Muzings 2022

20232

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Inside front cover. Intentionally left blank
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Advisor 20232

Datuk Kamarul Baharin A. Kasim Editorial 2
The Tropical Rainforest 6
Project Team How Old Am I? 12
People of Peninsular Malaysia’s Rainforest 20
Karen Loh The Ring Ladies of Kampung Semban 26
Maganjeet Kaur (Project Manager) Mah Meri Wood Carving 34
Mariana Isa The Rock Art of South East Asia 40
Noraini binti Basri Trading Goods in Ancient Times 46
Rose Gan Through the Rainforest 52
Is the Jungle Neutral? 58
Editors Deforestation 66
Sustainable Forest Management 72
Prof. Dr. Sivachandralingam Sundara Raja Gunungan 84
Rose Gan Malay Woodcarving and Spirituality 90
Maganjeet Kaur Addressing Forest Landscape Restoration 96
Coexisting with Wildlife 104
Coordinator The Natural History Gallery 110
Taxidermy at the Museum 118
Publication Unit, Research & Documentation Division From the Jungle to the Canvas 126
Department of Museums Malaysia From Bacteria to Barnacles to Tigers 136
B ibliography 142
Published by

Department of Museums Malaysia
Jalan Damansara
50566 Kuala Lumpur Wilayah Persekutuan, Malaysia

Printed by

Percetakan Watan Sdn. Bhd.
No. 26, Jalan Daud,
Kampung Baru,
50350 Kuala Lumpur Wilayah Persekutuan, Malaysia

Design

Maganjeet Kaur

Cover

Mariana Isa

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Editorial

As Museum Volunteers, the rainforest itself is not a Did you know that Muzium Negara once had a
topic with which we routinely engage. A haven for flora Natural History Gallery? Some of our older guides still
and fauna, it has sheltered and nourished humans for remember, while one of our younger guides has delved
millennia, providing medicines, food, building materials into the displays once housed there. We have included
and clothing as well as an important source of income a write up on the recent Taxidermy exhibition and we
for its inhabitants, who have always traded in forest thank Mohammed Ali Mohaideen, co-curator of the
products. Bent on increasing our knowledge of our exhibition, for sharing his knowledge with us. To Khairill
natural heritage, this third issue of Muzings focuses Jemangin, thank you for going through this article. The
on the Tropical Rainforest. We have greatly enjoyed tropical rainforest is only one of many types of forests
researching and writing this edition and hope readers found in Malaysia; in this issue, you will also explore the
will be equally enthralled by the eclectic collection of mangrove, a unique coastal forest.
rainforest-inspired articles.
On our journey to compile these articles, we reached
We examine what constitutes a tropical rainforest and out to several experts by means of four webinars.
discover whether the Malaysian forest really is 30 million Our members are indebted to the speakers for their
years old, as commonly touted. You will learn about the enlightening and interesting presentations. The talks
inhabitants of Peninsular Malaysia’s rainforest as well as were: Sustainable Forest Management, The Peninsular
encounter the Mah Meri and the famed ‘Ring Ladies’, Malaysia Journey, Kishokumar Jeyaraj, 22 February
whose unique adornment is sadly now a dying art. In 2021; Rock Art in the Context of Southeast Asian
ages before highways were carved through jungle, our Archaeology, Dr Noel Hidalgo Tan, 24 May 2021;
enterprising ancestors made use of river systems to Addressing Forest Landscape Restoration in Malaysia,
navigate through the impenetrable forest. Furthermore, Dr Marcel Djama, 14 June 2021; and Coexisting with
we see how the forest itself, the inspiration for many of Wildlife: lessons from HUTAN in Sabah, Dr Marc
our local arts and crafts, is reflected in woodcarvings, Ancrenaz, 22 July 2021.
motifs and art works representing the natural world.
Summaries of the last three talks have been included
The importance of the rainforest is age-old. We travel in this issue, whilst material from the first has been
along ancient trade routes to discover how exotic incorporated into the article on Sustainable Forest
forest products were in demand in other parts of the Management. May we add a special thanks to Anne
world from the earliest times. In contrast, we view the Deguerry for casting her artistic eye over early drafts
consequences of exploitation of the rainforest for profit and helping us to improve the aesthetics.
and learn how we might find a balance between ecology
and commerce by sustainable methods of production. We wish to thank Cik Darniza and Noraini of the
The forest is an alien environment for most of us. If Publications Department JMM for advice and guidance.
suddenly thrown deep inside, would it be possible to We are also indebted to our Director General, Datuk
survive? Is the jungle fair to the unwary traveller or Kamarul Baharin, for his continued faith and support
a dangerous and unpredictable place? We also look in all of our Museum Volunteer activities. And to our
through the eyes of two artists separated by time for Research Team members, well done!
a perspective on how our perceptions of the rainforest
have changed over the years. We thank Johan Marjonid Sincerely yours,
for sharing his art with us. The Editorial Team, 2022

Taman Negara, Lata Berkoh
Image credit: Jörg Widany

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Worldwide Locations of Tropical Rainforests

Tropical Rainforests are located between the Tropic There is another type of rainforest, the Temperate
of Cancer (23.5 degrees north of the equator) and Rainforests (not shown on the map below), which
Tropic of Capricorn (23.5 degrees south of the are located north of the Tropic of Cancer and south
equator). They cover close to 2 percent of Earth’s of the Tropic of Capricorn.
total surface area (or 6 percent of Earth’s total land
surface) but contain 50 percent of its known animal
and plant species (80% of terrestrial species).

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Background image: Amazon rainforest along
Urubu River, Silves, Brazil.
Image credit: Andre Deak - Flcikr, CC BY
2.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

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The Tropical Rainforest

Wong Fui Min

I was sweating and panting as the hot and humid weather left me exhausted and
thirsty. The ground was full of undergrowth, roots of trees, dead leaves, making our
path wet, soggy, and slippery to trek. One could see various types of creepy crawlies
on the floor of the forest, like ants and blood-sucking leeches, just to name the obvious
that we hated most. Our path was very dimly lit. We were hardly able to see the way
ahead so thick was the covering of the branches and leaves of the huge and majestic
trees, although we knew that the sun was well above. We had been warned beforehand
that we might meet commonly seen wild boars, snakes, tapirs and even tigers. Therefore,
it was best that we kept close to each other while on the path to our camping site.
Constantly we had to be aware of our surroundings and keep an eye out for each other
during our journey, said our Scout Master…
That was my impression of a trip to Taman Negara, Pahang, a first-hand
experience for me of the jungles of Malaysia as a boy scout during my
school days. Only later in life did I realize that the environment described
above was what we call tropical rainforest. As its name suggests, the
region lies between the Tropics along the Equator. The position of the
sun is just above the equator, hence the weather in such areas of the earth
is very hot and humid. As the hot air rises, it forms clouds, which become
rainfall that pours down as precipitation. The rainfall in tropical areas can
be as high as more than 100 inches per annum, thus the name ‘rainforest’.

Dusky leaf monkey at Tanjung Tuan.
Image credit: ronykr, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia
Commons.

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The world’s tropical rainforests are located mainly in birds like eagles thrive on the emergent layer of the
Central America, Africa and South East Asia. These areas forest, from where they can see their prey from this
are not seasonal. It is usually hot and wet throughout superior vantage point.
the year with intermittent heavy rains interspersed with Below the emergent layer is the canopy layer. This is a
some dry spells. Some call such environments the ‘lungs vibrant layer where most living things are found – 80-
of the earth’, simply because the forest vegetation 90% of forest plants and animals inhabit this layer. The
produces quantities of oxygen, converted from carbon canopy receives a large share of sunlight and rain. Tall
dioxide by photosynthesis. trees with very dense branches and vines grow here.
Monkeys, reptiles and many insects of different species
The Forest Ecosystem have their habitats. You may be surprised that the
large ape-like orangutans of Borneo can also live on the
The rainforest comprises four distinct layers of various plants and branches of the canopy layer. Another inhabitant is the
animals, each providing unique conditions for their survival. sloth, a large creature that moves around the branches
The emergent layer of the Rainforest is the topmost. with its back hanging downwards. Sloths rarely descend
The tallest trees may grow above 100 feet, with some to the lower layers. The canopy provides abundant food
even reaching almost 200 feet in height. These majestic for these animals with plenty of choice of leaves, nuts
trees attract much of the sunlight of the forest. These and fruits.
trees not only absorb most of the sun, but also the water The understory layer lies between the ground layer
from rain and strong winds as well. The most common and the canopy layer above. Here it is shady, most of
fauna at this level are birds, bats and butterflies. Great

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Top: Trees displaying crown shyness, a phenomena where and dim forest floor, many species of ‘decomposer’
the tree crowns do not touch or overlap each other resulting bugs and insect find their home, such as snails, ants,
in gaps in the canopy. Photograph taken at the Forest slugs, worms, millipedes and beetles whose function is
Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), which has two clusters of to decompose dead leaves on the forest floor and turn
trees displaying crown shyness – Dryobalanops aromatica them into rich soil. Mushrooms, a type of fungus, also
(camphor) and Shorea resinosa (meranti belang). Image help in the decomposing of animals’ droppings. Large
credit: Marianne Khor. mammals are found here, too, like anteaters, tigers, deer
and tapir that move about on the lowest layer of the
Facing page: Weaving Spider at Santubong, Sarawak. forest floor. The rainforest can be a dangerous place
Image credit: Bernard Dupont, CC BY-SA 2.0 , via with such animals roaming around.
Wikimedia Commons.
The Lungs of the Earth
the sunlight having been absorbed by the canopy. It
is a humid zone, where small plants, ferns and vines The tropical rainforest is often referred to as ‘The Lungs
are common as well as small creatures such as beetles, of the Earth’ because its vegetation takes in carbon
smaller snakes, birds and other types of insects. Most dioxide and produces oxygen more than any other
of the fauna at this level use camouflage to blend part of the earth. Rainforests may cover only a small
themselves in with the tree bark and leaves. Their slow percentage of the Earth’s land surface (approximately
movements make them easy targets for predators. One 6% in total) but about 80% of all terrestrial species of
reptile, the chameleon, even changes its colour to reflect plants and animals can be found there; experts believe
the surroundings in order to avoid detection. that more species have yet to be identified.
The trees of the rainforest have always offered mankind
The ground layer is the lowest level of the tropical both shelter and a valuable resource. The excessive
rainforest. Here you will find mostly dead leaves, soil demands of modern commercial felling, however,
and the roots of trees. Very little light or precipitation
reaches this layer, therefore the vegetation is sparse and
not as verdant as at the canopy layer. Insects, bugs, tiny
mammals, amphibians and reptiles thrive. On the dark

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are becoming dangerous to the delicate ecosystem of became more settled, and they started clearing land
the rainforest environment. The dense rainforest is and building houses for a more permanent place to
dominated by huge trees that grow to a height of more live. Subsequent expansion of family settlements and
than 200 feet, many of which are tough hardwoods, domesticated animals forced further land clearances.
such as teak and mahogany, popular in the furniture And now in this modern world, solely for economic
industry. These woods are also used to make carvings, purposes, the tall hardwoods of the forest are being cut
such as animals, for souvenirs. Of course, the bulk of down for building and construction – not only for local
the felled trees are used for construction purposes; needs but also for export, purely for economic profits.
the branches are mainly used for the pulp and paper Land is further cleared for agriculture and farming
industries. The trees of the tropical rainforest thus offer purposes too. All these commercial and economic
many commercial opportunities, where entrepreneurs activities have given little consideration to the habitats
see vast amount of money to be made. of the plants and animals of the forest, leading to their
shrinkage. Commercial activities, have also resulted in
The Pharmacy of the World many plants and animals becoming extinct – or very
near extinct – when their natural habitats are taken away
The rainforest is also often referred to as ‘The Pharmacy from them.
of the World’ for the many plants that inhabit these What are the protections against these commercial
forests that have been discovered to have medicinal activities of entrepreneurs that are in danger of
value. It is believed that more than 25% of the destroying rainforest habitats? The Government has
medicines in use today come from the rainforest, most enacted laws and regulations to protect the rapidly
notably 70% of all cancer medications. Furthermore, disappearing areas. Non-governmental organisations
many plant species are yet to be investigated for their (NGOs) are also making loud noises about commercial
potential uses in medicine. activities but often without giving adequate reforestation
to see to the needs of the future generation of humans.
The Rainforest in danger The extinction of plants and animals, and the habitats
where medicines for the treatment of diseases were
However rainforests are constantly under threat and are harvested, are now vanishing quickly. Animals are
reducing at an alarming rate. The reasons are numerous. moving deeper into the forests away from their natural
Historically, the inhabitants, the hunter-gatherers, habitats, resulting in extinction or near extinction.

These are the many challenges for the protectors of
the tropical rainforest. Therefore, collaboration of
both government and NGOs is essential to reverse
this decline in habitat and species. It is a pleasure to see
that in Sabah, North Borneo, there is a now a sanctuary
where the orangutan has a home. However, there is also
the sad case of the extinction of the Borneo Rhino,
now lost to future generations. Much work is still to be

done. w

At Taman Negara. Image courtesy of Chee Kok Wah.
Facing page: Forest Types in Malaysia. Data source: https://
www.fao.org/3/u8560f/U8560F10.htm#ref10.1 (translated
by Laurence Maille). Background image credit: Karen Loh.

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Forest types in Malaysia

There are many different types of forests in
Malaysia, each with its own ecosystem. The main
types are listed below.
Climate climax forest

• Low altitude evergreen tropical rainforest
Plain dipterocarp forest
Low-hill dipterocarp forest
High hill dipterocarp forest

• Low mountain tropical rainforest
• High mountain tropical rainforest
• Lower subalpine vegetation
• Seasonal semi-evergreen forest
Forest types linked to edaphic factors
• Heather forest (or Keranga / Kerapa)
• Forest on limestone substrate
• Forest on ultrabasic outcrops
• Shore vegetation
• Mangrove forest
• Brackish swamp forest
• Bog forest
• Freshwater swamp forest
• Seasonal swamp forest

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How Old Am I?

That Tricky Question of Age…

Grazia Daminelli

‘The Malaysian rainforest is 130 million years old’. Together with the corollary:
‘being thus one of the oldest rainforests in the world’, this statement provokes
strong impressions. That was still the time of the dinosaurs, long before
the human race came into existence! Sentences like this are often found to
describe the environment of Malaysia, mainly for the promotion of tourism.
Official sources, however, tend to use more careful formulations, adding a
safer ‘is believed to be’. In any case, the strong pronouncement stimulates
a number of questions, the most obvious being: Is it true? A preliminary
search on the all-knowing internet brings the puzzling result that it is really
difficult to find the scientific source for such a bold claim. A more in-depth
review of the ‘age question’ reveals that a huge controversy exists within the
scientific community.
Modern tropical rainforest is defined as having a multi-layered close canopy,
abundant rainfall for at least nine months per year, and uniform high
temperatures. It also contains woody flowering plants, scientifically known
as angiosperms, which make up 90% of plants found in any terrestrial
ecosystem. These plants evolved in the Cretaceous, a geological period
from 145 to 66 million years ago (mya), later in time than the non-flowering
trees, or gymnosperms. About 130 mya (Early Cretaceous), angiosperms
experienced a genetic modification that allowed great photosynthetic activity,
rapid diversification, and fast adaptation to a broad range of environmental
conditions. As a consequence, by the Middle Cretaceous (100 mya), they
out-competed ferns and gymnosperms, as is typical of tropical rainforest. If
we discount the wide range of uncertainty in the timing, this reconstruction
has been accepted by the majority of scientists. Yet where exactly was the
geographical centre of origin and evolution of angiosperms? Moreover, did
the dominance of flowering-plants lead directly to the formation of the
rainforest, a highly complex ecosystem?

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Taman Negara, Lata Berkoh.
Image credit: Jörg Widany.

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Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

Gymnosperm and angiosperms are plants that
produce seeds. Angiosperms evolved later in time
than gymnosperm, but eventually came to dominate
terrestrial ecosystems around the world. At present,
there are about 1000 species of gymnosperms and
between 250000 and 350000 species of angiosperms.

The word ‘gymnosperm’ comes from the Greek and
means ‘naked seeds’. These plants have no specific
structure to protect their seeds, which are found inside
cones or on scales or even generated directly on the
leaves. Extant gymnosperms belong to four divisions:
Coniferophyta, Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, and
Gnetophyta.

Top: The word ‘angiosperms’, also originated from the
Cycas revoluta (Sago Cycad), is a cycad native to southern Japan. Greek, means ‘seeds in a vessel’. Seeds in angiosperms
Though often known by the common name of King Sago Palm, or are generated inside the flower, which has the
just Sago Palm, it is not a palm at all, but a type of gymnosperm. function of pollination, fertilization and protection
Image credit: Dinesh Valke, CC-BY-SA-2.0, via Wikimedia of the seeds. During their later development, seeds
Commons. are conserved inside the fruit, whose main task is to
promote and facilitate the broadest dispersal of the
Facing page: seeds. Angiosperms can be found in a large variety
Top row: Flowering plants from Lata Berkoh, Taman Negara (left) of environments, like forests, grasslands, sea margins
and Tanjung Datu National Park, Sarawak (right). or desert, distributed all over the world, except on the
Antarctic. They can be woody, as in trees and shrubs,
Bottom row: Pitcher plants from Bako National Park, Sarawak. or herbaceous, like in grass, grains and flowers. They
Pitcher plants are angiosperms. The carnivorous part of the plant are the most important source of food for birds and
is not a flower, but a specialized leaf whose modified structure mammals, including humans, and they are a primary
allows the trapping and digestion of small insects. source for consumer goods.

All images credited to Jörg Widany.

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East Gondwana was part of the supercontinent Gondwana and comprised
among others Madagascar, India, Australia and Antarctica. About 135
mya Madagascar and India broke away from East Gondwana, opening
the Indian Ocean. After separating from Madagascar, about 90 mya,
India started a high-speed journey in northeast direction. At times, the
speed was about 20 cm/year, two to four times the average plate motion.
Image credit: Lennart Kudling, CC-BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

The reconstruction of the deep past is normally based adopted an alternative approach, based on the study
on fossil records. Fossils are remnants or impressions of extant primitive plants. The most archaic flowering
of organisms that have been preserved in the earth’s plants (for examples Magnoliales) are slowly evolving;
crust from a geological past. Those most relevant to some of them are real living fossils, with little changes
palaeo-botanists can be either leaves, flowers or woods, over geologically long timescales; in general, archaic
in which case we speak of macro-fossils, or pollen plants show moderate dispersal rates. All this led him
and spores known as micro-fossils. The latter have the to the assumption that ‘the greater the geographical
advantage of being wide spread and the disadvantage concentration of archaic taxa, the nearer is the centre
of a more difficult attribution to a specific plant. of their origin’. Because the area between South East
In the late 1960s Armen Takhtajan, one of the most Asia and Melanesia shows a large concentration of
important botanists of the 20th century, suggested that various types of archaic angiosperms, higher than in any
the cradle of flowering plants lay between Assam (North other part of the world, this has to be the geographical
East India), South East Asia and Melanesia, probably centre of origin of flowering plants. Adding that the
on an archipelago of mountainous islands. He observed first flowering plants were probably tall trees in tropical
that even the oldest available fossils show characteristics adult forests, Takhtajan’s view of things seem to be the
too advanced for archaic forms. Therefore, he was basis of the claim that the Malaysian rainforest is 130
convinced that fossils cannot tell us anything about million years old.
the origin and evolution of angiosperms. He thus

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By that time, South East Asia’s continental core Taman Negara
(Indochina, Thai-Malay Peninsula, Borneo) had already Image credit: Jörg Widany
reached a geologically stable structure. However, what
about its palaeo-climate? Was the area wet enough to
sustain a tropical rainforest? Apparently, the equatorial
belt during the early Cretaceous was too hot and arid,
whilst the hot and humid conditions necessary for the
development of an evergreen rainforest were to be
found at middle and higher latitudes, towards the poles.
Takhtajan’s hypothesis has prevailed for more than 40
years, but in time it has been repeatedly challenged by
many others scientists, mainly for one reason: there is no
fossil evidence. Robert Morley, a renowned palynologist
– expert in micro-fossils – has been studying the
origin and evolution of tropical rainforests around the
world, and has given special attention to the Malaysian
rainforest. He observed that Early Cretaceous fossils
from South East Asia contain gymnosperm pollen,
more consistent with arid climates, and only a few
angiosperm pollens. Late Cretaceous fossils from South
East Asia show a much lower diversity than same age
fossils from other parts of the world. This seems to
indicate a poor flora composition, leading him to define
this region as a ‘backwater of angiosperm evolution’.
To prove his theory, he combined the distribution
of pollen fossils with plate tectonics – the formation
and movements of continents and ocean basins –
and changing climates over geological eras, arriving
at very different conclusions from Takhtajan. While
recognizing that rain forests in South East Asia have
one of the highest bio-diversities in the world, he claims
that this did not come from being the first cradle of
flowering-plants. The high diversity came from the
exchange of flora with India and Australia, and through
the many geological and climatic changes that induced
new species.
From the Early Cretaceous (135 mya) India separated
from East Gondwana, a supercontinent which also
contained Antarctica, Madagascar, and Australia.
During the Cretaceous, it drifted in a north-east
direction approaching South East Asia. The first floristic
exchange between India and South East Asia started 49
mya, with pollen transported by wind and birds (aerial
dispersal). Terrestrial connection was established only
about 41 mya. Fossil records from India and South East
Asia are consistent with a major dispersal of plants
from India to South East Asia, whilst only a few species
moved in the opposite direction. Plants from India
became dominant, leading to the extinction of many
indigenous species.

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EON ERA PERIOD EPOCH

PRECAMBRIAN 4500 - 542 mya
(before the Cambrian)
542 - 251 mya
PALAEOZOIC CAMBRIAN
ancient life ORDOVICIAN 251 - 200 mya
SILURIAN 200 - 145 mya
PHANEROZOIC MESOZOIC DEVONIAN LOWER/EARLY 145 - 100 mya
visible life middle life CARBONIFEROUS 100 - 66 mya
PERMIAN UPPER/LATE 66 - 56 mya
CENOZOIC TRIASSIC 56 - 40 mya
recent life JURASSIC PALAEOCENE 40 - 23 mya
CRETACEOUS oldest recent 23 - 5 mya
5 - 2.6 mya
PALEOGENE EOCENE 2.6 mya - 11 000 ya
earliest recent 11 000 ya to present
NEOGENE
OLIGOCENE
QUARTERNARY not so recent

MIOCENE
less recent

PLIOCENE
newer recent

PLEISTOCENE
youngest recent

HOLOCENE
totally recent

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Between 25 and 23 mya, the Australian plate arrived comparison of the genetic material of different species
from the south, colliding with the Asian plate. This allows them to find similarities, reconstruct evolutionary
had a strong climatic impact, disrupting the Indonesian histories, and determine possible common ancestors
throughflow (an inter-oceanic current connecting the (phylogenetics).
Pacific and Indian Ocean), giving rise to the East Asian Molecular genetics often predicts a much older
monsoon. The climate of the South East Asia region evolutionary timescale, possibly inconsistent with
changed from seasonally wet to ever-wet (perhumid), a the one obtained from existing fossil records. Are
necessary condition for the development of a modern molecular studies biased or have the fossil records
rain forest. Most of the pollen characteristics of wet been wrongly identified? Fossil records of extinct
rainforest are indeed present in fossil records from the species and the genetic data of extant ones are actually
end of the Oligocene (23 mya). Should we then consider complementary, so that a combination of the two sets
this as the true age of the Malaysian rainforest? of data should possibly deliver a better understanding
A third collision, this time between the western part of the evolutionary history of plants. A recent study by
of the Australian plate with maritime South East Asia Ramírez-Barahona combined the most extensive set of
around Sulawesi, led to a second floristic exchange fossil records (238) with genetic data from 16 million
about 15 mya. Many species moved from South East angiosperm species around the world. This provided the
Asia to Australia, while some important plants found most complete reconstruction so far of the evolution
today in the Malaysian rainforest came from Australia. of flowering plants through geological times.
According to Morley, we can speak about a modern Results of this study confirm the ‘out-of-the-tropics’
Malaysian rainforest only considering the floristic theory, i.e. that flowering plants originated during the
enrichment given by the dispersal of species from India early Cretaceous within tropical climates and later
and Australia, therefore not before 15 mya. From this expanded to more temperate and arid climatic zones.
time, we could say that the rainforest had reached its However, the study also found a long time-gap between
adult age, with no significant changes to come in its the evolution of flowering plants (on average about
composition. 140 mya) and their diversification and establishment
Does that end the debate? Not all scientists agree with of ecological dominance, which started only in the
this reconstruction. As Morley admitted, fossils from Palaeocene-Eocene epochs. This means that modern
Malaysia are very much incomplete and sporadic. angiosperm-dominated rain forests are a relatively
Therefore, we could ask: is the lack of ancient fossils recent development, in accordance with fossil records.
in the Malaysian region proof that this rainforest must Translating this into the local context of the Malaysian
have evolved later than 130 million years ago, or is it rainforest, both Takhtajan and Morley may be right.
a consequence of the fact that they have not yet been South East Asia may well be one of the cradles of
studied in a systematic way? flowering plants, but the development of the complex
Finding new ways to solve old disputes is the speciality system of biome called a rainforest must have occurred
of good research. Thanks to wider accessibility to high much later in time.
throughput computer grids, many scientists have started A word of caution, however – 130 mya is so old (and
looking for answers related to the deep past in the fossils so rare) that all the given reconstructions are very
genetic material of extant plants. Using sophisticated speculative. Who knows if future scientific research
mathematical models on the vast amount of genetic on Cretaceous era flowering plants might propose
data available around the world, scientists are able to go a completely different – and yet reasonable – new
back to the time when species differentiated. In addition,
scenario? We must wait and see. w

Geological timeline
Background image: Taman Negara,
Lata Berkoh. Image credit: Jörg Widany

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The People of Peninsular
Malaysia’s Rainforest

Shafinaz Ahmad Shaharir

Faces of Orang Asli in Peninsular Malaysia. Images
courtesy of Department of Museums, Malaysia.



Malaysia is truly blessed by Mother Nature with these communities has its own unique language, culture
extremely beautiful rainforests surrounded by views and way of life.
of mesmerising landscapes and canopies like a sea of Officially, the Orang Asli groups in Malaysia comprise
broccoli florets, not forgetting the precipitation in the 18 sub-ethnic tribes of three main groups, the Negrito
form of mist and fog that results in clouds which cast in the northern peninsula, the Senoi in the central
them in a calm and spiritual light. region, and the Proto-Malay in the south. The Kensui,
Malaysia’s rainforests are one of the most exciting areas Kintaq, Jahai, Mendriq, Bateq and Lanoh are known as
on earth, inhabited by an incredibly diverse range of the Negritos. Most of them live in watershed locations
plants and wildlife. This country consists of two major within the northern peninsula, i.e. Pahang, Perak, Kedah
landmasses: Peninsular Malaysia and the states of and Kelantan. Among the three group main groups, the
Sabah and Sarawak, situated on the island of Borneo. Negritos are the most nomadic as well as the first to
Both places share beautiful rainforests that drape arrive somewhere between 10 000 and 60 000 years ago.
the landscape in green, replete in unique geological The Negritos are of short stature with curly hair in fine
formations, forests, rivers, mountains, flora and fauna. spirals or woolly dark hair. The Negrito men have dark-
When we talk about the uniqueness of the rainforest, brown skin, whilst the women are lighter in shade.
however, we must not forget the fascinating people The Senoi consists of the Temiar, Semai, Jah Hut, Che
who live there, as they are the ones who protect these Wong, Semoq Beri and Mah Meri. As the Senoi form
forests. Rainforests play a key role in the ecological the largest group of Orang Asli on the Peninsula, they
system. Forests fulfil various functions, such as being can be found throughout a wide area, ranging from
a source of food and a home for plants, animals and the Temiar in the north to the Jah Hut in Pahang and
humans. They are important in pollution and climate the Mah Meri on the coast of Selangor. The Senoi are
control, provide natural water catchment areas, and thinner and taller than Negrito with fairer skin, wider
prevent erosion. foreheads and wavy hair. On the other hand, the Proto-
Moreover, forests not only serve as home to exotic Malays, who are similar to modern Malays, consist
animals and plants, but in fact they are more than that of the Temuan, Semelai, Jakun, Orang Kuala, Orang
– these are the places certain communities call home. Kanaq and Orang Seletar. They have settled in southern
They are about so much more than just about richness areas of the Peninsula. Their complexion is lighter than
of the flora and fauna. For example, the forests serve as the Negrito but darker than the Senoi. Their faces are
home for 18 aboriginal tribes, collectively known as the oval in shape and their eyes are dark brown with straight
Orang Asli, a term coined by Anthony Ratos in 1952 but generally smooth hair. Linguistically, the Senoi and
for his thesis at Kirkby Teacher’s College in Liverpool, Negrito speak Aslian which resembles the Austro-
United Kingdom. While ‘orang’ means people, the term Asiatic languages of the indigenous people of Thailand,
‘asli’ could be translated as original. The phrase then Myanmar, Cambodia and Vietnam. On the other hand,
gained popularity and is now used as the collective term the Proto-Malay languages are similar to Malay, which
representing all the indigenous tribes of Peninsular belongs to the Austronesian family of languages.
Malaysia. As of 2010, the indigenous people of the Traditionally, Orang Asli society practises a hierarchical
Peninsula were estimated to be around 178 000 in total. system based on the individual’s mastery of tribal
Orang Asli are perceived as part of the indigenous knowledge. Each of the Orang Asli community has
minority people of Peninsular Malaysia, the majority a hereditary headman known as Tok Batin (tribal
of them still living in the forests. It is believed that chief) who is respected and has the right to decide
the Orang Asli are the earliest and the oldest of the on community issues such as religious ceremonies,
contemporary inhabitants of Peninsular Malaysia; they marriages, births, dances and much more. Meanwhile,
migrated into this country long before the Malays, the Orang Asli lifestyle depends on forest resources
who were followed by the Chinese and the Indians. for food, medicine and income. Most importantly, the
However, with successive waves of migrations, the
Orang Asli retreated either up to the mountain or along Facing page: The Orang Asli are famous with their
the coastal areas, away from their ‘original’ habitats. weaving skills. Images courtesy of Department of
Most of them are animists who believe in spirits. In Museums, Malaysia.
addition, they are not a homogeneous group, as each of

24



forest is their livelihood; even their traditional clothes Top: An Orang Asli village in Cameron Highlands (March
are made from natural materials. As they live in forests, 2010). Image credit: Andre Oortgijs, CC BY-SA 3.0, via
they make use of the forest products that are available Wikimedia Commons.
to them. Their clothes, headgear and ornaments are
fashioned out of tree bark, grass, palm fronds and other Bottom: Orang Asli playing the nose flute. Image courtesy
natural materials. Significantly, the forest plays a central of Department of Museums Malaysia.
part in their lives as it shapes their belief, customs and
culture, and defines who they are. The forest is a symbol
of their pride containing emotional ties and a spiritual
relationship which involves a responsibility towards
their ancestors. Indeed, the forests are their ancestral
lands essential to their spiritual and cultural needs.
The Orang Asli carry deep connections to the forests
where they live and, as a consequence, their culture and
livelihoods are intertwined with forest ecosystems.

Furthermore, the Orang Asli live in the deepest jungle,
hence it is no surprise that they possess strong links to
the forest other than their uses of forest resources. The
Orang Asli are expert hunters with excellent hearing,
observational and olfactory skills gained by gathering
and hunting mainly for food. The men hunt for animals

26

using blowpipes and spears, while the women gather
fruit and roots such as tubers. Their staple foods are hill
rice, tapioca, banana, corn, yam but they also eat fish
and meat. The oldest forest inhabitants in Malaysia, the
Negritos, are the most nomadic of Orang Asli tribes.
They are said to be experts in recognising rainforest
plants, even better than botanists, and identify animal
sounds and tracks more precisely than zoologists.
The Senoi, however, have practised a more settled
lifestyle for several centuries. They cultivate rice,
tapioca, sweet potatoes, millet, maize, yam and also
trade in jungle products such as rattan, petai and durian.
The majority still live in the forests or rural areas by
a combination of hunting and gathering, fishing,
arboriculture, swidden farming, and trading in forest
products, such as wild honey, medicine herbs, bamboo,
rattan and many more. In addition, the Orang Asli are
master craftsmen, creating sculptures and masks that
demonstrate their artistic expression of the world of
spirits and beliefs. Among the 18 Orang Asli tribes,
the Jah Hut and Mah Meri dominate when it comes
to wood carving where each piece has a story behind
it inspired by Orang Asli legends. Some of the well-
known wooden art pieces of the Orang Asli that are
included in the Museum’s collection include Moyang
Lanjut, Moyang Belalang and Harimau Berantai.
Nowadays, it has not been a smooth and easy road
for the Orang Asli to live in the forests. Issues such
as deforestation, poverty, inequality and Orang Asli
customary land rights have been recognised as those
that require immediate action by authorities or severe
violation of their basic rights may occur. We must also
not forget their rights for clean water, food, health,
education, safety and their ancestral lands, which are vital
for them and a source of life. Infringement of ancestral
land rights is the prominent indication of the extent of
inequality and marginalisation towards them. It is high
time for the government to tackle rapid deforestation
by commercial activities such as logging and oil palm
cultivation that are impacting on the sustainability of
the lives of these indigenous peoples. It is important
to find holistic solutions to improve their quality of life
without interfering with Orang Asli traditional culture

and communities. w

The Orang Asli used natural materials such as sweet-
scented flowers and leaves, often leaf fronds and tree bark

crafted into clothes, headbands and other ornaments. All
images courtesy of Department of Museums Malaysia.

27

The Ring Ladies of Kampung
Semban, the Village above the
Clouds

Karen Loh

Bengoh Range at sunrise. Can you spot the village?
Image credit: Cyril Teo.

The ‘Village above the Clouds’ or ‘Paradise in the Clouds’ lies the blue of the sky into beautiful ribbons of colours,
high above on the mountain of Banjaran Bengoh (the from warm and sunny to cool tones. The sky streaked by
Bengoh or Bungo Range), Sarawak. This is the unique white and the surrounding fauna is more than enough
and remote Kampung Semban (Semban village). This to say it is a sight to behold. These spectacular views at
traditional village is home to the Embhan, one of sunrise itself makes it a worthwhile visit.
the sub-tribes of the Bidayuh people. The Bidayuh, It usually takes four to six hours to trek up the
‘the people of the land’ or ‘those who wander the valley’ mountain, following a trail through bamboo groves
represents one of the five major indigenous groups and hill paddy fields set amongst the forest. Crossing
of Sarawak. James Brooke referred to them as Land rivers on traditional man-made bamboo bridges which
Dayaks. Kampung Semban is only accessible by foot are unique to Sarawak are all part of the journey. High
with no road connection to the village. Over the years, waterfalls like the famous Susuk’ng and Pain waterfalls
the village has become a tourist destination for nature, are welcome reprieves for hikers and villagers alike to
culture and adventure lovers. Visitors fit enough to take a break and refresh themselves as they trek up the
trek 310 metres up the mountain have heard about mountain. Closer to the village, the flora and fauna
‘The Village above the Clouds’ where every morning, changes. Herbal plants for medicinal use, wild plants and
magic occurs. Before sunrise, a thick fog descends and flowers can be found here. The Embhan way of life is
envelopes the mountain range around the village. From simple: cultivating hill paddy, pepper, barley, cocoa, and
vantage viewpoints, a breath-taking panorama of the corn for daily consumption. Durian is also a favourite.
valley can be seen above the fog that makes up the Excess crop is usually sold to buy other necessities.
clouds, with rays of sunlight peeking through, breaking

A Ketapang (Jelutong) tree sits near the village. This special tree is As the water level in the dam rises, many kampungs have been
known as the Peace Tree. It was planted by Bidayuh factions many submerged and half of the travel to Kampung Semban can now be
years ago as an offering of truce to the spirits as they stopped their by boat. Image credit: Cyril Teo.
head-hunting activities. It still stands today, a very tall tree home to
giant honey bee hives. Image credit: Cyril Teo.

30

Kampung Semban is also famous for its Ring Bamboo bridge at
Ladies. Not to be confused with the Long Neck Semban.
ladies from Myanmar and Thailand, the name Ring Image credit: Cyril Teo.
Ladies was coined from the women’s use of coiled
brass rings worn around their arms and calves.
The rings worn on the arms are called ruyank’ng
(pronounced luyang) while rasunk’ng (pronounced
lasung) are worn on the calves.
The rings were first introduced when their
ancestors traded copper with Chinese traders who
travelled to Borneo centuries ago. Back in the day,
it would cost one mature pig for a set of rings.
Three hundred years later, this traditional practice
of wearing rings has been kept alive due to the
remote location of the village. To the Embhan,
the rings symbolise nobility and privilege; only
those wearing the rings may take part in the Rejang
or Eagle Dance and attend certain festive rites and
ceremonies. These special rings also represent the
social standard of beauty, hence women wearing
the brass rings were said to be never short of
suitors! This practice of wearing coiled brass rings
continued until the 1960s when children were
required to attend school. The use of brass rings
or any type of adornment were frowned upon in
schools, giving the Embhan girls no choice but to
remove them.
Singai Nekan, 69, Peluk Abeh, 69, and Tawad
Luhan, 71, are the only three surviving Ring
Ladies left today. The fourth Ring Lady, Ranyu
Daiee passed away in October, 2020, at the age
of 83. The fifth Ring Lady had to remove her
rings after she found difficulty walking with them.
Traditionally, the coiled rings are worn from the
age of six to ten years old; more rings are added as
the women grow older. With time, the prized rings
become part of the body, worn at all times even
whilst farming under the hot sun. In an interview
with The Star in December, 2020, Singai Nekan
said that ‘In the past all the women in the village
wore the rings, but now the younger generation
are not used to wearing them.’ Other than the
ruyank’ng and rasunk’ng, the colourful ornaments
and traditional attire worn are also unique to the
Ring Ladies. During special occasions, they appear
resplendent in their bulang sebi or toko (headgear
made of colourful beads), tumbih (beaded necklace
representing nobility), kain ngumban (red sash),
sisink’ng wii (belt traditionally made of wire and
copper), baju putang (blouse with buttons), and jemuh

sulam (a black skirt with embroidery). Juwah, a basket Clockwise from top left:
slung across the shoulder, completes the ensemble. Two Ring Ladies showing how the Rejang (Eagle
Besides being recognised as living treasures of Sarawak, dance) is done.
the Ring Ladies are also renowned in Italy and Germany, Image credit: R.C. Huayi.
where they performed under the stage name ‘Kampung
Semban Cultural Troupe’. In 2016, they were invited to Closer look at the Tumbih (beaded necklace) and
perform at the Lo Spirito Del Pianeta festival in Milan, ruyank’ng (coiled brass rings worn on the arms).
Italy. This festival hosts indigenous people and tribal Image credit: Leonard Siaw.
groups from all over the world. In 2019, the ladies were
invited to perform at the Internationale Tourismus- A tribute to the Ring Ladies in Kuching. This mural
Borse, the largest International Tourism Mart in Berlin, titled ‘Dayung Hmuai Semban’ or ‘The beautiful
Germany. Nevertheless, the recent mural of the Ring ladies of Semban’ was completed by local artist,
Ladies at Kota Padawan, Kuching, and a documentary Leonard Siaw on September, 2020. Leonard took
entitled ‘The Last Ring Ladies’ broadcast in Japan, Taiwan, 13 weeks to paint this large mural measuring 13.7
Korea and Malaysia in 2019, highlights the creeping x 36.5 metres. Standing in front of the mural are
extinction of their culture. As the Ring Ladies are the last of the ring ladies of Kampung Semban
getting older, the author hopes that the next generation (from left); Peluk Abeh, 69, Singai Nekan, 69 and
of Embhan women will not allow this practice to die Tawad Luhan, 71.
off and that they will continue the tradition of their Image credit: Leonard Siaw.

ancestors. w

32





Bengoh Dam
and the fate of Kampung Semban

The construction of the controversial Bengoh Dam There have been both positive and negative repercussions
began in 2007. It is a project initiated by the State from the resettlement. The plus side is firstly healthcare.
Government to provide fresh water to the growing With easier access to a clinic or hospital, the villagers can
population of Kuching. The project covers 8.5 square seek medical care immediately, as compared to having to
kilometres in the Padawan District, 40 kilometres south walk hours to the nearest town, a particular difficulty for
of Kuching. Four Bidayuh villages, namely Kampung pregnant women and the elderly. Children have access
Taba Sait, Pain Bojong, Rejoi and Semban have been to schools at BRSS as compared to the new villages
affected. With the exception of Kampung Semban, which do not have any schools. The villagers also do
three of the kampungs fell within the actual catchment not have to carry essentials, some weighing more than
area which meant that their homes, agricultural land, ten kilograms, on their backs up the mountain. One of
fish farms, and burial grounds were submerged in water the villagers from Kampung Rejoi, Sakek Rawon, said
when the dam was completed. Kampung Semban, being in an interview with Bernama Press in 2014 that, ‘Life
on higher ground, was not in the catchment area but at BRSS is much better in terms of basic infrastructures
was included in the resettlement scheme as a precaution and communications.’ He has moved away from farming
in case of flooding through backwater if the water level and even started his own welding workshop.
of the dam rises. On the other hand, the villagers have lost the right to
Hence in 2010, the Bengoh Resettlement Scheme Site their ancestral land, burial grounds and self-sufficient
(BRSS) was introduced. The site is located 20 kilometres way of life. Some complain that their new agricultural
from the dam; 204 houses were constructed equipped farmland is not fertile, forcing them to return to their
with basic amenities, such as water and electricity. Two old farms, while others have had to look for work
churches, a primary school, four multi-purpose halls beyond farming. Electricity and water at BRSS are also
and a football field were also built on the site. Families not provided for free as promised. While the villagers
who took up the offer were compensated with three could survive on their land before, this has not been the
acres of agriculture land, a house, and cash. While all case in BRSS, where bills have to be paid. The villagers
the residents of Kampung Semban chose to relocate to have also complained that the cutting of trees for the
BRSS, not all of the other villages took up the relocation dam construction has left many of their rivers toxic,
offer. Some families decided to move to higher grounds
and establish new villages. foul smelling and polluted. w

Bengoh Dam. Image credit: Cyril Teo.

35

Mah Meri Wood Carving

Marie-Andree Abt

Puja Pantai celebration by the Mah Meri
at Carey Island. Left: Mah Meri women
dancing the Main Jo’oh.
Images credit: Mariana Isa.

used for cultural dances and to interact with ancestor
spirits, while statues represented myths and stories, and
can cure sicknesses. Each carving model of a Moyang
is owned by a particular family and, until recently, the
right to carve it was transmitted only from father to
son, although, it was possible to buy such ‘rights’. The
statues were used to commemorate certain ancestors,
but nowadays sculptures are evolving from craft to art,
partly losing their sacrality. Some are such masterpieces
that they have been recognised as ‘outstanding craft’ by
UNESCO since 2006

In When someone is sick, the shaman performs a
Mah Meri language, the words Mah Meri mean jungle ceremony to learn which spirit can solve the problem,
or forest man. The Mah Meri people are thought to then gives instructions to the carver accordingly. Statues
have lived on and around Pulau Carey in Selangor since representing the sickness are small (2.5 cm) and crudely
the end of 18th century, some in villages like Kampung made. The shaman then asks the help of a spirit to
Sungei Bumbun and Kampung Sungei Kurau, both transfer the sickness to the statue, which is ultimately
famous for their wood carvings. discarded in the forest, together with the sickness.
Religious belief Sometimes, the shaman calls for a boat to be carved,
Like most orang asli, the Mah Meri are animist. Animists which he places at the feet of the patient. With arm
believe that each and every animal, plant, stone or even movements, he catches the sickness and places it onto
feeling and idea are inhabited by a spirit, and thus the boat, which is then sent far out to sea. Both those
have the same importance as human beings. They rites are disappearing in Mah Meri villages. They now
must be treated with the same respect. These spirits prefer to ask the help of the health dispensary.
exist everywhere and are able to communicate with
us through dreams or trances. Their beliefs are very As they believe in reincarnation, the Mah Meri also
important to them in everyday life, based on respect carve representations of the animals they have hunted
for their ancestors from which the spirits emanated. or the trees they fell. These are the largest statues that
The Mah Meri create wood sculptures, called Moyang, can be found in the forest.
which literally means ancestor. These statues house the
ancestor spirit, while their carved masks are used to All these, however, are former practices. An artist from
communicate with these spirits during dances. JHEOA (Department of Orang Asli Affairs, Malaysia)
The functions of spirit sculptures visited Pulau Carrey in 1959 and watched traditional
Moyang have an important function in village life: they dances, admiring the masks and encouraging the Mah
give protection and blessing to those who practise the Meri to express themselves through wood carving.
taboos, customs and other rites, but bring unhappiness Thus, from the 1960s onwards, they began to produce
to those who transgress them. Originally, masks were bigger statues. During his next visit, the artist selected
some sculptures and exhibited them at the National
Museum of Kuala Lumpur. After this exhibition, the

Top:
Moyang Kala (Spirit of the Twilight) at Carey Island
Carved by Nengkak anak Mat.
Image credit: Herve Abt.

Facing page:
Tools used by Nengkak anak Mat.
Image credit: Herve Abt.

Background image: Nireh Batu (Xylocarpus
moluccensis). The wood from this tree is used to
make masks. Image credit: Wibowo Djatmiko,
CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

38



Clockwise from top-left:
Moyang Lanjut, Moyang Melor, Moyang Lanjut’s
husband. Taken at the Orang Asli Crafts Museum.

Facing page:
Drawing of a mask by Nengkak anak Mat. Image
credit: Herve Abt.

number of carvers increased. They wanted to create Pulau Carey but, because of deforestation for palm oil
the best representation of their stories (known as ‘cerita plantations, these trees have become scarce, forcing
moyang’) and in doing so, they extended their pantheon carvers to look ever farther. The other choice is wood
of spirits. of a lesser quality or to adapt the size and shape of
Myths and stories are the markers of an oral tradition their carving to any suitable piece of wood that can be
that is disappearing in the modern era. The younger found. First, however, the carver must ensure that the
generation today is less attentive to the stories of their spirit of the tree agrees to this sacrifice. An offering is
elders and some spirit representations have already necessary, be it water, betel, rice or tobacco.
disappeared. Nowadays, the tree is felled by chain saw, cut into pieces
Cerita moyang the size of the expected carving, and taken to the
The word moyang represents all sorts of spirits, village. There, the carver draws the outline roughly on
either good or bad, but only 200-300 protectors are the wood, and begins the carving with a machete and a
worshipped. However, since the publishing of a chisel, then finishes it with knives and smaller chisels.
catalogue in 1973, patrons usually ask for copies of the The piece is finally polished, then waxed. Three to four
featured statues, so carvers no longer create new ones weeks are necessary to produce a medium size statue,
anymore. These scupltures tell the old cerita moyang, or slightly less for a mask.
‘Tales of the Ancestors’. One such, for example, is the What future for Mah Meri and their sculptures?
story of Moyang Engkok or Moyang Lanjut, the soul A major port is planned on Pulau Carey, as part of the
washer or hell queen, whose statue is the eldest known Chinese Belt and Road Initiative. It is a threat to the
so far (1906). She was also the wife of Moyang Melur. Mah Meri culture and way of life. What is left of the
Moyang Engkok remained all her life near the marsh forest might disappear – and the wood carving with it.
into which her husband fell while looking for crabs. The Mah Meri asked the help from the government,
She fed him milk through her hair and has become the but they were told that they did not have any original
image of loss, fidelity and sincerity. authorisation to settle on the island, even though that
How does a carver proceed? was more than 200 years ago, well before Mr Carey
Traditionally, the carver finds his inspiration in a himself came! Hence, unfortunately, the future for the
dream. First, the wood must be chosen. Traditionally
it was nireh batu or pulai, mangrove trees endemic to Mah Meri and their sculptures does not bode well. w

41

MV Research Team Talk Series

The Rock Art of
South East Asia

Dr. Noel Hidalgo Tan
24 May 2021

The stunning drawings found in France (e.g. Lascaux and Chauvet) and Spain (e.g.
Altamira) come to mind when we think of rock art. Dating to between 17 000 and 37 000
years ago, they were said to be the earliest rock paintings in the world, earning Europe
the epithet ‘The Birthplace of Rock Art’. South East Asia by comparison was always
considered a backwater. During his lecture, however, Noel pointed out that South East
Asia is actually home to the oldest rock art in the world.

Examples abound, especially in eastern Indonesia. Noel noted that there are over 1200 known rock art
Lubang Jeriji Saleh in East Kalimantan has rock art sites across South East Asia. His definition of rock art
dating between 37 000 to 50 000 years; this cave was includes pictograms, petroglyphs, geoglyphs, megaliths,
given the honour in 2018 of having the oldest-known and even stone arrangements. He also includes
figurative rock art anywhere in the world. It was quickly vandalism as rock art, especially the historical examples,
unseated by Leang Timpuseng (39.9ky) and Leang Bulu such as Captain Low’s signature at Cherok Tokun in
Sipong 4 (43.9ky), both located in South Sulawesi. The Bukit Mertajam. The first half of Noel’s presentation
current record-holder is the 45 500-year-old warty pig focused on three pertinent questions: How old is it?
from Leang Tedongnge in South Sulawesi. Eastern Who made them? What does it mean?
Indonesia is currently receiving a lot of attention from
rock art experts and Noel hints that we can expect more
rock art discoveries over the next few years.

stAhuecphircoatocskgorsacuhmrrfaeiscaecnrwdeiatchtheandracbtouyarpal.al ipnitginmgents

doAerpsaierbetrrdoagddlieynpsgihgtnhis.ecsruerafatecde by incising
to create the

eegAxaraogrtmuehno.pdgTle,lhy.fepohrNmiasezndcoaurmsLiinnagellsysitcnornePeae,treugdraaorvenelathoner The batugajah (elephant stone) from Kota Raya
Lembak, Pasemah, South Sumatra is an example
of a petroglyph. Image credit: Maganjeet Kaur.

42

How old is it?

Cave art in mainland South East Asia started appearing
at the end of the Pleistocene and the start of the
Holocene, a divide of about 10 000 years ago that
marked the end of the last Ice Age. In insular South
East Asia – especially eastern Indonesia –the dates are
older, paralleling early human migration into the area.

Rock art in this region is mainly monochromatic – the
pictograms are painted in either red using ochre or black
with charcoal. Ochre paintings can date back thousands
of years while charcoal paintings are likely only a few
hundred years old. This is because charcoal does not
survive time very well; charcoal may have been used
thousands of years ago but, sadly, the art would have
disappeared by now. A known exception comes from
the Peñablanca Caves in Cagayan, Philippines, where a
human-like figure painted in charcoal and carbon-dated
to 3500 years has been well preserved.

In general, there are two types of dating techniques:
relative and absolute. In relative dating, the rock art is
dated based on stone tools or burials found at or near
the site on the assumption that both are traceable to the
same group of people. At Ban Tha Si in the Lampang
province of Thailand, bones from burials found at
the foot of a cliff were carbon dated to 10 000 years
implying that the ochre paintings in a nearby cave, by
association, also date to this time.

Carbon dating is an example of the absolute-dating
technique, which uses scientific methods to provide
a numerical age. Carbon dating has limitations in the
dating of ochre rock art because the pigment does
not contain carbon. Instead, uranium-series dating is
employed, which can date objects as old as 100 000 years
accurately to ±1000 years. Unlike carbon dating, where
the pigment is taken directly from the painting, with
uranium series, the rock above and below the pigment
is dated. Using this technique, the banteng image from
Lubang Jerijeh Saleh 4 is dated to 37 000 years while the
carved face at Lene Hara, Timor Leste, to 11 000 years.

From top to bottom:
• Dolphins at Misool, one of the four larger Raja Ampat islands

in West Papua. Misool is believed to have been a landing point
when humans migrated southwards to Australia. Image credit:
Jones Shimlock, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons (WC).
• 37 000 year-old painting of a banteng at Lubang Jeriji Saleh
4 in East Kalimantan. This cave also has negative handprints
dating to 52 000 years. Image in public domain, via WC.
• Charcoal painting (replica) at Batu Cincin Cave, Ulu Kelantan
• Rock carving at Lene Hara, Lautém District in East Timor.
Uranium-series testing done on the white calcium patina above
the eye yielded a date of 11 000 years. Image credit: David
Palazón, Tatoli ba Kultura, CC BY-SA 3.0 via WC.

Who made them?

This is a tricky question. Noel pointed out that
populations in ancient South East Asia were nomadic
and the community that lives near a rock art site today
may not be descended from the community that created
the rock art and, in most cases, they do not have any
information concerning the rock art. Ask the West
Papuans, they will say their rock art is amber-sibui –
painted by aliens! This makes it difficult to study the
communities that created these intriguing motifs.

An example where population continuity can be traced
comes from Luang Prabang in Laos. The cliff face
at Pha Taem is riddled with human figures, animals,
and numerous handprints. Oral history passed down
through many generations relates that, after a successful
hunt, the people painted their hands on the wall as part
of their victory celebration.

Another example comes from Gua Badak at Lenggong
Valley in Perak. These charcoal drawings are relatively
modern, made just over 100 years ago. Apart from
animals and stick-figures, the artwork also includes
mats, bicycles and motorcars, showing their awareness
of the modernity creeping into their surroundings. The
drawings were first noted by Ivor Norman Evans in
the 1920s and later, in the 1950s, by Royal Air Force
lieutenant P.D.R. Williams-Hunt. Williams-Hunt’s
interest in ethnography led him to spend a considerable
amount of time among the Orang Asli of Perak. He
confirmed that the Lanoh-Negrito aboriginal group
living in the area at the time are descended from the
group that made the rock art at Gua Badak.

A sketch of Williams-Hunt by
the Lanoh-Negrito tribe.

From top to bottom:
• Bicycle motif in charcoal at Badak Cave, Lenggong, Perak.

Image credit: Dr. Noel Hidalgo Tan.
• ‘Abstract’ art motif from Lene Hara in East Timor. Abstract

designs are common in the eastern Indonesian islands but
they elude explanation. Image credit: David Palazón, Tatoli ba
Kultura, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.
• Rock art with humanoid and animal figures, including the
Giant Mekong Catfish, at Pha Taem National Park. Image
credit: Henry Flower at English Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0, via
Wikimedia Commons.
• A red painting of a stylised human hand at Padah-Lin Caves in
Shan State. This is the most famous prehistoric site in Myanmar.
The 7000-year-old date attributed to the painting is consistent
with the estimated dates when rock art first started appearing
in mainland South East Asia.

What does it mean? Check out Noel’s list of recommended
tourist sites suitable to visit.
Identifying an image is not equivalent to interpreting it.
An elephant, for example, is a symbol of Buddha and • Painted cave, Niah National Park, Malaysia
hence, in some contexts, an elephant image on a cave wall • Phu Phra Bat Historical Park, Udon Thani,
could be a representation of the Buddha. Was a hunting
scene a celebration, a ritual or simply art? An image of Thailand
a buffalo can invite the question if it is domesticated or • Angono-Binangonan Petroglyphs, Rizal
wild, spurring a researcher into investigating the species
and obtaining insight into the animals that shared Province, Philippines
space with our ancestors. Thus, interpretation provides • Sa Pa Ancient Rock Field, Lao Cai, Vietnam
greater insight into the communities that created the art • Leang Leang Tourism Park, South Sulawesi
and of their environment.
Noel cautions, however, that this is still a speculative ‘Ships of the dead’ – ochre paintings depicting human
process and that looking at rock art simply as art does figures with outstretched arms on top of boats – at Gua
not provide concrete information on the stories behind Kain Hitam within the Niah Cave Complex.
them. Rather, rock art should be viewed as artefacts Image credit: M. Sherman Sauffi.
and that the scientific approach should be taken in
their study. For example, conducting chemical analysis
on pigments can yield information on its composition,
thus, identify if the pigment was local or imported into
the area.

Scaffolding erected at Tambun Cave facilitated
Dr. Noel in carrying out his study.
Image courtesy of Dr. Noel Hidalgo Tan.

Next, Noel presented a case study on Tambun Cave, a 1
rock art site he investigated in 2009-1010 as part of his
MA dissertation. Lieutenant R.L. Rawling had chanced
on the site in 1959, sparking some initial interest. J.M.
Matthew’s subsequent investigation estimated around
80 images. Noel found 640!

For study purposes, the 100-metre long rock shelter 2
was divided into eleven panels and Noel painstakingly
documented every pictogram on all panels. Of these,
Panel C is the most prominent – with 500 images, it
accounts for 80 percent of all the images on the rock
shelter. The paintings on this panel start from 4 metres
above the current floor level and go up to as high as 12
metres, necessitating a scaffold to access them.

The exact age of these ochre paintings is unknown but 3
they are believed to date to the Neolithic. Noel pointed
out that these paintings were done over a considerable 1 ‘Dugong’ A segment of ‘Panel C’ at Tambun
period of time; he identified seven distinct phases. The 2 Catfish Cave. Image credit: Maganjeet Kaur
drawings done during the first two phases – the orange 3 ‘Octopus’
pictograms in the first phase and the browns and purples
in the second – are the larger ones situated higher up Chemical analysis of pigment taken from the deep-purple catfish
on the cliff wall. Over time, the images became smaller found a titanium-oxide signature that matched the signature found
and closer to the ground; at the same time, the colour during a survey for iron ore deposits in Tambun carried out in circa
red became more prominent. The style of painting late 1920s, indicating that the ochre was locally sourced by the
changed over time as well with an interesting X-ray type artists.
painting (including the famous pregnant mountain goat)
appearing in the last phase. Noel postulates that the first Noel dispelled some commonly held views – the purple ‘dugong’
five phases were painted over a period of time by the is unlikely a dugong as it has four legs compared to the two of
same community. This group possibly abandoned the an actual dugong and the octopus is not an octopus but plausibly
site and a different group painted the last two phases. roots of a tree, e.g. banyan.
Noel is building a database to identify a site according
to its attributes: landscape, type, colour, design, type of Dr. Noel Hidalgo Tan is an archaeologist
animals, etc. He then uses machine-learning algorithms specialising in rock art. He is a Senior
to look for similar sites so that plausible narratives Specialist in Archaeology at the SEAMEO
explaining human movements and interactions can Regional Centre for Archaeology and Fine
be postulated. For example, one of his findings show Arts (SEAMEO SPAFA) in Bangkok where
that rock art sites with pictograms of headdresses and he is in charge of the centre’s academic
domesticated animals only occur in Yunnan, China, section, oversees the centre’s archaeology
and in mainland South East Asia, at the latitude slightly programmes, and is the Managing Editor
above Bangkok. This could suggest the movement of of the SPAFA Journal. Noel runs a resource
Neolithic farmers from southern China to mainland website on South East Asian archaeology –
South East Asia. We can expect interesting correlations www.southeastasianarchaeology.com
and narratives emerging from this database initiative in

the future. w

Recorded by Maganjeet Kaur

47

Trading Goods in Ancient Times

Focus on the Malayan Rainforest

Junko Mori

48

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Star Anise Cloves Candle Cumin
Nuts

Collection of spices at the
National Museum, Malaysia.
Image credit: Junko Mori.

In South East Asia, which is covered in rainforest, the But on the Malay Peninsula, trade during the Age of
most significant archaeological sites are primarily port Discovery was different from trade in the Protohistoric
settlements. Trade was integral to the development of era, which generally refers to the period from the early
such centres. Many ceramic and glass shards, among centuries of the Common Era to the founding of the
the important trade goods of ancient times, have been Kingdom of Melaka, around the fourteenth to fifteenth
found in these sites. For example, the Bujang Valley centuries.
archaeological site in Kedah, one of the most important In ‘The Golden Khersonese’ written in 1961, Paul Wheatley,
protohistoric sites in Malaysia, has a vast number of a famous geographer and historian, compiled a table
ceramics from as far afield as China, Persia and other entitled ‘Thirteenth-Century Trade between China
South East Asian centres of production. Furthermore, and the Malay Peninsula’ based on two Chinese works.
much glassware from the Middle East and other regions The first Chinese book is ‘Ling-wai Tai-ta’(嶺外代答),
has also been found at the site. From these discoveries, written in 1178 A.D. by Chou Ch’u-Fei（周去非）
it is believed that trade at an early time was very active. and the second is ‘Chu-fan-chih’（諸藩志) written by
Thus, what kind of products did Peninsular Malaysia Chao Ju-Kua（趙汝适）around 1225 C.E. According
export in exchange for South East Asian ceramics and to Wheatley, the four major spices were not on the list
glass? of exported goods from the Malay kingdoms to China.
Many people may bring spices like pepper to mind when The main exports were: beeswax; camphor for medical
asked about the main export goods from South East use; cardamom used both in medicine and as a spice;
Asia in past times. In the European Age of Discovery ebony wood; ivory; lac for dyeing or medical purposes;
(15-18th century), ships from European countries agarwood, lakawood and sandalwood for incense; and
came to South East Asia seeking the four major spices, rhinoceros’ horn.
namely pepper, cinnamon, clove, and nutmeg. Pepper Meanwhile, Chu-fan-chih also gave us information
was especially important. Although the origin of pepper about a thirteenth century kingdom named Sanfotsi
was South India, it had been planted widely throughout (三佛齊）that controlled 15 territories, from the
the islands of the archipelago and had become one of Sunda Kingdom on Java Island to the Lambri Kingdom
the most important indigenous export items during this at the north-western end of Sumatra Island. Some
period. It is said that at one time the price of one gram academics have identified Sanfotsi as the Empire of
of pepper was equal to the price of one gram of gold.

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