: Arabs as descendants of, 10; and Abu Hanifah, 155, 158, 165–66
Abu Lahab, 47
Hanifism, 14, 16, 22; influence on Abu Qais ibn al-Aslat, 14
Muhammad of, 17, 44; Islam as con- Abu Ridah, Mohamed A., 145
nected to, 88; and Ka‘ba, 4, 9, 14, 106; Abu Said al-Khudri, 69
Karbala revealed to, 179; and Muham- Abu Sufyan, 76, 78, 90, 106, 124, 134
mad’s views about Jews and Christians, Abu Talib, 20, 32, 41, 45, 47–48
102, 103, 104, 106; as prophet, 34, 182; Abu Ubayda, 112
reverence for, 10; and Shi‘ites, 179; Abu Zayd, Nasr Hamid, 169
successors to, 117; Torah revealed by,
35; wives of, 64
Abrahamov, Binyamin, 153
Abu Amir ar-Rahib, 14
296 Index
Abyssinia, 18, 28–29, 48 al-Sha’ri, Zaynab bint, 70
Adam (first man), 4, 9, 35, 99, 113, 149, 179, al-Tabari, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad, 16, 19, 35,
208, 213 42, 56, 62, 96, 147–48
adultery, 71 al-Tahawi, 151
Afghanistan, 53, 63, 72, 137, 166, 170, 219, al-Waqidi, 53
al-Zubayr, Abd Allah ibn (al-Mu’manin),
259–60
Ahmad, Barakat, 92–93 177–78, 185–86
Ahmad, Jalal-e, 238, 251 Algar, Hamid, 242–43
Ahmad, Karima bint, 70 Algeria, 236, 255, 261
Ahmed Khan, Sayyid, 85–86, 225–27, 230 Ali (Husayn’s son), 172, 177, 184. See also
Ahmed, Leila, 66
Ahura Mazda, 13 Zayn al-Abadin
Aisha (Muhammad’s wife): and affair of the Ali Akbar (Husayn’s son), 172
Ali ar-Rida, Imam, 183
necklace, 120–21; and Ali, 130–31, Ali Ibn Abi Talib (Muhammad’s cousin and
134, 177; and Battle of the Camel,
130–31, 177; and hadith, 70; inheri- son-in-law): and Abu Bakr, 119–22;
tance of, 119; and marriages of and Aisha, 130–31, 134, 177; amir
Muhammad, 64–65; and Muhammad appointments of, 174; and Battle of the
on Mount Hira, 36; and Muhammad’s Camel, 130–31, 177; as caliph, 127,
death, 109, 119; Muhammad’s relation- 133–35, 175; as Commander of the
ship with, 74, 107, 121; and nature and Faithful, 130; death/martyrdom of,
function of Caliphate and Ummah, 135–36, 173; as Imam, 136, 182, 184;
131; and Quraysh-Muhammad con- inheritance of, 119–20, 123; Karbala
flict, 77; and successors to Muhammad, revealed to, 179; as Mahdi, 185, 186; as
119, 120–21, 125, 130–31, 134; model of Muslim piety, 135–36; and
wounding of, 134 Mu‘awiyah, 134–35, 175, 176;
Akhbari School, 184 Muhammad’s relationship with, 41,
al-Abass, 136 133–34; and Muhammad’s return to
al-Afghani, Jamal ad-Din, 229–31, 232, 233, Mecca, 106; and Muhammad’s with-
235, 242, 258 drawal from Mecca, 48; and nature and
al-Ahad, 214 function of Caliphate, 133–34; refuses
al-Anhuri, Salim, 230, 231 Caliphate, 129, 130; and Shi‘ites, 181;
al-Arabi, 151, 215 sons of, 176, 177; and successors to
al-Ash‘ari, Abu’l Hasan, 154 Muhammad, 112, 115–17, 119–22,
al-Aswad, 110 123–24, 125, 127, 129–30; tomb of,
al-Ayham, Jabalah ibn, 59 244; and Umar, 123; and Uthman, 127,
al-Banna, Hasan, 235–38, 239, 242, 251, 129–30, 133
253 Ali, Ahmed, 69–70
al-Baqir, Muhammad, 184 Ali, Chiragh, 86, 227
al-Basra, Hasan, 152, 212 Ali, Fatima bint, 70
al-Bukhari, Muhammad, 163, 164 Ali, Muhammad, 244
al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid, 150, 151, 166, 205, Aligarth School, 218–19, 226–27, 228, 231
216, 235 Allah (creator god), 6–7, 8, 10, 18, 40, 93,
al-Hujwiri, 206 110
al-Husri, Sati, 233–34, 242 Allat (goddess), 7, 14, 16, 22, 27
al-Jili, Abdul Karim, 215 Amina (Muhammad’s mother), 19, 21
al-Khudri, Abu Said, 69 Amir tribe, 8
al-Ma’mum (caliph), 137, 141, 142–43, 158 amirs (governors), 123, 125, 126, 127, 130,
al-Mu‘attal, Safwan ibn, 120–21 174
al-Mu’manin, See Zubayr, Abd Allah ibn al- Andrae, Tor, 93
al-Mu’tasim, 140–42, 143 Angha, Maghsoud Sadegh, 210, 214
al-Nasser, Gamal Abd, 237–38, 239, 240, Anglo-Saudi Treaty (1915), 244
245 Ansar, 74, 108, 112, 115–16, 117, 125, 130,
al-Qaeda, 136, 247–48 177–78
al-Salba: rebellion in, 247 apostasy, 119
Aquinas, Thomas, 151
Arab purity. See Wahhabism Index 297
Arafat, W. N., 92–93
Aristotle, 151 Caliphate: as absolute monarchy, 114; and
Armstrong, Karen, 93 Ali’s refusal of title of Caliph, 130; and
army, Islamic, 123, 175 approvals of Caliphs, 122; and Battle of
Arnold, Thomas, 136 the Camel, 131; and Caliph as king,
asceticism, 199, 200 136; as civil institution, 114; decline
ash-Shadhili, Muhammad, 201, 232 and demise of, 137–38, 234, 244–45;
ash-Shafii, Muhammad, 165 and divine sanction of al-Ma’mum,
Ash‘arite School, 153–55, 205. See also Tra- 142–43; first, 112–13; and Hasan-
Mu‘awiyah conflict, 174; and Imams,
ditionalists 181; nature and functions of, 113, 117,
Ashura (holy day), 244 126, 130–34, 136, 138–39, 142–43,
Ataturk, Kemal, 234 233; and profession of faith, 152; and
Attar, Farid ad-Din, 206–8, 209, 211, 212, prophethood, 123; restoration of, 138,
170; and revolt against Uthman,
213 126–29; and Riddah Wars, 119; and
Averroës, 153 Rightly Guided Ones, 136, 138, 258,
Avicenna, 155 265; Shaykhs compared with, 113; and
Aws tribe, 55, 56–57, 92, 116 successors to Muhammad, 113, 114,
ayatollahs, 185. See also specific person 115–20, 123–25, 126–39; and Ulama,
Azhar University, 169, 232, 235 143; and Umar’s conversion, 155–56;
Aziz, Shah Abdul, 179 and Ummah, 131–32, 136, 143; and
Azzam, Abdullah Yusuf, 86–87 Wahhabism, 244; and Yazid-Husayn
conflict, 176–77; zakat during, 147. See
Badr, battle at, 56, 76, 78, 83–84, 87–88, 89 also specific Caliph or Caliphate
Baghdad, 136–37, 142, 204
Bahadur Shah II, 222, 224 calligraphy, 159, 217
Bahira (Christian monk), 20–21 capital punishment, 119
Bamyeh, Mohammed, 100 caravans, 20–22, 23, 82–83, 89
Baqura, 12 celibacy, 201
Bar Kochba, Simon, 9 Central Asia, 165–66, 199, 202, 216
baraka, 159–60, 210 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 188,
Baron, S. W., 92, 96
Basra, 20–21, 68, 126, 127, 128, 130 252, 259, 260
Battle of Siffin, 134–35 charity, 33–34, 58, 147, 150
Battle of the Camel, 130–31, 134, 177 Chisti Order, 217–18
Battle of the Trench, 91–92, 104 Christianity: Alexandrian, 11; Antiochian,
Battle of Uhud, 90, 91–92
Bedouins, 5, 29–32, 49, 54, 62, 91, 116, 147 11; Arian, 11; Byzantine, 94; disappear-
believers: intention of, 145, 146 ance in Islamic lands of, 95; evolution
Bell, Richard, 46 of, 248; Gnostic, 11; historical infor-
Berkey, Jonathan, 164 mation about, 22; in Holy Roman
Bhutto, Benazir, 257 Empire, 11, 80; influence on Muham-
Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali, 256–57 mad of, 17–18, 44; internal conflict
bin Laden, Osama, 86–87, 248, 259–60 within, 115, 248; and Judaism, 183;
Black Stone, 9–10 and Ka‘ba, 11–12; lamentation in, 178;
“blood money,” 30 missionary activity of, 10, 95, 115,
Boroujerdi, Ayatollah, 191–92 223–28, 236; Modalist, 11; Mono-
Buddhism, 80, 199, 213, 217 physite, 11, 12; Montanist, 11; and
Bulliet, Richard, 28, 143 Muhammad’s marriages, 64; Muham-
Burckhardt, Titus, 208–9 mad’s views about, 94, 98–99, 100,
Byzantine Empire, 10, 29, 67, 79–80, 94, 101–2, 103–4, 262; mystics in, 208;
Nestorian, 11; as “orthodoxic” reli-
101, 108, 131, 175 gion, 144; and paganism, 10–12, 13,
14; and “People of the Book,” 100;
Caetani, Leone, 127 persecution of, 94; in pre-Islamic Ara-
calendar, Islamic, 52 bia, 10–12, 13, 14, 17–18, 22, 40; pro-
tection taxes for, 94–95, 147; and
Quran as revealed scripture, 99; reform
298 Index
Christianity (cont’d ): culture, 17, 126, 167
movements within, 85; and religious Cyrus the Great, 12
pluralism in Islam, 262; in Spain, 137;
and Sufism, 199, 205, 210, 215–16; in Damascus, 122, 136, 173, 174, 175, 176–78
Syria, 19; as unbelievers, 103; in U.S., dar al-Islam (House of Islam), 85
262; and women, 71; Yemen as seat of, David, 21, 34, 35, 64, 113, 117
10; Zoroastrian influence on, 12. See Daya, Nadjm ad-Din Razi, 157
also Crusades Demirel, Suleyman, 72
democracy: American, 258–59, 261; clergy’s
citizenship: and religion, 80
clans, 24, 54. See also specific clan role in, 265; and human rights, 264; in
clergy: and Islamic democracy, 265. See also Iran, 139, 188; Islamic, 52–53, 258,
260–61, 264–66; and Islamic funda-
ayatollahs; specific person mentalism, 261, 264; and Islamic
colonialism: in Egypt, 228–40; in India, Reformation, 253–54, 258–59, 260–61;
Medina as archetype for, 52–53, 258;
220–28, 255; and Islam as warrior reli- and morality, 261, 264, 265; and plu-
gion, 79; and jihad, 86; and Mod- ralism, 262–63, 264; and religion, 265;
ernism, 225–40; and “Muhammad in and secularism/secularization, 261–62,
Medina,” 52; and partitioning of lands, 264; and separation of church and
255–56; and Sufism, 219; and women, state, 258–59, 262
72–73 Deobandi School, 219
commercial fairs, 23, 26, 28, 46, 48 dhikr, 216–18, 242
Companions: authority of, 68–69, 70; and dhimmi, 94, 108, 262, 263. See also Chris-
building of cohesive religious system, tianity; Jews/Judaism
110–11; as early followers of Muham- dietary laws, 58, 100, 101
mad, 42, 67, 105; and expansion of Disraeli, Benjamin, 224
Islam, 74; as first generation of Mus- divine sanction, 142–43
lims, 67; and Jewish influence on divorce, 62, 63, 121
Muhammad, 101; and Muhammad’s dowry, 61–62
death, 110–11; and Muhammad’s dreams: of Muhammad, 75–76, 77; and
pilgrimage to Mecca, 105; Quraysh Quraysh-Muhammad conflict, 77
boycott of, 46–47; and Quraysh- Drunken Sufis, 214
Muhammad conflict, 45, 76, 105; as Duff, Alexander, 226
repositories of oral anecdotes, 67;
and revolt against Uthman, 128, 129; East India Company, 222, 223–24, 225, 229
and successors to Muhammad, 107, Ebadi, Shirin, 74
112, 114, 116, 118, 122, 123, 125, Ebtekar, Masoumeh, 72
127, 128, 129, 130; and Sunna, 163, egalitarianism: and destruction of tribal
164; tombs of, 243; and Yathrib emi-
gration, 48–49, 50–52, 57. See also ethic, 31–32; and evolution of Islam,
specific person 82; in Iran, 251; and Islam as nascent
The Conference of the Birds (Attar), 206–8, 212 religion, 59–60; and Islam as revolu-
Conrad, Lawrence, 36 tionary experiment, 74; and Islamic
constitution: and Constitution of Medina, Reformation, 264; and Medina ideal,
55–56, 57, 59, 82, 89–90, 99; and 264; and Modernists, 230, 235, 238;
debate about Caliphate and Ummah, and successors to Muhammad, 134;
138; in Iran, 251–52, 253; Quran as, and tribes, 29, 31–32; and women, 66,
257 71; and Yazid-Ali conflict, 175
conversions. See proselytizing Egypt: colonialism in, 228–40; democracy
Cooper, Frederick, 220–22 in, 261; and diversity within Islam,
Council at Chalcedon (451 C.E.), 11 257; Fatimids in, 137; and Great
Cox, Harvey, 261 Britain, 228–40; and Islamic Reforma-
Cragg, Kenneth, 35, 157 tion, 257, 261; khedives in, 228–29,
crime, 59 234, 237, 244; legal system in, 170;
Cromer, Alfred, Lord, 72–73 Modernists in, 229–40, 245;
Crone, Patricia, 27, 28, 113 Mu‘awiyah in, 135; Nasser in, 237–38,
Crusades, 79, 80, 85, 263
245; nationalists in, 234; and Quran, Index 299
126; religion and state in, 138; and
revolt against Uthman, 127, 128, 129; Great Britain: and colonialism, 220–40, 255,
and Shariah, 170; Umar’s defeat of, 256; and Egypt, 228–40; and India,
122; and Wahhabism, 244 220–28, 255, 256; and Iraq, 255; and
Eickelman, Dale, 110 Saudi Arabia, 244, 247
El Fadl, Khaled Abou, 169
Ellenborough, Lord, 223–24 hadith (oral anecdotes), 67–71, 163–64, 184,
Emigrants. See Companions; Ummah 186
Enlightenment: European, 206, 222–23,
225, 227, 248; Islamic, 227; and Hadl (clan), 53
Sufism, 206 Haeri, Fadhlalla, 200–201
Europe: al-Afghani’s views about, 231; Hafiz (Sufi poet), 209, 211, 214
Thirty Years’ War in, 248. See also spe- Hafsah (Muhammad’s wife), 64
cific nation Hagar, 4, 149
extremism, Islamic, 133, 261. See also specific Hajj pilgrimage, 5, 148–50, 205, 210, 246
person or organization Hakam (tribal mediator), 29, 30–31, 32,
Fadlallah, Shaykh, 87 55–57, 58, 88, 92, 124, 135. See also spe-
Fakhr ad-Din ar-Razi, 69 cific person
Fakhry, Majid, 69, 70 Halm, Heinz, 179
fasting, 58, 100, 146, 147–48, 150 Hamas, 86, 246
Fatima (Muhammad’s daughter), 41, 73, Hamzah (Muhammad’s uncle), 76, 78
Hanafi School, 155, 165–66, 167
117, 119–20, 137, 176, 177, 179, 182, Hanbali School, 141, 144, 154, 166
244 Hanifism (monotheistic movement), 13–15,
Fatimids, 137 22, 32, 40, 43, 44, 88, 89
feminism, Islamic, 53, 71, 73–74 Harun al-Rashid, 142
Faqih. See Valayat-e Faqih Hasan (Muhammad’s grandson), 41, 127–28,
Five Pillars of Islam, 145–55, 201 129, 172, 173–74, 176, 180, 181, 184,
followers. See Companions; Ummah 185, 188
free will, 153, 154 Hashim (clan): and Ali’s death, 135; and
Fueck, Jonathan, 15 early verses revealed by Muhammad,
fundamentalism, 79, 241–42, 245, 246–47, 41; and Hasan-Mu‘awiyah conflict,
261, 264. See also Wahhabism 174; and Husayn’s death, 173; as
Muhammad’s clan, 24; as part of
Gabrieli, Francesco, 88, 92 Quraysh tribe, 32; Quraysh boycott of,
Ghassanids, 10, 11, 12 46–47; and Sharif of Mecca, 240; and
Ghaznavid Dynasty, 137 successors to Muhammad, 112,
Gil, Moshe, 89–90 115–16, 117, 119, 123, 124–25, 130,
Gnosticism, 11, 115, 199, 215–16 135
God: attributes of, 145, 154–55; baraka of, Hashim (Muhammad’s great grandfather),
26
159–60; essence of, 155, 201, 210–11; Hawting, G. R., 5
as good, 39–40; and love, 211; and henotheism, 8, 40
monotheism, 43; Muhammad’s rela- hereditary succession, 116–17
tionship with, 216; names for, 214; heretics, 11, 158
Oneness and Unity of, 149, 150–55, Hidden Imam, 186, 191, 192. See also Mahdi
213–14, 215, 248, 263; Quran as, 158; Hidden Sufi, 205
as reality, 213 Hind (wife of Abu Sufyan), 76, 78, 106, 124
gods, 7–8, 15. See also paganism; specific god Hinds, Martin, 113
Goiten, S. D., 98 Hindus, 199, 208, 210, 213, 224, 256, 262,
Goldziher, Ignaz, 68, 111 263
Gospels, 35, 68, 99, 101, 102, 103, 157, 216 Hizbullah, 86, 87
Graetz, Heinrich, 92 Hodgson, Marshall, 59
Graham, William, 160 Holy Roman Empire, 11, 79, 80, 122, 167
Grant, Charles, 223 “holy war”: and jihad, 80–81
Hosea, 64
Hubal (Syria moon god), 3, 8, 14, 78, 106
300 Index
Hudaybiyyah, Treaty of, 104–5 Sepoy Mutiny in, 220–28, 255; and
human rights, 263–64 successors to Muhammad, 137; Sufism
Huntington, Samuel, 79 in, 202, 210, 217–18, 219; Sunnis in,
Husayn ibn Ali (Muhammad’s grandson): as 165–66; Taliban in, 219
Indonesia, 255, 260
Caliph, 176; death of, 172, 178, 190; as inheritance laws, 61–62, 163
Imam, 184; and Iranian Revolution of Inquisition, Muslim, 95, 137, 140–42, 143,
1979, 188; as Mahdi, 185; martyrdom 158
of, 41, 179, 180–81, 188, 190; and International Women’s Day (1998), 72
Mu‘awiyah, 176; and revolt against Iqbal, Muhammad, 219
Uthman, 128; as revolutionary, 179; Iran: amnesty to expatriates in, 250–51;
and Shi‘ites, 179, 181; tomb of, 244; Aslan’s trip to, 249–51; ayatollahs in,
Yazid’s conflict with, 171–73, 176–78 185, 191–92; democracy in, 139, 188;
Hussein, Saddam, 190, 247, 252–53 and diversity within Islam, 257; egali-
tarianism in, 251; expansion of Islam
Ibn Abi Du’ad, 141, 142 to, 263; Faqih in, 260; Iraq’s war with,
Ibn al-Hanafiyyah, Muhammad, 177, 86, 190, 252–53; and Islamic Reforma-
tion, 249–54, 257, 260, 261, 265;
185–86 Islamic Republic of, 170, 189, 251–52,
Ibn Anas, Malik, 144 265; and jihad, 86; and Medina as
Ibn Asad, Ka’b, 90 archetype, 53; Modernism in, 236;
Ibn Hanbal, Ahmad, 141, 152–53, 158, 166 Revolution of 1905 in, 189, 252, 254;
Ibn Haritha, 16 Revolution of 1953 in, 188, 189, 254;
Ibn Hazm, 158 Revolution of 1979 in, 86, 139, 185,
Ibn Hisham, 13–14, 15, 33, 35, 36–37, 38, 187–88, 189–90, 251–52, 254; as secu-
lar nation, 261; Shah of, 187, 189–90,
42, 56 251, 252; and Shariah, 166; and Shi‘atu
Ibn Ishaq, 15, 25 Ali, 174; Shi‘ites in, 170, 251; and suc-
Ibn Jubayr, 148 cessors to Muhammad, 137; Umar’s
Ibn Junayd, 204 defeat of, 122; and U.S., 252–53;
Ibn Khaldun, 186 women in, 72, 74. See also Khomeini,
Ibn Kullab, 158 Ruhollah; Sasanian Empire
Ibn Maja, 69 Iraq, 86, 126, 129, 176, 185, 190, 234, 245,
Ibn Mansur al-Hallaj, Husayn, 163, 164, 252–53, 255, 256
Isaac, 4, 117, 182
204–6, 212–13 Isaiah, 103
Ibn Mu‘adh, Sa‘d, 92 Islam: as alternative to Judaism, 96; anti-
Ibn Muljam, Abd al Rahman Ibn ’Amr, 135 Jewish sentiments in, 92; and building
Ibn Rushd, 153 of cohesive religious system, 110–11;
Ibn Saud, Muhammad, 240–41, 243–44 as civilization, 230; as communal reli-
Ibn Sayyad, 98 gion, 200, 264; conflicts/diversity
Ibn Shaprut, Hasdai, 95 within, 114–15, 131, 136–37, 257, 266;
Ibn Sina, 155 contemporary portrayals of, 78–79;
Ibn Taymiyya, 85 emergence of, 5, 27–28, 58; enemies
identity: Muslim, 80, 132; tribal, 46 of, 108; evolution of, 81–82, 110–11,
ijma (juridical consensus), 164–65, 167, 232, 248, 266; first civil war in, 131; Golden
Era of, 114–15; historical evidence
258 about, 27–28; mission and principles
ijtihad (independent reasoning), 165, 169, of, 43; origins and birth of, 17–18,
52–53, 79–80; as orthopraxic religion,
184–85, 232 144; as religion of diversity, 263; reli-
Ikhwan warriors, 247 gious pluralism in, 262–63; as revolu-
Imams, 136, 181–84, 190, 191, 192, 200, tionary experiment, 74; spread of, 46,
52–53, 66–71, 80, 82, 110, 131, 159,
215, 242, 244. See also specific person 164, 175, 263; stereotypes of, 78–79;
imperialism, 219, 225, 227, 231, 233, 237,
251, 255
India: colonialism in, 218–19, 220–28, 255,
256; democracy in, 262; expansion of
Islam in, 66, 263; Hindu Awakening in,
262; independence in, 255; partition-
ing of, 255, 256; pluralism in, 262;
Index 301
Sufism’s relationship to, 201, 204; anti-Jewish sentiments, 92; lamentation
superiority of, 239; theological devel- in, 178; in Medina, 89–94, 96–97, 102;
opment of, 110–11; unity in, 138–39, and monotheism, 10; Muhammad’s
239–40, 248; universality of, 138, 237; views about, 93, 94, 95–99, 100–101,
as warrior religion, 78–79. See also 102–4, 262; and Muhammad’s views
Muslims about marriage, 63; Muslim relations
Islamic Association ( Jama‘at-i Islami), 138, with, 53, 93–104, 137; as “orthopraxic”
227–28, 246, 256 religion, 144; and paganism, 9–10, 12,
Islamic Jihad, 246 13, 22; and “People of the Book,” 100;
Islamic Reformation: and democracy, persecution of, 94; in pre-Islamic Ara-
253–54, 258–59, 260–61; in Iran, bia, 9–10, 12, 13, 17–18, 22, 40; prose-
249–54, 257, 260, 261, 265; and parti- lytizing by, 95; protection taxes for,
tioning of lands, 255–56, 263; and sec- 94–95, 147; and Quran, 97, 99; and
ularism, 258–59; and sovereignty, 252, Quraysh-Muhammad conflict, 76, 89;
265 and religious pluralism in Islam, 262; in
Islamism, 239–40. See also Wahhabism Spain, 95; in Syria, 122; and Umar, 93;
Islamization of society, 236 as unbelievers, 103; and women, 71; in
Ismail ( Ja‘far’s son), 185 Yathrib, 54–55, 56–57; Zoroastrian
Ismail (Safavid ruler), 187, 188, 190 influence on, 12. See also Muslim-Jewish
Ismail (son of Abraham), 4, 117, 179, 182 relations; specific clan or person
Ismailis (Seveners), 185–86 jihad, 79–81, 84–88, 243–44, 260
isnad (chain of transmission), 67, 163, 164 Jinn, 7, 8, 44
Israel, 262 Jinnah, Muhammad Ali, 256
John the Baptist, 22, 103, 216
Jacob, 10, 64, 117 Jordan, 236, 257
Ja‘far as-Sadiq, Imam, 166, 184, 185 “just war” theory, 87
Jafari School, 184–85
Jafri, Husain, 179 Ka‘ba: and Abyssinian attack on Mecca, 18;
Jahiliyyah (“Time of Ignorance”), 5, 8, 13, Allah as not represented in, 8; Black
Stone at, 9–10; burning of, 178; as cen-
18, 239 ter of religious life in pre-Islamic Ara-
Jahmites, 152 bia, 3–4, 5, 25–26; charity of, 33–34;
Jerusalem, 100–101, 122, 135, 173, 201 and Christianity, 11–12; circumambula-
Jesus: demonization of Jews as killers of, tions of, 5, 8, 17, 24, 25, 149; descrip-
tion of, 3, 24, 148–49; and Five Pillars,
103; as Gospels’ inspiration, 35; and 148–49; and Hanifism, 14, 22, 44, 88;
Hebrew Scriptures, 183; and influ- historical evidence about, 27–28; as
ences on Muhammad, 17, 101; Jews “House of God,” 106; Hubal as central
refusal to recognize Islam as alternative deity of, 8; Jesus’s image in, 3, 12, 106;
to, 96; Ka‘ba image of, 3, 12, 106; and Jewish influence on, 9–10; and Layla
Mahdi, 186; miracles of, 156; and and Majnun legend, 195; and Mecca as
Montanist Christianity, 11; Muham- special, 27; and Mu‘awiyah caliphate,
mad compared with, 21, 98, 216; 175; Muhammad gets keys to, 49; and
Muhammad’s views about, 101, 103, Muhammad as reformer, 44; Muham-
106; and Orthodox Trinitarians, 101, mad smashes idols in, 106; and Muham-
102; as prophet, 19, 34, 182; and mad’s pilgrimage to Mecca, 105; and
prophetic consciousness as evolving Muhammad’s return to Mecca, 106;
process, 37; and Sufism, 205, 215–16; Muhammad’s views about, 44–45;
topoi about, 21; and Trinity doctrine, 11 myths about, 9; as “navel spot,” 5; ori-
Jews/Judaism: Babylonian Exile of, 9; in gins of, 4–5, 9; and poetry, 156–57;
Byzantium, 94; and Christianity, 183; pre-Islamic, 23–32; Qurans/Quran
demonization of, 103; expulsion from verses in, 148–49, 159; Quraysh
Medina of, 94; and fasting, 147–48; control of, 25–26; and Quraysh-
historical information about, 22; influ- Muhammad conflict, 44, 45, 46, 88,
ence on Muhammad/Islam of, 17–18, 105; rediscovery/rebuilding of, 4, 10;
44, 95, 97, 99–101, 102–3, 147–48;
Islam as alternative to, 96; and Islam’s
302 Index
Ka‘ba (cont’d ): law schools, 165–66, 167, 184–85, 186. See
as sacred ground, 26; as seat of Islam, also specific school
106; as spiritually connected to Abra-
ham, 14; stories/legends about, 4, 5; and Lawrence, Bruce, 218
successors to Muhammad, 116; as uni- Layla and Majnun legend, 194–98, 202, 204,
versal shrine, 27; and Wahhabism, 245;
and Yazid rebellion, 178. See also pil- 211
grimages Lecker, Michael, 56, 93
legal system: and democracy, 265; and
Kahins (poets/tribal cultic official), 7–8, 29,
37–38, 44, 57, 58, 157 hadith, 67, 68; and ijma (juridical con-
sensus), 164–65, 167, 232, 258; interac-
Kaiser, Ishan, 204 tion of theology and, 144–55; and
Karbala: and founding of Shi‘ites, 178; Islam as nascent religion, 59; and
Islamic Reformation, 257–58, 265; and
Ikhwan sacking of, 244; massacre at, Medina as archetype, 53; and Mod-
171–73, 175, 177, 178, 179, 184, 185, ernists, 227; and orthodoxy, 164–65;
186, 190; passion plays about, 180; and and Quran, 163, 164, 165, 166,
Penitents, 178, 179; rituals at, 184; and 167–70; and reasoning, 164; and Reve-
Shi‘ite-Sunni conflict, 190; as Shi‘ite’s lation, 164; and Shariah, 170; and
Garden of Eden, 179; and Wahhabism, spread of Islam, 67; and Sufism, 201,
244 202; Sunna as source for, 163–64; and
Kashani, Ayatollah, 191 taqlid (acceptance of juridical prece-
Kashifi, Kamal al-Din Wa’iz-e, 181 dent), 165, 227; Traditionalist influ-
Kavakci, Merve, 72 ence on, 159–62; and Ulama, 167. See
Keddie, Nikki, 229 also Law of Retribution
Kemal, Namik, 231 Lewis, Bernard, 78–79
Khadija (Muhammad’s wife), 33, 38–39, 41, Libya, 122, 147
47–48, 61, 64 love: God as objectified through, 211; and
Khalid ibn Sinan, 15 Layla and Majnun legend, 194–98,
Khan, Ayub, 256 202, 204, 211; and Sufism, 194–98,
Khan, Inayat, 216 202, 204, 210–13, 214
Khan, Sayyid Ahmed, 218–19, 225–27 Luke, 103
Kharijites, 128, 132–34, 135, 136, 145–46, Luqman (prophet), 43, 44
152, 177, 244, 247
Khayyám, Omar, 214 Madelung, Wilferd, 116, 121–22, 128
Khazraj (tribe/clan), 48, 55, 56–57, 112, 116 Mahdi, 185–87, 188, 189, 190–91. See also
Khomeini, Ruhollah, 86, 138–39, 185, 187,
188–89, 190–93, 251–52, 253, 265 Hidden Imam
Kilab (clan), 93 Makhzum (clan), 64, 125
King Abdulaziz University, 86 Malik Ibn Anas, Imam, 165
Kister, J. M., 15 Maliki School, 144, 165, 167
Kohens ( Jewish soothsayers), 9, 98 Manat (goddess), 7, 22
Kufa: and Ali’s death, 135; and Caliphate, manhood: age of, 36
134, 135, 136; and Mahdi, 186; Peni- Manichaeism, 13, 178, 199
tents in, 178; and successors to manism, 6
Muhammad, 127, 128, 130, 134, 136; Margoliouth, D. S., 96, 97
and Uthman revolt, 127, 128; and Mariyah (Muhammad’s wife), 64
Yazid-Husayn conflict, 171–73, 175, marriage, 61–62, 63–65, 100, 101
176–77, 179 Marwan, 127, 128, 176, 177
Mary (Christian holy mother), 3, 16, 21, 106
Lakhmids, 12 Mawdudi, Abu-l Ala, 138, 227–28, 242, 246,
lamentations, 178, 180, 181
Lammens, Henri, 116 256
language: mystical powers of, 156; Quran as Mazdakism sect, 13
Mecca: Abyssinian attack on, 18, 28–29; as
creating Arabic, 157
Last Judgment, 12, 15, 41, 94, 181, 186, 188 center of Jahiliyyah religious experi-
Law of Retribution, 30–31, 55, 59–60 ence, 13; demise of tribal ethic in,
31–32, 40–41; description of, 24; as
dominant in Hijaz, 74; as heart of Islam,
Index 303
108; and Hijra, 50–52; Muhammad’s Mina: three pillars of, 149
early days in, 32–49; Muhammad’s Mir, Mustansir, 84
march on, 105–6; Muhammad’s pil- miracles, 156–57
grimages to, 104–6, 112; Muhammad’s Modarressi, Hossein, 185
withdrawal from, 48–49; neutrality of, Modernism: and colonialism, 225–28; and
26; and Ottoman Empire, 240; during
pilgrimage season, 23; poverty in, democracy, 258; in Egypt, 229–32; in
33–34, 40–41; praying in direction of, India, 225–28; Medina as archetype
146; pre-Islamic, 23–49; and Quranic for, 52–53; in Saudi Arabia, 240–48.
exegesis, 160–61; Quraysh domination See also Pan-Arabism; Pan-Islamism;
in, 24–32; and Quraysh-Muhammad Salafiyyah movement; specific person
conflict, 81–92; religio-economic sys- Momen, Moojan, 116
tem in, 26–32, 33, 34, 44, 46–47, 60, monasticism, 199, 200
82–92; “reverse migration” from Me- monism, 214
dina to, 88–89; Sharif of, 240, 243, 244; Monophysites, 11
and Shi‘atu Ali, 174; and successors to monotheism, 5, 10, 12–13, 16, 17, 40, 43,
Muhammad, 112, 129, 130, 134; tolls 46, 266
for entering, 25–26; and trade, 26–28, morality: and colonialism, 225; and commu-
83; and Uthman revolt, 129; and Wah- nal character of Islam, 264; and
habism, 243, 244; and Yazid rebellion, democracy, 261, 264, 265; and early
178. See also pilgrimages verses revealed by Muhammad, 41; and
Medina: archeological evidence in, 97; birth Hanifism, 15; and Islam as nascent reli-
of Muslim community in, 52–53; gion, 59; and Islamic Reformation,
defense of, 91–92; description of, 51; 257–58, 261, 264; of Muhammad, 5;
economy of, 54; first mosque at, 52; and pre-Islamic warfare, 83, 84; and
Hanifism in, 14; Husayn as Caliph in, Shariah, 163; and tribal ethics, 30; of
176; as Islamic archetype, 52–53, 257, Wahhabism, 246
258, 263, 264; and Islamic Reforma- Morocco, 217, 255, 257, 260
tion, 257, 258, 263, 264; Jews in, Moses, 9, 17, 34, 64, 102, 109, 117, 156,
56–57, 89–94, 96–97, 102; and Malike 179, 182
School, 165; Muhammad’s emigration mosque: first, 52; and Five Pillars, 146;
to, 48–49, 50–52; Muhammad’s return Umar’s destruction of Damascus, 94
to, after defeat of Quraysh, 108; pagan- Mount Arafat, 149
ism in, 56–57, 97; pilgrimages to, 82; in Mount Hira: Muhammad’s Revelation on,
pre-Islamic Arabia, 14, 53–66; and 34–39
Quranic exegesis, 161; and Quraysh- Mu‘awiyah, 131, 132, 134–35, 136, 142,
Muhammad conflict, 75–81, 91–92; 173–75, 176
and “reverse migration” from Medina Mughal Empire, 218, 222, 224
to Mecca, 88–89; and Riddah Wars, Muhajirun. See Companions
119; as sanctuary city, 82; and Shi‘atu Muhammad (Aisha’s brother), 130
Ali, 174; as soul of Islam, 108; and Muhammad: appearance of, 32; assassination
spread of Islam, 52–53; and successors attempts on, 90, 155; authority of,
to Muhammad, 134; as trading center, 55–56, 57–58; birth of, 18–19; character
82; tribal conflict in, 55; Ummah at, and personality of, 32, 33, 38; childhood
57; and Wahhabism, 243, 244; wealth and youth of, 17–18, 19–21, 32; clan of,
of, 122; Yathrib renamed, 52, 74, 88; 24; death of, 66, 108–9, 111; early days
and Yazid-Husayn conflict, 176–77; in Mecca of, 32–43; early followers of,
and Yazid rebellion, 178. See also Con- 41–42; final sermon of, 149; God’s rela-
stitution of Medina tionship with, 216; as Hakam, 32,
meditation, 202, 217 55–57; and Hanifism, 15; health of,
Menocal, Maria, 95 107–9; historical information about,
Mernissi, Fatima, 68 21–22, 27–28; and human rights,
Mevlevi Order, 217 263–64; imitators of, 110; impact on
militancy, Islamic: Medina as archetype for, Mecca of, 5; Jesus compared with,
52–53 21, 98, 216; Karbala revealed to, 179;
as Keeper of the Keys, 108;
304 Index
Muhammad (cont’d ): Nurbakhsh, Javad, 209
literacy of, 35–36; as Mahdi, 185; mar- Nuri, Shaykh Fazlollah, 191
riages of, 33, 63–65; as Messenger of
God, 35, 39, 44, 55, 56, 76, 82, 105, 138, oath of allegiance: and Medinan ideal, 258;
150; miracle of, 157; as orphan, 32; and and Modernists, 232–33; and Muham-
paganism, 16–18; as prophet, 182; as mad’s death, 110, 118; and Muham-
reformer, 17–18, 41, 58; Revelations of, mad’s return to Mecca, 106; and
5, 17, 19, 20, 34–42, 81–82, 83, 148, Quraysh-Muhammad conflict, 106;
179; rumors of death of, 78; as Shaykh, and successors to Muhammad, 123,
56, 57–58; and Shi‘ites, 179, 180, 181; 125, 128, 129, 130; and Sufism, 209; in
social status of, 33; stories/legends tribes, 30; and Uthman revolt, 128,
about, 15–16, 19–21, 52–53, 59; succes- 129
sors to, 107–39; and Sufism, 215–16;
tomb of, 243; transformation of, 81–82; oil, 245, 246, 247
uniqueness of, 43–45; as warner, 40–41, Omar, Mullah, 260
82; wealth of, 33; Zayd ibn Amr’s meet- orphans, 32, 40–41, 61, 63
ing with, 15–16, 22. See also specific person orthodoxy, 144, 164–65, 201, 205, 219
or topic orthopraxy, 144, 164
Otto, Rudolph, 151
“Muhammad in Medina,” 52 Ottoman Empire, 137, 187, 228, 231, 234,
Muharram, 180, 181, 244
Mujahadin, 259–60 240, 244–45
mujtahid, 184, 185 Oveyssi Order, 210
Müller, Max, 8
Murshid, Daquiqa bint, 70 paganism: and afterlife, 6; and Allah, 6–7, 8;
Musa al-Kazim, Imam, 185, 186, 190 animistic roots of, 8; Bedouin, 5; and
Musharraf, Pervez, 257 Christianity, 10–12, 13, 14; and con-
music, 160, 217–18, 244 versions, 94; ending of, in Mecca, 106;
Muslim Brothers, 239, 240, 242, 245–46, and Judaism, 9–10, 12, 13, 22; and
Ka‘ba, 14; meaning of, 6; in Medina,
261 97; and Muhammad, 16–18; and
Muslim Empire: beginning of, 175 Muhammad’s return to Mecca, 106; as
Muslim League, 246, 256 religious perspective, 6; in sedentary
Muslims: Companions as first generation of, societies, 6–7, 8; in Yathrib, 54, 56–57
67; dual identities of, 137–38; emer- Pahlavi, Muhammad Reza, 189–90
gence of, 57; internal conflict among, Pahlavi, Reza, 187–88
248; Jewish relations with early, 53, Pakistan, 147, 170, 228, 256–57, 259–60
93–104, 137; reunification of, 137; sec- Palestine, 236, 255, 260
ond generation of, 67; unity of, 150, Pan-Arabism, 233–34, 235, 236, 242, 245
231, 234. See also Islam; specific topic Pan-Islamism, 231, 233, 234–35, 236, 242,
Mustaliq (clan), 120
Mu‘tazilite school, 153–54, 155, 232. See also 245, 246
Rationalists partitioning of lands, 255–56, 263
mysticism, 200–201, 205, 218 Pashtun, 259, 260
patrilineal societies, 62, 63
Nadir (clan), 53, 55, 90–91, 94 Penitents (tawwabun), 178, 179
Naqshbandi Order, 217, 218 “People of Heaven,” 133, 247
nationalism, 138, 234, 235, 238, 245, 246, “People of Hell,” 133, 247
“People of the Book,” 100, 101, 102, 103
255, 257 Perfect Man, 215
Neoplatonism, 199, 218 Persian Gulf War, 247
nepotism, 125, 127, 128 Peters, F. E., 28, 96
Netton, Ian Richard, 217 pilgrimages: and activities/songs of pilgrims,
Newby, Gordon, 9, 97–98
Nicene Council (325 C.E.), 11 4, 5, 8; and caravans, 23; Hajj, 5, 148–50,
Nicholson, Reynold, 198, 215 205, 210, 246; internal, 205; and Jewish
Noah, 4, 9, 17, 179 influence on Ka‘ba, 10; “lesser,” 148;
Noeldeke, Theodor, 126 and Mecca’s religio-economic system,
28; and Medina as sanctuary city, 82; of
Muhammad to Mecca, 104–6, 112; of Index 305
Nasser to al-Banna’s tomb, 237–38; and
Quraysh control of Mecca, 26; and 167–70; and cultural norms, 71; and
Quraysh-Muhammad conflict, 45–46; demise of tribal ethic, 40; and designa-
and Qusayy’s control of Mecca, 25; and tion of Jews and Christians as unbe-
Saudi monarchy, 246; season for, 23; and lievers, 103; as direct revelation
Sufism, 205, 210; and trade, 26; and (Surahs), 157–58, 161; and equality of
Wahhabism, 243–44; water for, 19; and sexes, 60–61; and evolution of Islam,
women, 71 111, 248; evolution of, 167–69; exege-
Pinault, David, 180–81 sis of, 160–62; and fasting, 147; and
Pirs, 199, 200, 202, 209–10, 215, 218, 242 Five Pillars, 146; and fundamentalism,
pluralism, 262–63, 264 241–42; as God, 158; and hadith,
poets, 7–8, 156–57. See also Kahins 68–71; historical context of, 161, 169;
polyandry, 63 as holy and revealed scripture, 12,
polygyny, 63 99–103; and Husayn’s death, 172; and
polytheism, 84–85, 94, 151, 262–63 Imams, 182–83; and influences on
poverty, 32, 33–34, 40–41, 60. See also Muhammad, 17, 101, 102; interpreta-
charity tion of, 161, 169; and Iranian Revolu-
prayer, 58, 100, 146–47, 150 tion of 1979, 189; and Islamic
profession of faith (shahadah), 8, 43, 44–45, Reformation, 262–63, 264; and jihad,
58, 145–46, 150–55, 182, 216 81, 84, 86, 87; and Judaism, 95, 97,
property, 61, 84. See also inheritance laws 101, 102; and Ka‘ba, 148–49, 159; lan-
prophets, 17, 34–35, 37, 123, 182, 215. See guage in, 157–58; and Law of Retribu-
also specific person tion, 59; and legal system, 163, 164,
proselytizing: by Christians, 10, 95, 115, 165, 166, 167–70; as living text, 169;
223–28, 236; and colonialism, 223–28; Luqman’s chapter in, 43; and marriage,
and dhimmi, 94; in Hanifism, 15; and 63; and Modernists, 227; as “Mother of
jihad, 85; and paganism, 94; and Books” (Umm al-Kitab), 99–100, 157,
Shi‘ites, 180–81; and successors to 158, 262; Muhammad as “beautiful
Muhammad, 122; and Ummah as tribe, model” in, 215, 216; and Muhammad
58 as Kahin, 38; and Muhammad as Mes-
puritanism, Islamic, 233, 241, 246 senger of God, 35; and Muhammad as
purity requirements, 58, 100 pagan, 16–17; Muhammad’s epithet in,
35; and Muhammad’s literacy, 35; as
Qadarite school, 152 Muhammad’s miracle, 157; Muham-
Qadiri Order, 216–17, 219 mad’s views about, 168–69, 262; and
Qadisiyyah: Umar’s defeat of Iranian forces Oneness and Unity of God, 152, 213,
215; organization of, 161; and profes-
at, 122 sion of faith, 150; and Quranic recita-
Qa‘id (tribal war leader), 29, 55, 58, 113 tions, 160; and Quraysh-Muhammad
Qajar Dynasty, 187 conflict, 46; Qurra (readers) of, 126,
qalb (heart), 208–9, 214 160; as Rasul Allah, 35; and religious
Qaynuqa (clan), 53, 55, 60, 89–91, 94 pluralism, 262–63; and Revelations,
qiyas (analogical arguments), 164, 232 100, 148, 157–58, 160–61, 162,
Quran: Abdu’s views about, 232; and age of 168–69; ruh in, 208; and Shariah, 165,
166, 167–70; and Shi‘ites, 182–83, 184,
manhood, 36; and Ali-Mu‘awiyah con- 186; shirk in, 151; and spread of Islam,
flict, 134; and attempts to define Mus- 67; as static and unchanging, 162; and
lim identity, 132; and baraka, 160; and successors to Muhammad, 113, 116,
calligraphy, 159; and Christianity, 12, 117, 124, 125–26, 129, 132, 134; and
101, 103–4; collection and codification Sufism, 200, 201, 202; and Sunna, 164;
of, 125–26, 129, 161; and colonialism, and tithing, 60; and Traditionalist con-
227; commentaries on, 68–71, 168–69; troversy, 153–54, 155, 159, 161–62;
and communal character of Islam, 264; translations of, 69–70, 159; and Ulama,
as constitution of Saudi Arabia, 257; 143, 169; and Umar’s conversion, 155;
contradictions in, 168, 169; creation Ummah references in, 57; and Uthman
and nature of, 140–42, 143, 159, 161, revolt, 129; variations in, 126; Verse of
306 Index
Quran (cont’d ): and economic, 43–49, 52–53; and
Light in, 183, 184; and Wahhabism, women, 73. See also Islamic Reforma-
244; and warfare, 84–85; and women, tion; specific person or movement
65, 66, 68–71, 73–74 Reissener, H. G., 97
religion: and citizenship, 80; and culture, 17;
Quraysh tribe: attempts to murder Muham- and Islamic democracy, 265; ortho-
mad by, 48–49; boycott of Muhammad doxic versus orthopraxic, 144; plural-
and Companions by, 46–47; domi- ism in, 262–63; and politics, 152; and
nance in Mecca/Hijaz of, 24–32, 74, separation of church and state, 258–59,
81; early reactions to Muhammad by, 262; as simplifying truth, 153; and
41, 42, 43–49; and early verses revealed social identity, 80; and territorial
by Muhammad, 40; emergence of, 25; expansion, 80; unification of state and,
greed and wickedness of, 40; Hashim 80. See also specific person, religion, or
as clan within, 32; and Mahdi, 186; topic
Muhammad’s conflict with, 43–49, 63, Renard, John, 145
75–92, 263; Muhammad’s defeat of, retreats, 17, 33–34
108; and Muhammad’s desire for Revelations: Abdu’s views about, 232; and
Mecca, 81–92; Muhammad’s dreams Imams, 182; and Islamic Reformations,
about, 75–76; and Muhammad’s migra- 253, 254, 257, 266; and legal system,
tion to Yathrib, 51; and Muhammad’s 164; of Muhammad, 5, 17, 19, 20,
pilgrimage to Mecca, 104–6; and 34–42, 81–82, 83, 148, 179; and poly-
Muhammad’s Revelation, 37; and suc- theism, 263; and prophets, 34–35; and
cessors to Muhammad, 112, 116, 117, Quran, 100, 148, 157–58, 160–61, 162,
122, 123, 125, 130, 134; as Wardens of 168–69; of Qutb, 239; and reasoning,
the Sanctuary, 24; wealth of, 29. See 164; and Shariah, 165, 167–68; and
also specific member Shi‘ites, 181, 183; and Sufism, 200; and
Traditionalist controversy, 153, 154;
Qurayza (clan), 53, 55, 64, 90, 91–94, 95, and women, 71
104 Rida, Rashid, 233
Riddah Wars, 118–19, 134
Qusayy, 24–26, 28, 175 Rifa’i Order, 201, 217
Qutb, Sayyid, 138–39, 238–40, 242, rituals: as believer’s intention, 145, 146; and
Five Pillars, 145–55; and Islam as nas-
251, 258 cent religion, 58; and orthopraxy, 144;
of Shi‘ites, 179, 180–81, 184; and
Rabia of Basra, 201, 211–12 Sufism, 202, 216–17; of Sunni Islam,
radicalism, Islamic, 86, 238–40, 242, 246. 181; and Wahhabism, 242. See also spe-
cific ritual
See also Qutb, Sayyid Rodinson, Maxime, 47
Rahman (god), 110 ruh (Universal Spirit), 208–9, 214, 215
Rahman, Hannah, 98 Rumi, Jalal al-Din, 203–4, 209, 213, 217
Ramadan, 100, 146, 147–48, 150 Rwanda, 255, 256
Ramadan, Tariq, 254
Ramayana, 156 Saadi of Shiraz, 203
rape, 84 Sachedina, Abdulaziz, 187, 263
Rashidun Caliphate, 114 sacrifices, 16–17, 22, 149, 179–80
Rationalists, 140–42, 143–44, 153–55, Sa‘d ibn Ubayda, 112, 117
Safavid Dynasty/Empire, 187
158–62. See also Mu‘tazilite School Saiva kingdoms, 80
Rayhana (Muhammad’s wife), 64 Salafiyyah movement, 233
Reagan, Ronald, 260 Salim I, 187
reality, 203, 206, 208, 213, 215, 217 Saljuq Dynasty, 137
reason, 153, 154, 161, 164, 165, 169, salvation, 133, 154
Sana‘, 10, 18, 28
184–85, 202, 232, 253 Sarjeant, R. B., 111
Reed, Jonathan, 97
reform/reformers: and early verses revealed
by Muhammad, 39–42; liberal Muslim,
73; and Muhammad as reformer,
43–49, 52–53; and profession of faith
(Shahadah), 43; prophets as, 17; and
Protestant Reformation, 248; social
Index 307
Sasanian Empire, 12–13, 29, 66, 79–80, 108, 110; of Quraysh, 31–32; requirements
122, 131, 175 for becoming, 29; and successors to
Muhammad, 118; and Sufism, 199. See
Satan, 13, 213 also specific person
Saudi Arabia, 86, 147, 166, 170, 240–48, Shi‘ah. See Shi‘ites
Shi‘atu Ali, 130, 132, 133, 171, 173, 174,
257, 259–60 175, 176, 178. See also Shi‘ites
Saul of Tarsus, 64, 155–56 Shi‘atu Mu‘awiyah, 131–32, 133
Sawdah (Muhammad’s wife), 64 Shi‘atu Uthman, 131, 133
Schacht, Joseph, 162, 163 Shi‘ites: and Abassid Dynasty, 136–37; and
Schubel, Vernon, 180 Ali’s martyrdom, 135–36; and debate
“Science of Kalam,” 150–51 about Caliphate and Ummah, 138–39;
Seal of the Prophets, 117, 182 first state of, 188; founding and early
secret books, 182 years of, 178–81; and Husayn’s martyr-
secularism, 258–59, 261–62 dom, 179, 180; and Imams, 181–84;
secularization, 261–62, 264 and Islam as religion of diversity, 263;
sedentary societies, 6–7, 8, 15, 62–63 as minority sect, 170; and Modernists,
self/ego (nafs), 208, 209 242; and nature and function of
self-annihilation: and Sufism, 203, 206, 209, Caliphate, 132; as new religious move-
ment, 179; and Pan-Islamism, 231;
211, 212, 213, 214–15 profession of faith of, 182; and prosely-
self-flagellation, 180–81, 242 tizing, 180–81; and Quran, 182–83,
self-mutilation, 217 186; and Rationalists, 159; rituals of,
Sells, Michael, 156 179, 180–81, 184; schools of law for,
separation of church and state, 258–59, 262 166, 184–85; and Shi‘ism as theology
Sepoy Mutiny, 220–28, 255 of atonement through sacrifice,
September 11 (2001), 87, 248, 259, 266 179–80; and successors to Muhammad,
Shaban, Muhammad A., 26, 115–16 135–36, 137; and Sufism, 199, 200,
Shafii School, 165 215; taqiyyah (political quietism)
Shah (king): first, 187 among, 187; Ulama of, 184, 187; and
Shah, Idris, 203 Wahhabism, 244; and Zaydis, 184. See
Shaltut, Mahmud, 86 also Shi‘atu Ali; specific nation
shamanism, 199, 217 shirk, 151, 154
Shariah (code of conduct): Abdu’s views shura (tribal consultation), 112, 117,
121–22, 123–24, 125, 232
about, 232; categories of behavior in, Sikhs, 210
162; as core of Islam, 162; and culture, slavery, 32, 40–41, 42
167; and imja, 164–65, 167; as law in Smith, Wilfred Cantwell, 144
Saudi Arabia, 257; and Modernists, socialism, Islamic, 236–38, 242, 245,
227, 239, 240; modernization of, 170, 256–57. See also al-Banna, Hasan
227; nature and functions of, 162–70; Solomon, 64, 117
and Quran, 163, 167–70; and schools sorcery, 45–46
of law, 165–66, 167; and Sufism, 202, Soroush, Abdolkarim, 169, 253, 265–66
217; and Sunna, 163–64; Traditional- sovereignty: and democracy, 265; divine,
ists as interpreters of, 144, 164, 165, 190–91; in Iran, 190–91; and Islamic
166, 169, 170; and Ulama, 162, 164, Reformation, 252, 265; popular,
165, 166–67, 169; and Wahhabism, 190–91, 230, 232
242, 247 Spain, 67, 95, 137
Shariati, Ali, 73, 136, 151, 251 Stillman, Norman, 93
Shariatmadari, Ayatollah, 191–92, 252 Sudan, 166, 236, 255
Sharif, Nawaz, 257 Suez Canal, 229, 245
Shaykhs (Sayyids) (tribal leaders): authority Sufism: in Afghanistan, 260; and al-Banna,
and functions of, 29–30, 31, 64; 235; characteristics of, 204; eclecticism
Caliphs compared with, 113; death of, of, 199–200; influences on, 199, 200,
110; harems of, 64; and jihad, 88; and 215–16, 218; and Islam as religion of
Law of Retribution, 59; and Muham-
mad as Shaykh, 56, 57–58, 64, 65–66;
and Muhammad’s withdrawal from
Mecca, 48; oath of allegiance to, 30,
308 Index
Sufism (cont’d ): tahannuth (retreats), 17
diversity, 263; Islam’s relationship to, Ta’if (city), 7, 14, 16, 27, 48
201, 204; and Khomeini, 193; and Talha Ibn Ubayd Allah, 129, 130, 134, 177
Layla and Majnun legend, 194–98, Taliban, 72, 259, 260
202, 204, 211; and love, 194–98, 202, Talmud, 97, 167
204, 210–13, 214; meaning of term, taqlid (blind imitation of Islamic doctrine),
198–99, 202; and Modernists, 232,
237, 242; and Muhammad, 215–16; 165, 227
and mysticism, 200–201; and Oneness tawhid doctrine, 150–51, 158, 213, 242
and Unity of God, 151; Orders in, Ta’wil method, 161, 183, 200, 215
199–200, 209, 210, 216–17, 218, 219; taxes, 26, 94–95, 123, 147, 174, 229. See also
origins of, 202–3; and Pan-Islamism,
231; parables about, 202–3, 206–8; and zakat
persecution of Sufis, 216; and politics, Teresa of Avila, 212
200, 218; as reactionary movement, terrorism, 79, 86, 248, 259
200; as religious movement, 199; and Tertullian of Carthage, 11
rituals, 216–17; and self-annihilation, Thalabah (clan), 53
203, 206, 209, 211, 212, 213, 214–15; theology: interaction of law and, 144–55;
sexual imagery in, 211–12; and
Shariah, 202, 217; spread of, 202, and Sufism, 201, 202; Traditionalist
218; and Wahhabism, 244; the Way influence on, 159–62. See also religion;
(tariqah) in, 206–8, 209, 210, 211, specific person or concept
212, 214; withdrawal in, 200–201 Thomas, Bertram, 58–59
“Time of Ignorance,” 5, 8, 13, 18, 239
suicide bombers, 86 tithe. See zakat
Sunna (traditions), 31, 153, 163–64, 165, Tocqueville, Alexis de, 262
topos, 21, 98
232 Torah, 35, 68, 96, 99, 101, 102, 103, 157,
Sunni Islam (“orthodox”): Imams in, 181; 163
torture, 84, 141, 205
law schools of, 165–66, 184, 186; and totemism, 6
Mahdi, 186; and nature and function of trade, 26–28, 82, 83. See also caravans
Caliphate, 132; and orthopraxic reli- Traditionalists: and Ash‘arite School,
gion, 144; and reunification of Mus- 153–55; and divisions within Islam,
lims, 137; rituals of, 181; and 159–62; dominance of, 143–44,
successors to Muhammad, 137; and 158–62; and Islamic Reformation,
Sufism, 215, 218; tafsir and ta’wil in, 254, 263; and legal system, 169, 170;
183; Traditionalist domination in, 158; and madrassas, 166; and reasoning-
and Wahhabism, 243 revelation dualism, 164; and Shariah,
Surahs (direct revelation), 161 164, 165, 166, 169, 170; and Tradition-
Syria: and Ali-Mu‘awiyah conflict, 134–35; alist controversy, 140–42, 143–44,
caravans to, 20; Christianity in, 19; and 153–55, 158–59
diversity within Islam, 257; and Hasan- treason, 89–91, 119
Mu‘awiyah conflict, 174; and Islamic Treaty of Hudaybiyyah (628), 104–5
Reformation, 257; Jews in, 122; Mahdi Trevelyan, Charles E., 223, 224, 255
in, 186; Modernism in, 236; and rebel- tribes: alliances and affiliations among, 31;
lion against Yazid, 178; and Saudi Ara- crimes in, 30; effect of Muhammad’s
bia, 245; and successors to Muhammad, movement on, 46; and egalitarianism,
134, 137; Sufism in, 216; and trade 29, 31–32; and intertribal order, 31;
routes, 27; and Umar’s defeat of and Law of Retribution, 30–31; legal
Roman army, 122; and variations in code in, 31; oath of allegiance in, 30;
Quran, 126; and Yazid-Husayn con- organization of, 29–32; as sources of
flict, 171–73, 176 social identity, 46; and tribal cult, 46,
58; and tribal ethic, 29, 30, 31–32,
Tabataba‘i, Allamah, 181 40–41, 93, 108; and Ummah as a tribe,
tafsir method, 161, 183 57–59; and war and peace, 84. See also
Taha, Mahmoud Mohamed, 169 specific tribe
Index 309
Trinity, doctrine of, 11, 101–2, 151 Umayya ibn Abi Salt, 14
truth, 13, 153 Umayyads: Caliphate of, 131–32, 152, 173,
Turkey/Turks, 72, 137, 209, 216, 217, 261
176–77, 178, 185–86; conflict between
Ubayd Allah ibn Jahsh, 14 Shi‘atu Ali and, 175; dominance in
Uhud: and Quraysh-Muhammad conflict, Hijaz of, 125; and Hasan-Mu‘awiyah
conflict, 174; and inauguration of
77–78, 90, 91–92 Umayya Dynasty, 136; and Mahdi,
Ulama: and Abassid Dynasty, 137, 140–42; 186; massacre of, 137, 142–43; rebel-
lions against, 175–78, 185–86; and ret-
Abdu’s views about, 232; Afghani’s ribution for death of Uthman, 129; and
views about, 230; at al-Azhar Univer- successors to Muhammad, 129, 130,
sity, 169; and apostasy, 119; authority 137; and theology and legal issues, 175.
of, 114, 144, 165, 166; and Caliphate, See also Shi‘atu Mu‘awiyah; specific
143; and colonialism, 227; formation member
and functions of, 113–14, 143; and Umm al-Kitab (“Mother of Books”),
Inquisition, 137, 140–42; institutional- 99–100, 157, 158, 262
ization of legal and theological opin- Umm Hani, 33
ions of, 144; and interaction of Umm Salamah (Muhammad’s wife), 64, 74,
theology and law, 144–55; and Iranian 77
Revolution of 1979, 191; and Islamic Umm Waraqa, 74
Reformation, 254; and legal system, Ummah: Ali’s views about, 133; and attempts
163, 164–65, 167; and Ma’mun, 143; to define Muslim identity, 133; and
and Modernists, 227, 232, 233, 235; Battle of the Camel, 131; and Battle of
and Mu‘awiyah, 175; and orthopraxic Uhud, 90; and Caliphate, 131–32, 136,
and orthodoxic religion, 144; and qiyas 143, 234; as Church in Islam, 146; and
(analogical arguments), 164; and designation of Jews and Christians as
Quran, 143, 160–61, 169; and Shariah, unbelievers, 103; as empire, 136; evolu-
144, 162, 165, 166; of Shi‘ites, 184, tion/expansion of, 66–71, 74, 114,
187; and successors to Muhammad, 168–69; and evolution of Islam, 82;
113–14, 137, 139; and Sufism, 200, financial and social dominance by, 68;
202, 204, 205; and Sunna, 163, 164; and Five Pillars, 145–46, 147; and
and taqlid (acceptance of juridical hadith, 68; and interaction of theology
precedent), 165; and Traditionalist and law, 145; and Islamic Reformation,
controversy, 143–44, 153, 154, 155, 257; and Jewish influence on Muham-
158–62, 165; and unity of Islam, mad, 100; and jihad, 86; Kharijite ideal
138–39; and Wahhabism, 245 of, 145–46; meaning of term, 57,
Umar: and Ali, 123; and Ali-Aisha conflict, 58–59; modern debate about, 138–39;
131; and attempts to assassinate and Modernists, 230, 233, 234; and
Muhammad, 155; authority of, 70; as Mu‘awiyah caliphate, 174; and
caliph, 93, 94, 121–23, 124, 155–56; Muhammad’s death, 118–19; Muham-
character and personality of, 70–71; mad’s primary function as head of, 59;
conversion of, 155–56; death of, Muhammad’s views about, 101, 132,
123–24; and destruction of Damascus 262; nature and functions of, 130, 131,
mosque, 94; and Jews, 93, 94; as military 132–33, 136, 138; and Pan-Islamism,
leader, 122; as misogynist, 70–71; and 231; and profession of faith, 152; and
Muhammad’s death, 109; and Muham- Quran, 100, 126, 168; and Quraysh-
mad’s marriages, 64; and Muhammad’s Muhammad conflict, 83, 88, 90; and
pilgrimage to Mecca, 105; Muhammad’s Riddah Wars, 118–19; salvation solely
relationship with, 70; and nature and for members in, 133; and spread of
function of Caliphate, 133; and Islam, 67; and successors to Muham-
Quraysh-Muhammad conflict, 105; as mad, 110–18, 120, 122, 123, 124, 126,
successor to Abu Bakr, 121–22, 124; 128–34, 136, 138; and Sufism, 199,
successor to, 123–24; and successors to 200, 202; and Sunna, 164; tithe on
Muhammad, 112, 115–16, 117, 121, members of, 60; as tribe, 57–59;
122–25, 129, 130, 131, 133
310 Index
Ummah (cont’d ): women: in Afghanistan, 259, 260; and
as unique experiment in social organi- Christianity, 71; and colonialism,
zation, 58; and Uthman revolt, 128, 72–73; as early followers of Muham-
129; and warfare, 85; and women, mad, 42; and egalitarianism, 71; human
60–63, 65, 66, 74; at Yathrib, 57 rights violations against, 72; as inter-
preters of Quran, 70–71; in Iran, 72,
United States, 139, 247, 252–53, 259–60, 74; and Jews, 71; and liberal Muslim
261–62 reformers, 73; and Modernists, 230;
Muhammad’s views about, 60–63, 74,
Universal Spirit (ruh), 208–9, 214, 215 103; and pilgrimages, 71, 149–50; in
universal suffrage, 233, 258 pre-Islamic Arabia, 33; and Quran, 65,
Usuli School, 184–85 66, 68–71, 73–74; and Quraysh-
usury, 60 Muhammad conflict, 76, 77, 78; and
Uthman ibn Affan: and Ali, 127, 133; as Revelation, 71; seclusion and veiling of,
65–66, 72–73, 244, 260; status of, 163;
caliph, 124–25, 126–29, 174–75; as subordinate role of, 68–74; in Turkey,
Khalifat Allah, 174–75; letter from, 72; Umar’s views about, 70–71; and
127–28; Mu‘awiyah as cousin of, 134; Ummah, 74; and Wahhabism, 244. See
murder of, 129, 130, 131, 132, 134–35, also feminism, Islamic; specific person
136; and Quran, 126, 161; revolt
against, 130; and successors to Yahweh (god of Jews), 8, 10
Muhammad, 126, 130, 132, 134, 135, Yathrib. See Medina
136 Yazid I (Umayyad Caliph), 171–73, 175,
Uthman ibn Huwairith, 14
Uzza, al- (goddess), 3, 7, 14, 22 176–78
“Year of the Elephant,” 18, 28
Valayat-e Faqih doctrine, 190–92, 252, 265 Yemen, 10, 18, 27, 110, 147, 186, 236
“Verse of Light,” 183, 184 Yom Kippur, 100, 147
Young Ottomans, 231. See also Pan-Islamism
Wadud, Amina, 73–74 Yunus ibn Bukayr, 15
Wahhabism, 241–48, 259–60, 263
Wali Allah, Shah, 218–19, 225, 229, 241, 259 Zaghlul, Sa‘d, 233, 242
Walid (amir), 176–77 zakat (tithe), 60, 110, 118, 147
Walzer, Michael, 87 Zamzam (well), 4, 19, 24
Wansbrough, John, 111 Zawati, Hilmi, 84
Waraqa ibn Nawfal, 14, 38–39 Zayd (Muhammad’s slave), 41
warfare, 83, 84–85, 87. See also jihad Zayd ash-Shahid, 184
Wasil ibn Ata, 155 Zayd ibn Amr, 14, 15–16, 17, 22
Watt, Montgomery, 26, 28, 42, 57, 96, 116, Zaydis faction, 184
Zayn al-Abadin, Ali, 184
146 Zia al-Haq, General, 257, 259
the Way (tariqah), 206–8, 209, 210, 211, Zionism, 236
Zoroastrians, 12–13, 22, 80, 178, 263
212, 214, 216 Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, 129, 130, 134
Weber, Max, 79 Zuhra (clan), 125
Welch, William, 228
Westoxification, 238, 245, 247
Whirling Darvishes, 209, 217
widows, 32, 61, 63, 71
About the Author
��
R E Z A A S L A N has studied religions at Harvard, Santa Clara University, and the
University of California, Santa Barbara. He holds an MFA in fiction from the
Writers’ Workshop at the University of Iowa, where he was also visiting assistant
professor of Islamic and Middle Eastern Studies. His work has appeared in The New
York Times, the Los Angeles Times, Slate, The Nation, and others. Born in Iran, he lives
in Santa Barbara and New Orleans.
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