Geol
345
(Spring
2014)
Lecture
16
Contractional
Regimes
Ch.
16,
p.
312-‐322
1.
Contractional
Deformation:
Rocks
are
contracted
in
regions
undergoing
horizontal
shortening,
often
at
collisional/convergent
plate
boundaries.
The
shortening
may
be
taken
up
in
a
number
of
manners:
(a) Volume
loss
(pressure
solution)
(b) Thickening
(pure
shear)
(c) Buckling
(folds)
(d) Faulting
(thrust
and
reverse
faults)
[Fig.
16.1.
Mechanisms
of
accommodating
horizontal
shortening]
2.
Contraction
by
Faulting:
Faulting
and
folding
are
readily
observable
forms
of
contraction.
Thrust
faults
tend
to
have
dips
of
~30°;
reverse
faults
(>45°)
are
steeper
but
accommodate
less
shortening.
Thrust
faults
and
folds
are
commonly
interrelated
and
may
create
important
structural
traps
(e.g.,
oil
and
gas).
[Fig.
16.2.
Thrust
fault
and
related
fold
highlighted
by
sedimentary
beds
in
Chile.
The
HW
is
translated
over
the
FW
in
a
thrust
fault]
3.
Thrusts:
Thrust
faults
commonly
have
a
HW
that
is
thin
relative
to
its
length
and
is
called
a
thrust
sheet
or
nappe.
Multiple
thrust
sheets
may
be
stacked
on
top
of
each
other,
forming
a
nappe
complex.
[Box
16.1.
(a)
Precambrian
gneiss
thrust
over
Cambrian
quartzite
along
the
Moine
thrust,
Scotland.
(b)
Thrust
nappe
of
Precambrian
basement
overlying
Cambrian
quartzites,
Scotland]
4.
Thrust
Nappes:
The
basement
rocks
below
the
thrust
underneath
a
thrust
nappe
are
essentially
“in
place”
(not
transported)
and
are
called
autochthonous.
If
the
nappe
rocks
were
transported
a
great
distance
(10s-‐100s
of
km),
they
are
allochthonous
and
the
nappe
can
be
called
an
allochthon.
[Box
16.1.
Allochthonous
and
autochthonous
rocks
related
to
the
Moine
thrust
in
Scotland]
5.
Thrust
Nappes:
Thrust
faults
may
be
listric,
curving
into
a
very
shallow
dip
(~a
few
degrees)
below
a
thrust
sheet,
forming
a
décollement.
The
low
angle
intersection
with
the
Earth’s
surface
creates
an
irregular
fault
trace.
Erosion
remnants
of
nappes
are
called
klippe.
Holes
through
nappes
that
expose
the
underlying
autochthonous
rocks
are
called
fensters.
[Figure.
Terminologies
related
to
thrust
nappes
(Twiss
&
Moores,
2007)]
6.
Thrust
Imbrication:
Thrust
sheets
may
be
internally
dissected
by
numerous
thrusts
that
imbricate
the
thrust
sheet.
This
creates
a
number
of
slices
of
the
thrust
sheet
called
horses
that
break
away
from
the
basal
décollement
or
sole
thrust.
Numerous
back-‐to-‐back
horses
define
a
duplex
structure
(S-‐shaped
horses).
[Fig.
16.5.
Imbrication
zone
in
a
thrust
sheet,
defined
by
horses
that
thrust
away
from
a
sole
thrust
or
floor
thrust]
[Fig.
16.6.
Thrust
duplex
in
sandstones
in
Svalbard]
1
Geol
345
(Spring
2014)
Lecture
16
7.
Duplex
Development:
Imbrication
zones
form
when
thrusts
initiate
across
more
competent
layers
(sandstone,
limestone)
and
connect
a
sole
(floor)
thrust
with
a
roof
thrust.
If
the
duplex
advances
in
the
direction
of
thrusting
(the
vergence
direction),
it
is
in-‐sequence
thrusting
(from
the
hinterland
towards
the
foreland).
[Fig.
16.9.
In-‐sequence
thrusting
produces
a
duplex
that
migrates
towards
the
foreland]
8.
Duplex
Development:
The
floor
thrust
and
roof
thrust
bound
the
horses
that
define
the
duplex
structure.
[Figure.
Duplex
development
(Twiss
&
Moores,
2007]
9.
Flat-‐Ramp-‐Flat
Geometry:
The
floor
thrusts
and
roof
thrusts,
connected
by
thrust
ramps,
define
a
flat-‐ramp-‐flat
geometry.
As
thrust
sheets
get
thrust
up
the
ramps
and
onto
the
roof
thrusts,
the
stratigraphic
section
is
repeated.
[Figure.
Flat-‐ramp-‐flat
geometry
along
a
thrust
fault
(Twiss
&
Moores,
2007)]
10.
Duplex
Development:
Complex
duplex
structures
may
ultimately
develop
that
allow
significant
horizontal
shortening
across
a
thrust
nappe.
The
geometric
configuration
varies
depending
on
whether
the
duplexing
evolves
toward
the
foreland
or
the
hinterland.
[Fig.
16.7.
Cross
section
through
the
Caledonian
foreland
in
Norway,
showing
an
imbricated
duplex
system
in
the
thrust
sheet]
11.
Duplex
Development:
As
duplexes
evolve,
the
roof
thrust
is
progressively
abandoned
as
new
horses
get
added
to
the
duplex
with
the
development
of
new
thrust
ramps.
[Figure.
Foreland-‐migrating
duplexes
(in-‐sequence
thrusting)
create
horses
that
dip
back
towards
the
hinterland]
[Figure.
Hinterland-‐migrating
duplexes
(out-‐of-‐sequence
thrusting)
create
a
different
duplex
internal
geometry,
with
horses
dipping
towards
the
foreland
(Twiss
&
Moores,
2007)]
12.
Duplex
Development:
Depending
on
the
relative
amounts
of
motion
on
each
thrust
ramp,
duplexes
may
become
very
convoluted
and
may
start
to
stack
horses
on
top
of
each
other
to
form
an
antiformal
stack
(“piggyback”
duplexing).
[Fig.
16.15.
Piggyback
style
of
duplexing
interpreted
from
seismic
data,
Taiwan]
13.
Backthrusts:
High
strain
zones
within
a
thrust
sheet
may
result
in
the
development
of
backthrusts,
which
dip
in
the
opposite
direction
to
the
main
thrust
fault.
[Fig.
16.10.
Development
of
backthrusts
within
thrust
sheets.
Example
on
the
right
is
from
the
Caledonian
foreland,
Norway]
2
Geol
345
(Spring
2014)
Lecture
16
14.
Ramp
Geometries:
Thrust
ramps
commonly
strike
perpendicular
to
the
transport
direction
and
so
undergo
dip-‐
slip
motion.
These
are
frontal
ramps.
Laterally
offset
ramps
may
be
connected
by
oblique
ramps
or
even
lateral
ramps
(which
may
be
vertical
strike-‐slip
faults
and
are
thus
called
tear
faults).
[Fig.
16.12.
Geometries
of
ramp
styles
within
a
thrust
complex]
15.
Lateral
Ramps:
[Figure.
Lateral
ramps
in
the
Canadian
Rockies
and
the
Appalachians.
From
Twiss
&
Moores
(2007)]
16.
Fault-‐bend
Folds:
Translation
of
a
thrust
sheet
from
a
lower
flat
(floor
thrust),
up
a
ramp,
and
onto
an
upper
flat
(roof
thrust)
necessarily
results
in
the
creation
of
a
fold
type
called
a
fault-‐bend
fold.
For
angular
geometries,
these
are
kink
folds
and
likely
form
by
either
flexural
slip
or
flexural
shear,
thus
preserving
layer
thickness
and
length.
This
allows
the
construction
of
relatively
simple
balanced
cross
sections
(conservation
of
line
lengths
and
cross
sectional
area).
[Fig.
16.16.
Simplified
fault-‐bend
fold
geometries]
17.
Fault-‐bend
Folds:
As
the
thrust
sheet
is
translated
up
the
ramp,
beds
are
tilted
back
towards
the
hinterland
(the
backlimb).
As
they
move
onto
the
upper
flat,
they
are
retrodeformed
into
a
horizontal
geometry
again.
Rocks
initially
along
the
thrust
ramp
are
tilted
towards
the
foreland
as
they
pass
onto
the
upper
flat
(forelimb)
and
are
passively
transported
towards
the
foreland
as
long
as
the
thrust
remains
active.
Fault-‐bend
fold
shapes
are
controlled
by
ramp
dip
and
height,
so
are
geometrically
predictable.
[Fig.
16.17.
Progressive
evolution
of
a
fault-‐bend
fold]
18.
Fault-‐propagation
Folds:
A
fold
can
also
form
ahead
of
the
upward
propagating
tip
of
a
thrust
ramp.
This
is
a
fault-‐propagation
fold.
They
also
have
a
backlimb
and
a
forelimb;
however,
both
form
in
the
fault
HW
to
accommodate
strain
at
the
tip
during
shortening.
The
fault
will
tend
to
propagate
up
through
the
synclinal
hinge
(the
axial
trace
is
pinned
to
the
fault
tip),
resulting
in
steeply
dipping
or
overturned
forelimb
units
in
direct
contact
with
often
undeformed
FW
rocks.
[Fig.
16.18.
Progressive
evolution
of
a
fault-‐propagation
fold]
19.
Fault-‐propagation
Folds:
[Fig.
16.20.
Fault-‐propagation
fold
in
Svalbard]
20.
Detachment
Folds:
Slip
along
a
décollement
without
the
development
of
thrust
ramps
may
result
in
decoupling
above
the
décollement
to
form
detachment
folds.
Buckling
occurs
in
layers
with
sharp
rheology
contrast
to
surrounding
rocks
(common
above
shales
and
evaporites).
The
folds
are
usually
upright
and
parallel
(constant
layer
thickness).
3
Geol
345
(Spring
2014)
Lecture
16
[Fig.
16.21.
(a)
Typical
detachment
folding
condition
due
to
decoupling
above
a
basal
décollement.
(b)
Detachment
folding
between
two
thrust
flats]
[Fig.
16.22.
Box-‐shaped
detachment
fold,
Norway]
21.
Folds
in
Seismic
Data:
[Box
16.2.
Fault-‐propagation
fold
interpreted
from
seismic
reflection
data,
Colombia.
This
fold
forms
an
important
oil
trap
and
formed
by
faulting
through
an
initial
detachment
fold.
Deformation
here
was
coincident
with
sedimentation]
22.
Fold-‐and-‐Thrust
Belts:
These
fold
types
illustrate
that
thrust
faults
are
commonly
associated
with
folds
and
often
form
a
tectonic
environment
called
a
fold-‐and-‐thrust
belt.
They
form
in
plate
convergent
settings
and
are
major
orogenic
belts,
a
few
100s
km
wide
and
100s
to
>1000
km
long.
[Figure.
Fold-‐and-‐thrust
belts
in
(A)
the
Appalachians,
and
(B)
the
Canadian
Rockies.
From
Twiss
&
Moores
(2007).
From
Twiss
&
Moores
(2007)]
23.
Fold-‐and-‐Thrust
Belts:
Thrust
faults
in
these
belts
typically
sole
into
a
basal
décollement
that
dips
gently
towards
the
hinterland.
So
the
orogenic
belt
thickens
in
this
direction.
Thrust
ramps
dip
at
~30°
and
form
an
imbricate
fan.
These
faults
may
or
may
not
reach
the
surface
(the
latter
are
blind
thrusts).
[Figure.
Fold-‐and-‐thrust
belts
in
(A)
the
Appalachians,
and
(B)
the
Canadian
Rockies.
From
Twiss
&
Moores
(2007).
From
Twiss
&
Moores
(2007)]
4