Listening and learning from traditional knowledge and ...

fire

Listening and Learning from Traditional
Knowledge and Western Science: A
Dialogue on Contemporary Challenges of
Forest Health and Wildfire

Larry Mason, Germaine White, Gary Morishima,
Ernesto Alvarado, Louise Andrew, Fred Clark,
Mike Durglo Sr., Jim Durglo, John Eneas, Jim Erickson,
Margaret Friedlander, Kathy Hamel, Colin Hardy,
Tony Harwood, Faline Haven, Everett Isaac, Laurel James,
Robert Kenning, Adrian Leighton, Pat Pierre, Carol Raish,
Bodie Shaw, Steven Smallsalmon, Vernon Stearns,
Howard Teasley, Matt Weingart, and Spus Wilder

ABSTRACT Native Americans relied on fire to maintain a cultural landscape that sustained their lifeways for W hen European explorers reached
thousands of years. Within the past 100 years, however, policies of fire exclusion have disrupted the Americas, they encountered
ecological processes, elevating risk of wildfire, insects, and disease, affecting the health and availability a cultural landscape shaped by
of resources on which the tribes depend. On Indian Reservations, tribal forest plans include prescribed indigenous communities for thousands of
fire to restore and maintain the lands. Public land managers are now considering ways to restore the years. The survival of these communities de-
fire-based ecosystem, but tribal knowledge about the use and effects of fire has largely been left out pended on lifeways rich in tradition, place-
of the discussion. For 2 days in June 2010, 7 tribal elders joined with 20 native and nonnative scientists, based experience, and stewardship practices.
resource managers, and academics to explore ways to integrate Native American stewardship practices, This body of knowledge is commonly referred
traditional knowledge, and philosophies with western science to address contemporary forest health and to as traditional knowledge (TK). There is
wildfire challenges. The workshop, convened on the Flathead Indian Reservation of the Confederated growing international recognition that “Tribal
Salish Kootenai Tribes located in western Montana, provided a forum for candid dialogue and knowledge and indigenous peoples’…lifestyles can offer
sharing. This article, coauthored by all 27 participants, offers a summary background followed by candid modern societies many lessons in the manage-
highlights of dialogue along with recommendations for progress based on lessons learned. The central ment of resources in complex forest, mountain,
conclusion is that integration and application of traditional knowledge with western science for improved and dryland ecosystems” (World Commission
stewardship of natural resources will require enduring commitments to knowledge sharing that extend on Environment and Development 1987, p.12).
beyond the usual boundaries of professional training and cultural orientation such that learning can
proceed, legacy myths might be corrected, and the forests and the people will benefit. Two Ways of Thinking and
Knowing
Keywords: fire history, traditional knowledge, indigenous knowledge, Native American forestry,
forest fuels Berkes (2008) defined TK as a body of
culturally transmitted knowledge and beliefs

Received January 24, 2011; accepted January 31, 2012; published online March 29, 2012; http://dx.doi.org/10.5849/jof.11-006.

Larry Mason ([email protected]) is resource scientist and outreach coordinator at the University of Washington, School of Forest Resources, Box 352100,
Seattle, WA 98195. Germaine White ([email protected]) is Confederated Salish Kootenai Tribes and Information and education specialist for the
Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes Natural Resources Department, 104 Main Street, Ronan, MT 59864. Gary Morishima ([email protected])
is a founding member of the Intertribal Timber Council and the Natural Resource Technical Specialist for the Quinault Indian Nation, 3010 77th Avenue
SE Suite 104, Mercer Island, WA 98040. Ernesto Alvarado ([email protected]) associate professor of Fire Ecology at the University of Washington, School

Journal of Forestry • June 2012 187

about the relationships of living beings (in- Table 1. Contrasted characteristics of traditional knowledge and scientific ecological
cluding humans) with one another and with knowledge.
their environment. McGregor (2004),
drawing from multiple authors, further de- Traditional knowledge (TK) Scientific ecological knowledge (SEK)
scribed TK as including a system of classifi-
cation, a set of empirical observations about Abstract Concrete
the local environment, and a system of self- Qualitative Quantitative
management that governs resource use. Ca- Inclusive Exclusive
jete (1994) describes TK as known within all Intuitive Intellectual
four aspects of being: mind, body, emotion, Holistic Reductionist
and spirit. TK is built on factual observa- Spiritual (social values) Clinical (Љvalue freeЉ)
tions and practical experiences within a his- Coexistence Control
torical context, guided by spiritual beliefs, Diachronic (long time series and place oriented) Synchronic (short time series and broad generalities)
and implemented through traditions and People are part of nature (reciprocity) People apart from nature (competition)
cultural stories, interpersonal teaching, and Communal knowledge based on insights collected by Individual knowledge data collected by specialists/
practice (Houde 2007).
practitioners (transferred generation to generation) researchers (shared by publication)
In contrast to TK, western or scientific
ecological knowledge (SEK) is based on a Adapted from Berkes 1993.
conceptual separation of humans from the
environmental world (Kimmerer 2000), has had extraordinary success in manipulat- Bala and Joseph 2007). SEK has been
thus focusing on the control of nature ing systems to optimize simple production known as “science” whereas TK has been
(Pierotti and Wildcat 2000) and primarily and economic gain but has not been partic- regarded as “folklore” (Deloria 1995).
concerned with theories of general interest ularly successful when confronted by com-
and applicability (Berkes 1993). SEK disag- plex ecosystems (Gadgil et al. 1993). Table 1 Oral and written perceptions of the
gregates systems into constituent parts for presents a simplified contrast of the charac- world coalesce over time into conceptual
detailed study (Freeman 1992) and relies on teristics of TK and SEK. mythologies that provide solidarity of pur-
logical, linear, and replicable methodologies pose and guide societal development
to verify results. SEK is a system of knowl- Historically, these two world views (Wheelock 2006). However, cultural my-
edge and practice rooted in European ori- have functioned differently. SEK relies on thologies that foster misconception and dis-
gins whereas TK has evolved from the place peer review and publication to disseminate count alternative world views question the
of its use (Turner et al. 2000, Ede and Cor- results, leaving others with the responsibility legitimacy of different knowledge bases
mack 2004). SEK, with a secular worldview to apply results to specific circumstances. (Pewewardy 2001). Parochial discounting
of people apart and above the environment, TK is shared primarily through stories, tra- of TK by the Euro-American society discon-
ditions, customs, language, interpersonal nected patterns of living from practical re-
teaching, and learning by doing. Through- alities (Deloria 1995) and set in motion
out history, marginalization of TK as “un- amplifying sequences of unintended conse-
scientific” has been pervasive (Nader 1996, quences (Botkin 1990). Other authors agree

of Forest Resources, Box 352100, Seattle, WA 98125. Louise Andrew is a Kootenai Tribal Elder and member of the Kootenai Culture Committee, Confederated Salish and
Kootenai Tribes, PO Box 278, Pablo, MT 59855. Fred Clark ([email protected]) is Citizen Potawatomi Nation and director of the Office of Tribal Affairs, USDA Forest
Service, 1400 Independence Avenue SW, Washington DC 20024. Mike Durglo Sr. is a Salish Pend d’Oreille Tribal Elder and member of the Salish-Pend d’Oreille Culture
Committee, Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes, PO Box 550, St. Ignatius, MT 59865. Jim Durglo ([email protected]) is Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes and
Forest Manager, Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes Forestry Department, 104 Main Street, Ronan, MT 59864. John Eneas is a Kootenai Tribal Elder and member
of the Kootenai Culture Committee, Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes, PO Box 278, Pablo, MT 59855. Jim Erickson ([email protected]) is the fire
specialist for the Intertribal Timber Council, 707 Spruce Street, Coulee Dam, WA 99116. Margaret Friedlander and Kathy Hamel are Kootenai Tribal Elders and members
of the Kootenai Culture Committee, Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes, PO Box 278, Pablo, MT 59855. Colin Hardy ([email protected]) is program manager for
the Fire, Fuels, and Smoke Program at the Missoula Fire Laboratory of the USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station, 5775 US Highway 10 West, Missoula
MT 59808. Tony Harwood ([email protected]) is Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes and forestry technical specialist, Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes Forestry
Department, 104 Main Street, Ronan, MT 59864. Faline Haven ([email protected]) is Metlakatla Indian Community and Management Analyst for the Office of Tribal
Affairs, USDA Forest Service, 1400 Independence Avenue SW, Washington, DC 20024. Everett Isaac ([email protected]) and Laurel James ([email protected]) are Yakima
Indian Nation and graduate students at the University of Washington, School of Forest Resources, Box 352100, Seattle, WA 98125. Robert Kenning
([email protected]) and Adrian Leighton ([email protected]) are forestry instructors at Salish Kootenai College, PO Box 70, Pablo, MT 59855. Pat Pierre is
a Salish Pend d’Oreille Tribal Elder and member of the Salish-Pend d’Oreille Culture Committee, Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes, PO Box 550, St. Ignatius, MT
59865. Carol Raish ([email protected]) is research social scientist with the USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station, 333 Broadway SE, Suite 115, Albuquer-
que, NM 87102. Bodie Shaw ([email protected]) is Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs and is deputy director of the USDI Bureau of Indian Affairs and the National
Interagency Fire Center, 3833 South Development Avenue, Boise, ID 83705. Steven Smallsalmon is a Salish Pend d’Oreille Tribal Elder and member of the Salish-Pend
d’Oreille Culture Committee, Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes, PO Box 550, St. Ignatius, MT 59865. Vernon Stearns Jr. ([email protected]) is Spokane
Tribe of Indians and fuels manager, Spokane Tribal Fire Management, PO Box 389, Wellpinit, WA 99040. Howard Teasley ([email protected]) is Nez Perce Tribe
and allotment forester, Nez Perce Forest Tribal Forestry, PO Box 365, Lapwai, ID 83540. Matt Weingart ([email protected]) is Confederated Salish and
Kootenai Tribes and an undergraduate student at Salish Kootenai College, PO Box 70, Pablo, MT 59855. Spus Wilder ([email protected]) is Colville
Confederated Tribes and is a graduate student at the University of Washington, School of Forest Resources, Box 352100, Seattle, WA 98125. The authors are grateful for the
hospitality and generosity of the people of the Confederated Salish Kootenai Tribes. Inspiration for this workshop evolved from the Native People and Fire in the Northern
Rockies Project (www.cskt.org/fire_history.swf), which received the 2005 National Fire Plan Award for Excellence in Community Assistance. Funding support for this project
was provided through the Joint Fire Science Program, the University of Washington, and the Rocky Mountain Research Station.

Copyright © 2012 by the Society of American Foresters.

188 Journal of Forestry • June 2012

that early suppositions that Indians were few temic images such as Smokey Bear, gained fire to the tribes of the Flathead Reservation.
in number and had little impact on the en- popular adoption and regulatory support For 2 days in June 2010, seven tribal elders
vironment set the stage for a series of myths (Pyne 1982, Carle 2002). An iconic colli- joined with 20 native and nonnative scien-
about indigenous people and natural re- sion between societal expectations and eco- tists, resource managers, and academics in a
sources that persist in popular thought and system realities became unavoidable. workshop on the Flathead Indian Reserva-
policy today (Kay and Simmons 2002, tion located in western Montana to discuss
Mann 2005). By the 1990s, elevated risk of wildland integration of Native American stewardship
fire to communities, declines in ecosystem practices, TK, and SEK to address contem-
The Fire Story health across landscapes, and escalating costs porary forest health and wildfire challenges.
of wildfires combined to become a source of To assure candor, roundtable discussions
Consider, e.g., interactions between national alarm. A medley of laws, plans, pol- were facilitated by a member of the CSKT,
people, fire, and the North American land- icies, and institutions were put in place to and the number and composition of work-
scape. With fire and other means, indige- deal with this crisis, but forest fires continue shop attendees were limited and balanced,
nous people maintained a cultural landscape to consume agency budgets and threaten respectively. Shared concern about forest
creating the prairies and forest conditions, ecological functions (Busenberg 2004). health and wildfire hazard brought these
free of undergrowth, which greeted the first people together but broader issues of cul-
European explorers (Pyne 1982, Boyd 1999, It’s Time to Listen and Learn tural respect, humility, and knowledge shar-
Bonnicksen 2000, Stewart 2002, Wear and ing quickly emerged.
Greis 2002, Cronon 2003). Major reasons The need for a holistic paradigm to deal
for Native American ecosystem burning in- with environmental issues of increasing We offer this article, coauthored by all
cluded hunting, crop management, growth magnitude and complexity is becoming ever participants, as a way to share with others a
and yield improvement, fireproofing, insect more apparent (Chapin et al. 2010). An collaborative chronicle of revealing dia-
collection, pest management, warfare, sig- emerging view that elements of TK and SEK logue, new friendships, and a mutual com-
naling, control of resource access, clearing might be complementary is gaining accep- mitment to an exchange of information that
for travel, felling trees, and riparian habitat tance (Michel and Gayton 2002, Kimmerer extends beyond the usual boundaries of pro-
management (Lewis 1973, Williams 2003). 2002, Tsuli and Ho 2002). TK can contrib- fessional training and cultural orientation
Historic use of fire on the landscape by Na- ute place-based understanding of ecosystem such that learning can proceed, legacy myths
tive Americans is a compelling example of relationships and SEK can provide detailed might be corrected, and the forests and the
TK in adaptive practice (Kimmerer and information about ecosystem components people will benefit. Summarized comments
Lake 2001). The persistence of cultural (Power and Chapin 2010). from tribal elders, students, and resource
practices in the face of centuries of subjuga- managers as well as agency professionals and
tion provides testament to the enduring Respectful partnerships are needed to academics are presented as prologue to con-
adaptive capacity of indigenous people move beyond legacies of prejudice and mis- clusions and recommendations.
(Berkes 2008). understanding to discover new opportuni-
ties for cross-cultural knowledge sharing. The Elders
However, the significance and sophisti- First, we must learn to listen to one another
cation of Native American burning in “pre- (Bengston 2004, White and McDowell Seven tribal elders from the Kootenai
settlement” environments have commonly 2009). and Salish-Pend d’ Oreille Culture Com-
been misunderstood or discounted (Stewart mittees were present, shared stories of inher-
2002, Vale 2002). With the imposition of Over 10 years ago, students from the ited traditions and knowledge, and candidly
European concepts of property and manage- Yakama Indian Reservation in Washington offered their perspectives. Elders recall a
ment, the ability of Indian tribes to continue extended an open invitation for academic time when there were tribal fire specialists,
cultural practices diminished (Anderson institutions to view proactive, adaptive ap- known as “burners,” who understood fuel
2005). Ecosystem conditions across North proaches that blend TK and SEK into stew- conditions and knew exactly when to start a
American landscapes changed dramatically ardship practices used on their reservation. fire so that it would produce the desired re-
(Conzen 1990). Fire exclusion and cessation These visits, coupled with increased enroll- sults. Fire, central to Indian life and religion,
of indigenous practices along with grazing, ment of Native American students into is considered a gift from the creator. The
harvest activities, introduction of invasive graduate programs, heightened awareness of people look to fire as the way to keep the
species, development, pollution, recreation, opportunities for modern tribal manage- land clean, encourage healthy growth of cul-
and other factors have resulted in altered fire ment approaches to complement academic turally important plants, and control insects.
regimes, unprecedented forest fuel buildups, studies based in SEK. Encroachment of trees into prairies once
and increased incidence and severity of wild- maintained with fire represents a loss for the
fires (Arno and Allison-Bunnell 2002). Re- Colleagues at the national Intertribal tribe and brings sadness to the people. Elders
duction of fuel loads through periodic burn- Timber Council (ITC) and the University recalled their grandfather’s complaints that
ing, as had been native tradition, was labeled of Washington (UW) have undertaken an it was ridiculous for white people to stop
Paiute forestry and denigrated by early for- investigation of processes for integration of Indian burning and to suppress natural fires.
esters as incompatible with Euro-American TK and SEK. With support from the US Now, the consequences of fire suppression
tenets of resource management (Boerker multiagency Joint Fire Science Program, the are becoming recognized and white people
1912, Leopold 1920). Instead, a highly sim- US Forest Service, and the Bureau of Indian come to ask what can be done. The elders are
plified belief in forest protection through Affairs, an opportunity arose to build on the eager to offer help and share knowledge, if
wholesale fire suppression, supported by to- “Fire on the Land” educational program of others are willing to recognize that sharing
the Confederated Salish and Kootenai
Tribes (CSKT 2005), which was developed
to increase awareness of the importance of

Journal of Forestry • June 2012 189

must be respectful and reciprocal. Elders are would burn campsites and berry patches. of tribal members are very important objec-
wary of overtures from scientists from aca- One student remembered a story from an tives for forest managers but can not be ac-
demia and agencies because they have often elder who was once able to ride a horse complished without community support.
taken without giving in return and have had through the forests of the Yakama Nation.
a known history of discounting or subordi- Frequent burning created parklike forest Tribal foresters expressed gratitude for
nating the TK held by native people. The conditions that facilitated seasonal passages the guidance provided regularly by elders.
elders expressed willingness to share infor- from high elevation during summer to the Elders are invited into the forest to view pro-
mation if asked, but made it very clear that lowlands during winter. Now, the forests posed treatment units and provide their rec-
they need be convinced that inquiries are have grown dense with undergrowth. It is ommendations and insights. Mutual under-
sincere. important to hear the stories to guide what standing of objectives and activities is
we do today but Indian learning is also un- sought. Communication with the tribal
Sharing knowledge is not simple. Con- spoken knowledge, often gained by doing. council and the community is essential and
ceptual differences in tribal lifeways and lan- Native students reported difficulty in find- ongoing as projects are planned and imple-
guages challenge translation and under- ing ways to convey lessons learned from el- mented.
standing. For instance, “management” is not ders to nonnative students and faculty.
a traditional concept of Indian people be- Funding constraints, however, present
cause it reflects an anthropocentric attitude One graduate student, studying fire real-world challenges to reservation steward-
that man is separate and apart from the en- ecology, is also a fire manager for his reser- ship. For instance, funding is inadequate to
vironment, able to control all to meet his vation and has worked, over the years, to perform some forestry activities that are
needs. A tribal elder spoke of relationships develop a fuels program to reintroduce fire needed to properly care for the land. Federal
between man and the environment in much on the landscape. Invitations have been ex- regulations, such as the National Environ-
different terms, “The earth does not belong tended to other tribes, federal agencies, and mental Policy Act, must be followed because
to us; we belong to the earth.” It must also be conservation groups to assist tribal fire crews of the federal nexus created by the involve-
appreciated that, although practical under- conducting prescribed fire treatments. ment of federal agencies and funding, but
standings may be shared, some elements of These invitations have been gratefully ac- add to costs and complexity. The role of fire
TK are sacred and can not be discussed. cepted by nonnative professionals because is generally understood within tribal com-
When a gift of tribal information garnered no comparable opportunities for practical munities, but environmental concerns such
from many generations of Indian experience fire experience are available outside the res- as air quality, damage to resources and prop-
is offered, it needs to be respected. Elders ervation. erty, and jurisdictional complexities limit
must be assured that their advice is appreci- burn opportunities. A dynamic balancing of
ated and carries real influence. Relationships Native students experience cultural multiple and sometimes competing objec-
that evolve in trust and respect are essential. challenges pursuing higher education as they tives and sources of funding is imperative for
Rather than relying on papers to communi- adapt to an unfamiliar environment. Tribal successful management of tribal forests.
cate understandings, elders indicated that colleges fill an important niche, providing
knowledge sharing is best done in person education that is uniquely developed to in- In spite of many challenges, Indian fire
and on the land. Elders extended an invitation clude cultural considerations. Recognition and forestry programs have been acknowl-
to tour tribal forests. They also suggested that of the value of TK by the science and educa- edged as successful examples of adaptive
reciprocal invitations to national forestlands tion communities brings welcome inclusion management, in part because of inclusion of
would encourage beneficial dialogue. for native students attending large universi- TK along with SEK in planning and imple-
ties. In addition to cultural challenges, many mentation. Some tribes have begun working
The elders expressed great pride in the native students must also fulfill family obli- with the US Forest Service to coauthor man-
accomplishments of native students pursu- gations and work responsibilities while at- agement plans and craft stewardship con-
ing higher education. Ultimately, if integra- tending school. However, social challenges tracts that extend across ownership bound-
tion of knowledge is to be successful, it will extend beyond education. Native students aries. This is a way to build good working
be Indian students that will form the com- expressed some uncertainty about how they relationships and share knowledge. One ob-
munication bridge between the two worlds. may be received by tribal communities after stacle that constrains relationship building,
It is important to bring Indians and non- extended exposure to western education and however, has been the frequency of turnover
Indians together. We all share the same re- non-Indian values. within the US Forest Service workforce as
sponsibility to do better for future genera- individuals transfer in pursuit of career ad-
tions. We need to look ahead together. The Tribal Foresters vancement. This interruption in continuity
makes it difficult to establish and maintain
The Students Five Indian foresters from three tribes respectful relations and partnerships.
shared their perspectives. All agreed that for-
Four Native American students en- estry on tribal lands must successfully ac- The ITC
rolled in undergraduate and graduate for- commodate protection of cultural values
estry programs at Salish Kootenai College while proceeding with harvest activities. Five of the workshop attendees serve in
(SKC) and the UW were in attendance. All Cultural values include places of spiritual leadership positions within the ITC. Estab-
recalled from relatives that for generations significance; traditional foods such as huck- lished in 1976, the ITC is a nonprofit na-
Indian people have regarded fire use as an leberries, camas, and wild potatoes; access to tionwide consortium of over 60 Indian
essential part of their way of life. Proper use fuelwood; protected wildlife habitats; spiri- tribes and Alaska Native Corporations ded-
fulfills a responsibility to take care of the tual solace; medicines; and others. Genera- icated to improving the management of nat-
land. Past generations of Native Americans tion of economic returns and employment ural resources of importance to Native
American communities. The ITC works co-

190 Journal of Forestry • June 2012

operatively with federal agencies, forestry as- cause of fire exclusion policies in designated growing recognition of the importance of
sociations, private industry, and academia to wilderness areas, the prairies are being lost to TK within the academic community, insti-
explore issues and identify practical strate- tree encroachment. Wilderness status, tutions are slow to change and challenges
gies and initiatives to promote social, eco- which prohibits human management, has must be overcome to integrate TK into re-
nomic, and ecological values while protect- resulted in ecosystem conditions that differ source science curricula. Nonnative faculty
ing and utilizing forests, soil, water, and significantly from those that historically sus- and research scientists lack opportunities to
wildlife. Timber was prominently incorpo- tained tribal communities, raising the ques- get to know Indian country and learn from
rated in ITC’s name because the founders tion, “What is natural and what is not natu- elders. Individuals, trained as science spe-
felt no need to apologize for harvest activities ral?” cialists, find it difficult to think outside of
that help maintain the health of forests and their particular realms of expertise and cul-
wildlife resources and provide economic Many within the US Forest Service are tural orientations.
benefits for tribal communities. Use of nat- eager to learn from Indian management
ural resources has always been vital to the practices, but are uncertain as to how to pro- TK, although intensively studied by an-
survival of Indian people. ceed. On the other hand, the agency person- thropologists, has been comparatively ig-
nel also report that “organizational arro- nored by fire and other natural resource sci-
Increased awareness of cultural values gance” is still pervasive within the agency entists. Western science reflects a cultural
and native burning by federal agencies and and manifests as “we know best and we are context of which students and faculty may
the research community can be helpful to going to show you how to do things.” This be unaware but Native American students
fire planning on federal lands adjacent to res- perspective is viewed by agency participants may find perplexing and uncomfortable. In-
ervations. Policies of fire suppression fol- as neither helpful nor correct. For example, corporation of TK into natural resource sci-
lowed by the more recent policies of “fire for traditional burners may have little formal ence curricula broadens the educational ex-
resource benefit” have resulted in damage education but are nonetheless proficient at perience of students from all cultures while
during several conflagrations to cultural re- manipulating vegetation with fire. A re- creating a sense of inclusion for Indian stu-
sources of concern to tribal communities. In peated recommendation from tribes has dents. Guest lectures by native scholars and
some cases, cultural and economic losses to been, “Send them out here [agency person- elders are a readily accessible start toward
tribes have been significant, but policy rem- nel] to learn burning from us.” implementing cross-cultural education.
edies remain elusive. However, federal pro- Field trips to Indian reservations offer fur-
grams such as The Tribal Forest Protection Not all places benefit from burning. For ther opportunities. Scientists and faculty
Act, Treasured Landscapes, and Landscape example, sacred burial areas should be pro- need to learn as well as teach—listen as well
Conservation Cooperatives are seen as po- tected from fire by removal of surrounding as talk.
tentially promising opportunities for greater fuels. When located on federal lands, such
consideration of TK in landscape planning. cultural resources may be unrecognized by Educators agree with the elders that na-
ITC representatives are also hopeful that agency managers and damaged during tive students create a bridge between worlds
new understanding of TK will help guide firestorms if advance strategies for protec- of knowing. Students that accept such re-
risk analyses within planning exercises such tion are not developed with local input. sponsibility need support from both reserva-
as the National Cohesive Wildfire Manage- However, federal scientists and managers re- tions and universities. Education partner-
ment Strategy currently in development by port that they generally lack opportunity ships, such as exist between SKC and the
the Wildland Fire Leadership Council, an and direction for gaining familiarity with UW, offer comfortable paths from the In-
intergovernmental body charged with pro- place-based TK. dian to non-Indian worlds of learning.
viding strategic oversight of federal wildland Greater investment in development of cross-
fire management policy. Questions remain, Greater agency recognition of the value cultural curricula and Indian student re-
however, about how to avoid the biases of TK will help facilitate successful informa- cruitment and retention is needed to address
inherent in “best science” approaches to tion exchange. Collaborative, multiowner- the current underrepresentation of Native
wildland policies that reflect a legacy of sub- ship resource planning, student internships, Americans in the scientific and academic
ordination of Indian values. Improved com- and opportunities for professional exchange communities. Funding support through
munication and alliances between agencies, are a good place to start. Shared experiences scholarships, research assistantships, and
scientists, and tribes can overcome preju- and success stories can be powerful educa- summer internships can contribute needed
dices and bridge knowledge gaps. tional tools. Most managers are more likely assistance for worthy students.
to learn more from hands-on experiences be-
Federal Agencies cause they lack both time and inclination to Scientific research is dependent on
learn from published literature. identification of questions and development
Five senior program managers and sci- of hypotheses. An approach to get beyond
entists from the Bureau of Indian Affairs and Terminologies and methodologies used barriers of perspective may be to develop re-
the US Forest Service participated in the in planning by federal agencies also create search questions, hypotheses, project pro-
workshop. Three are enrolled tribal mem- challenges. Terms such as “natural” and posals, investigation methodologies, and
bers. Cultural disconnects of the past have “wilderness” are culturally burdened and implementation strategies in consultation
created regulatory quandaries. For example, “science-based” risk/benefit analyses are lim- with elders and tribal practitioners. Field
the Bob Marshall Wilderness, located east of ited by ethnocentric concepts of compara- trips can provide opportunities for SEK-
the Flathead Indian Reservation, has two tive value. trained individuals to share perspectives and
prairies that were created by repeated native information with keepers of TK. Discovery
burning over hundreds of years. Now, be- The Academics of agreement between SEK and TK can
highlight the deductive power of each while
Academicians and scientists from SKC
and UW agreed that, although there is a

Journal of Forestry • June 2012 191

assuring congruence between abstraction Figure 1. The two-row wampum symbolizes two distinct cultural strands traveling in
and place. parallel.

Closing Comments of TK and support its continued evolution 3. Protocols for the conduct of relation-
and application into the future? How can we ships between tribal communities and
Eighty-one-year-old Salish-Pend d’ begin to build bridges of understanding and land-management agencies should be
Oreille Elder, Pat Pierre, eloquently spoke to work together in common purpose? How collaboratively developed at the local
the group of a simple prescription for cross- can we turn diverse knowledge (TK and level.
cultural progress: open communication, ed- SEK) into healthy, adaptive treatments on
ucation, respect, and friendliness. All in at- the land? 4. Interpersonal relationships and shared
tendance agreed. experiences are essential to integration of
Ransom and Ettenger (2001) point to a TK and SEK. Federal agencies should
Agencies, research organizations, and time-tested model for bringing together the encourage career residency of resource
educational institutions can benefit from knowledge, skills, and resources of Indian professionals and recognize that Indian
greater engagement with tribal knowledge Nations and nonnative institutions. The people have a unique connection to
keepers. The small workshop format was Kaswentha (pronounced Gus-wen-ta), also place.
highly effective in facilitating candid dia- known as the Two-Row Wampum, is a
logue among the participants. This work- treaty belt created in the 17th century by the 5. Education should play a major role in
shop served as a powerful beginning, but ad- Haudenosaunee people to record treaty efforts to integrate TK and SEK. Partner-
ditional gatherings at reservation locations agreements with Dutch settlers (Figure 1). It ships between tribal colleges and other
around the nation are needed to bring el- consists of alternating rows of white and academic institutions should be sup-
ders, tribal managers, land-management purple. The two purple rows symbolize two ported. Greater investment in develop-
agencies, students, and scientists together on vessels traveling the river of life. One vessel, a ment of cross-cultural curricula and In-
a broader scale. Personal relationships built ship, symbolizes the Dutch and the other, a dian student recruitment and retention is
from shared experiences are essential to canoe, is for the Haudenosaunee. The three needed to address the current underrep-
bridge cultural differences. white rows symbolize the Haudenosaunee resentation of Native Americans in aca-
principles of peace, good mind, and demic and scientific communities.
SEK has dominated resource ap- strength. The treaty established a nation-to-
proaches adopted by modern society. How- nation relationship of two societies traveling 6. Joint environmental research projects
ever, simplification and utilitarian manage- the river of life together, distinct and auton- based on place-based collaboration be-
ment have proven that a more holistic view omous, in mutual acknowledgment and co- tween keepers of TK and western scien-
is needed to address complex environmental operation for common benefit. tists should be pursued. The research
challenges such as climate change, forest community should expand delivery
health declines, and the increasing inci- Recommendations mechanisms for emerging science and
dence, severity, and costs of wildfires. technology beyond journals and websites
At the end of the workshop, partici- to include outreach programs for train-
Although TK and SEK offer notable pants expressed the hope that their shared ings and workshops that better serve
contrasts, Trosper (2007) correctly cautions dialogue might represent a beginning from tribal communities.
that broad generalizations tend to overlook which the following recommendations
similarities such as systematic observation could lead to further opportunities for cross- 7. Local cross-jurisdictional projects should
and objectives of reliable predictability. cultural problem solving founded on open- be jointly planned and implemented us-
These different realms of knowledge share a ness and trust: ing local TK and SEK, recognizing expe-
common understanding that the natural riential learning as a means to compli-
world is amenable to explanation and hu- 1. An enduring national program for TK/ ment and strengthen modern academic
man influence. Both develop sophisticated SEK integration should be developed for training (take the classroom to the field)
knowledge used to inform cause-and-effect cultural exchange and to share successes; and test scientific theory.
relationships from which strategies for ac- however, regional differences involving
tion emerge. Both can contribute to broader agencies, communities, and tribes indi- Workshop participants concluded that,
understanding of opportunities to adapt to a cate that local planning, not a “cook melded together, TK and SEK could pro-
changing environment. TK and SEK are book,” will be needed. duce a resource management approach that
both dynamic. Each has its own mechanisms is stronger than either can provide alone.
for establishing the validity of ideas and be- 2. Workshops should be organized and This workshop provided an environment
liefs while adapting to new circumstances conducted at reservation locations to where participants could collaboratively de-
and information (Michel and Gayton bring keepers of TK together with repre- velop recommendations for action steps to
2002). sentatives of management entities, prac- create new opportunities of cross-cultural
titioners, and academic and research in- problem solving. The workshop opens the
Cultural and language barriers present stitutions. door to build trust, respect, and future work-
obstacles to collaboration. Workshop partic-
ipants acknowledged that TK must be given
respect and recognition as legitimate and
equal to that of SEK. With the passing of
each generation, TK is being lost as impor-
tant questions become more urgent to an-
swer. How can we preserve the existing body

192 Journal of Forestry • June 2012

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