Muzings 2021

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MUZINGS

Advisor MV
DIGEST
Datuk Kamarul Baharin A. Kasim
2021ISSUE 2
Project Team
ISSN: 2716-6759
Karen Loh
Maganjeet Kaur (Project Manager) Editorial 2
Mariana Isa Pirates of the Nusantara 4
Rose Gan The Law of the Sea 9
Sharipah Lok Lok bt Syed Idrus Manuskrip Al-Quran Melayu Terengganu 12
The Sultanate of Aceh 15
Editors Adat Perpatih 18
The Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie 22
Associate Prof. Dr. Sivachandralingam Sundara Raja A Special Little Town, Beruas 28
Rose Gan Rosewater Sprinklers 32
Maganjeet Kaur Tepak Sirih: A Cultural Perspective 34
Mariana Isa (Malay articles) Persian Ceramics at Bujang Valley 36
The History of Fraser’s Hill 40
Coordinator Creatures of The King 44
Legends, Myths and Fables 4 9
Publication Unit, Research & Documentation Division Kajian Awal Keatas Kitab Tib Pontianak 52
Department of Museums Malaysia Ancient Scripts 56
Behind and Beyond Wallace’s Line 62
Published by Navigating Sundaland 67
Image Credits 7 3
Department of Museums Malaysia Bibliography 7 4
Jalan Damansara
50566 Kuala Lumpur Wilayah Persekutuan, Malaysia

Printed by 3

Percetakan Salam Sdn Bhd
No 81 & 81A, Jalan KPK 1/8,
Kaw. Perindustrian Kundang Jaya,
Kundang Jaya, 48020 Rawang, Selangor Darul Ehsan

Design

Maganjeet Kaur

Cover

Mariana Isa

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Editorial

The inaugural issue of Muzings last reading Shafinaz’s childhood memories
year was very well received, not only of her hometown in Beruas and how
by our fellow MVs but by various she wove the importance of the
universities, historical societies and historical town into her personal story.
museums as well. Five hundred copies We also have two articles in Bahasa
were printed by JMM’s publications Malaysia in this issue; Manuskrip Al-
department and Muzings was also Quran Melayu Terengganu and Kitab
uploaded on our MV blog and JMM’s Tib Pontianak. Last but not least,
website in an ‘e-book’ format. learn about the History of Fraser’s
We have much more in store for Hill, rosewater sprinklers, betel sets
you in the second issue. After brain- and understand why the Minangkabau
storming with the Research Team people of Negeri Sembilan follow a
at the beginning of 2020, we have matrilineal heritage.
decided that future issues will have As always, we wish to thank Cik Darniza
a general theme. This year’s theme and Saripah of the Publications
is The Seas. Inspired by stories and Department, JMM for their advice
the history of sea-faring people and and guidance. We are indebted to our
migration, voyages and exploration, Director General, Datuk Kamarul
trade and conquests, there is a story Baharin, for his continued faith and
for everyone in Muzings Issue 2. support in all Museum Volunteer
In this issue, you can learn about activities. And to our Research Team
Ancient Scripts, the Law of the Sea members, well done!
& the territorial boundaries of coastal We hope that our readers will find this
states, and decide for yourself whether second issue of Muzings insightful.
the Pirates of Nusantara were raiders, Through each article, you too can enjoy
warriors or simply just traders. Read the journeys taken by our contributors
about the Wallace line, Sundaland, as they delved into the fascinating
the fate of the Portuguese army after heritage of the archipelago!
Melaka, and the VOC. Legends, myths
and fables are always fascinating, as Sincerely yours,
well as new findings covered in our The Editorial Team
articles about Persian ceramics found 2021
at Bujang Valley, and the connection
between a Swatow Bowl and the
Sultanate of Acheh. We enjoyed

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Pirates of the Nusantara

Rose Gan

Pirates, buccaneers, corsairs… emotive words that slaughter for a share in the bounty. Even today, pirates
conjure up adventure on the High Seas. These colourful are a menace to international shipping around the world.
names also romanticise what is a brutal and violent In South East Asia, with its dense and impenetrable
occupation. Johnny Depp has a lot to answer for. Piracy forests, the seas and rivers have always been the essential
is one of the most ancient of professions, if the origin means of communication and economy, and pirates
of the word itself is anything to go by (Greek: peirates - have been the bane of every community since the
an attacker, via Latin: pirata), the maritime equivalent of earliest times. Most Straits settlements are riverine or
the highway brigand. Since settlements first organised coastal, their economies heavily linked to external trade
into communities and trading routes developed, hostile and the seas. Populations were historically generally
raiders have preyed on them, prepared to steal and small, clustered around estuarine ports. Economic
rivalry between emergent states inevitably led to
competition for goods and profits, excluding outlying
groups from the bonanza. As a consequence, raiding
to supplement shortfall by less successful communities
became a regular feature of the region, carried out by
the various ‘orang laut’, a general term applied to the
Straits people. Such piracy was clearly widespread,
literally a way of life in itself, a political expedient both
encouraged and funded by local rulers, as well as carried
out by individual groups. It became a means by which
vulnerable communities might survive, expand and
thrive, an almost predictable complement to trade and
economic development. Raiding moved populations
around the scattered settlements and was often the
forerunner to migration and settlement, in much the
same way as happened with the Vikings in Medieval
Europe.

For most of the year in the Straits, the traditional
occupations were fishing and trade. At other times, due
to the consequences of weather or other vicissitudes,

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these same communities often turned to raiding to desperate attempts to retain some control of age-old
supplement their incomes; merompak (raiding) was a commercial activity.
traditional and accepted way of life. Until the eighteenth Who then were these raiders? First and foremost were
century, indeed, there was no actual Malay word for the Straits people themselves, the Selats and the orang
pirate. The more successful kingdoms inevitably preyed laut, who used the shelter of mangrove swamps and
on weaker states, regarding plunder as a form of outlying islands to ply their trade. They were traders
tribute and the natural consequence of the struggle for and fishermen but when opportunity presented, or
supremacy amongst local rivals. need dictated, they would use their knowledge of the
Developing polities were always in desperate need of tides and the weather to steal up on becalmed ships and
agricultural labour to feed their growing settlements; take plunder. It was not a dishonourable profession,
people formed a major part of the booty of raiding. In but an age-old practice, despite its appalling brutality. It
the Straits and beyond, slavery was both commonplace explains in part why local settlements preferred riverine
and mutual, a real and present danger for all those ports away from the coast to protect their communities
who lived along the coast, on estuaries or rivers. It from raids from the sea. Even the nature of the simple
mattered not if you were a nobleman or a humble atap house, that could be easily moved or abandoned,
farmer, Chinese, Javanese, Siamese, Malay, European… owes some of its style to the transient nature of village
if your ship was taken or your village raided, slavery life in the face of these dangers.
was the fate that awaited you. Thus, large groups of But certain times of year, referred to as ‘The Pirate Wind’,
people of all ethnicities, were regularly transported to brought raiders from further afield on an astonishingly
other parts of the archipelago, where they gradually large scale, typified by two major ethnicities: the Ilanun
found their new place. These enforced movements of (whose name gave us the Malay word for pirate ‘lanun’)
people played a major part in the dynamic diversity of and the Bugis of Sulawesi.
emerging kingdoms in the region.

But whilst there were no doubt many dastardly Malay The Ilanun
buccaneers in the style of Blackheart and Captain The Ilanun (also Illanun, and Iranun) erupted into
Kidd, the western interpretation of ‘pirate’ in regards prominence in the mid-eighteenth century, at a time
to the Nusantara region must be read with caution. Not when the Sulu region was a vibrant economic power.
all pirate activity can be viewed the same. There was Brutal accounts of their raids still feature in local folk-
the regular internal piracy of outliers such as the orang tales across the archipelago, such was the fear and
laut; the seasonal raiding of poor fishing and trading terror they struck. Originating in Ilana Bay, Sulu, the
communities driven by temporary need or poverty; and Ilanun were supported by the Sultan of Sulu and other
the highly orchestrated invasions of raiders from other rulers (e.g. Borneo and Siak), who received a share in
parts of the archipelago, who came in vast numbers to their booty. They were free men for whom war was
prey on the conventional trading routes. Then into the a noble profession. Known as fearsome warriors, their
mix came the Europeans, for whom any local reaction well-armed, long double-decked perahu carried 50-
to their monopolising stranglehold of the Straits 80 warriors and over a hundred oarsmen (all slaves),
was deemed as piracy, even if it was little more than

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Makassar harbour early 20th century: Palari
boats with phinisi rigging.

facing page: Ilanun Garay, sketched by Rafael
Monleón (1890).

in convoys of fifty ships. Active in the North East The Bugis were very different in both their approach
Monsoon, their major plunder was slaves; it is estimated and their motivation. Originating from the Bone-
that over 300 000 people were trafficked by Ilanun in Makassar region of South Sulawesi, they were essentially
the eighteenth century. But they were also involved in the traders of the archipelago, responsible for much of
the movement in luxury goods, supplying pearls, birds’ the local movement of goods. It is not for nothing that
nests, sea cucumber, guns, opium, wax and dammar. the everyday chequered sarong is still known as ‘Bugis’
They were known for the incredible rowing speeds that cloth. They also played a part in circulating the Malay
their ships could reach. Their favourite tactic was to language, although they had a language of their own,
attack becalmed sailing ships. In the Straits, The Ilanun Bahasa Ugi. They claim a major role in introducing
collaborated with the orang laut and the Bugis, sheltering their style of keris to the Peninsula. The Bugis were
in Riau, Penang and Langkawi. They were sometimes formidable sailors, known for exceptional boat building
even employed as mercenary forces by local rulers. As and navigational abilities. They were not your average
the story of the Lizzie Webber shows, their looming pirates. Driven from Sulawesi by Dutch incursions
presence was a backdrop, well into the late nineteenth and the aggression of local rivals, many groups, already
century. familiar with the west, began an exodus to search for a
The Bugis safer place to settle. Their first port of call was Borneo,
particularly West Kalimantan. One such famous emigré
was Opu Lamadusalat, whose grandsons were later
to make such a mark on the Malay Peninsula: Daeng
Merewah, Daeng Celak, Daeng Kemasi and Daeng
Perani.

The Bugis regarded themselves first and foremost as
merchants. They settled in the Riau archipelago and
by the 1760s had set up a vibrant trading centre there,
dealing in textiles, opium, ceramics, rice, pepper and
slaves. They established links with the Johor sultanate,
and through the role of Yamtuan Muda, became the
power behind the Johor throne. An offshoot of the
family, Raja Lumu, became the first Sultan of Selangor,
and the state a Bugis enclave. But there is no doubt that
the Bugis practised raiding as well as trade, although it is
unlikely that they saw themselves as robbers, but more
as indigenous warriors protecting their own traditional
waters from interlopers. The Bugis were pragmatic and
quick to adapt to the prevailing situation, just as inclined
to work with the emerging powers as to raid against
them. Indeed, the Bugis were predominately at odds
with the Malays on the Peninsula, so the atmosphere
was ripe for exploitation on all sides. 1784-1836 was a

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The Lizzie Webber 1863

The Lizzie Webber was 12-gun trader commanded board the Lizzie, and were firing overhead to avoid
by Captain John Ross Northwood and Chief their own men. He seized his chance. With the help
Officer Simpson, carrying passengers (including of his First Mate Kassim, the captain manhandled
the captain’s family), and a cargo of gold and silver a gun carriage, elevating it on a mast spar to gain
coins from local traders intended for their banks in the desired angle. They fired and totally destroyed
Singapore. On a voyage from Borneo to Singapore, Si Rahman’s craft. His body, still recognisable in its
the becalmed Lizzie Webber was approached off scarlet coat, floated lifeless in the sea.
Labuan by eight Ilanun perahu led by the notorious
pirate Si Rahman, wearing a scarlet coat and an The Ilanun withdrew a distance, shocked by the
amulet that he claimed made him invulnerable. turn of events, but did not sail away. No doubt
Captain Northwood gave his wife a pistol and told they were waiting for nightfall to make a second
her to remain in her cabin with Johnny, their four- assault. The wind was by now on the turn, but still
year-old son, warning her to shoot them both if the not strong enough to make a getaway. The gunners
ship was taken. Slavery was not an option. then informed the captain that they were running
short of ammunition. Captain Northwood made a
The conflict raged for several hours, injuring desperate decision. Taking advantage of the slight
many of the crew, including Mr. Simpson. Mrs. wind, he ordered the sails to be dropped so that
Northwood struggled to contain the little boy, who their ship would be carried into the heart of the
constantly tried to escape the cabin to aid his father, Ilanun fleet. The keel smashed over one boat while
until the captain had to lock them in. Meanwhile his men kept up a barrage of shot against the others
the battle was not going well. Although standing from both sides, causing maximum confusion.
exposed on a high platform of his boat, Si Rahman Night was falling and miraculously the wind picked
had so far avoided any injury. The Ilanun seemed up, as often happens in the Tropics. The Lizzie
headed for certain victory. Captain Northwood
knew that his men could not prevail against this Webber made its unlikely escape. w
large invading force and that the Ilanun would soon
board. He even considered blowing up the entire Adapted from an account by John Dillon
ship by setting fire to the magazine rather than allow Ross, later himself a merchant captain based
it to be taken. in Singapore. He was little Johnny. From
Mackay, Colin, ‘A History of Phuket and
At the darkest moment, the captain observed that The Surrounding Region’ Kris Books 2016
the pirates had deserted their own battery in order to 2nd edition.

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particular era of destabilising anarchy in the region that The Hollanders have been the bane of the
was to have massive consequences for the future. Malay race, no one knows the amount of
Maritime empires like Sriwijaya, Majapahit, and villainy, the bloody cruelty of their system
Melaka had always sought to reduce pirate activity, towards us. They drive us into our prahus
mostly by making it work for them, rather than by to escape their taxes and their laws and then
outlawing it altogether. Alliance with local orang laut declare us pirates and put us to death. There
was the favoured mechanism: use these groups to raid are natives in our crew...ask them why they hate
enemy ships or to take slaves to work the fields, while the Dutchmen and why they would readily kill
defending your interests at sea? Such policy wasn’t a Dutchman?
only an Asian phenomenon, either. Sanctioned piracy Jadee a local Malay pilot, taken from: Osborn, Sherard
is found across the globe at many times in history. The (1838)
Ottoman Empire made great use of Barbary pirates in
the Mediterranean; these corsairs even raided the coasts It remains a matter of personal opinion whether the
of Ireland and Scandinavia for slaves. The British raiding of European ships by indigenous groups in
themselves euphemistically referred to the practice as their own seas is an act of war or self-defence. For what
‘privateering’. Sir Francis Drake was given carte blanche else can indigenous traders do when foreign interlopers
by Queen Elizabeth I to plunder Spanish galleons and take control of their traditional waters? Who then is the
fill the coffers of the Treasury back home.
actual pirate? w

Yet when European maritime powers found themselves Pinisi-rigged Bugis ship featured on
the victims of raiding attacks; their vengeance against Indonesia 100 rupiah note.
the perpetrators was swift and brutal. Harsh legislation
drawn up in London, was applied with vigour in the
Peninsula. European colonial activity, in its desire to
monopolise the trading networks of South East Asia,
redefined many ancient practices as piracy, criminalising
existing norms with little regard to their traditional
function in local culture. Literature concerning such
raids mostly derives from external sources, so there
is little information by way of local perspective. The
quote from Jadee, a Malay pilot, provides an interesting
alternative viewpoint:

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The Law of the Sea

Karen Loh

Territorial disputes have resurfaced recently over practised what was known as Freedom of the Seas, which
China’s claim of the South China Sea versus those of allowed for freedom of passage and exploration. But
her South East Asian neighbours, namely: Vietnam, due to increase in trade in the latter part of the 20th
Malaysia, Brunei, and the Philippines. Based on a map century, many countries have ventured out further to
drawn in 1947 by Yang Huairen, a Chinese geographer explore and exploit sea resources way beyond their
for the Nationalist Government, asserting that the shoreline. To address this issue, a conference attended
Chinese have used this waterway since the Han Dynasty, by 86 States was held for the first time in Geneva in
China is claiming that almost 90% of the South China 1956. After the third conference on 16 November 1982,
Sea is part of her territorial waters. This claim covers we now have an international treaty known as the United
two million square kilometres of the South China Sea, Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea or better known
including shoals, reefs and islands within this area, and as UNCLOS. Also referred to as the Law of the Sea
is marked with an imaginary dashed demarcation line Convention or Law of the Sea Treaty, UNCLOS consists of
boundary, commonly referred to as the nine-dash line 320 Articles, 17 parts and 9 annexes. The first paragraph
(originally eleven-dash line), as seen in Figure 1. In July in the Preamble of the Convention states:
2020, the BBC reported that the United States asserts
that China’s pursuit of offshore natural resources “Prompted by the desire to settle, in a spirit
within the nine-dash line is unlawful. This article seeks of mutual understanding and cooperation, all
to explore and understand China’s maritime claim over issues relating to the law of the sea and aware of
the South China Sea and what is stated in the articles in the historic significance of this Convention as
the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea an important contribution to the maintenance
pertaining to territorial rights of coastal states. Much is of peace, justice and progress for all peoples
at stake here as it is estimated that 11 billion barrels of of the world.”
oil, 190 trillion cubic feet of natural gas, and 10-12% UNCLOS provides a regulatory framework for
of the world’s fisheries are located in the South China member countries/states pertaining to the use of the
Sea. Furthermore, one third of the world’s ships pass seas and oceans, conservation and protection of marine
through these waters. environment, marine scientific research, preservation of
The sea covers 71% of earth’s surface and comprises the sea’s living resources including the right to fish, deep
97% of all water on earth. As a matter of fact, only sea mining, sovereignty, maritime zones and the right of
1% of the earth’s water is fresh, while the other 2% usage, navigational rights, and settlement of disputes.
consist of glaciers and ice caps. Needless to say, we To date, 168 parties have signed the agreement. The
have a lot more sea than land! Historically, countries countries which have not signed are: Andorra, Eritrea,

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Figure 1– Map of South China Sea with the nine-dash line and each country’s EEZ boundary

Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Perú, San Marino, long as such traffic conforms to the guidelines of
South Sudan, Syria, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, the Convention and maintains ‘peace so long as it is not
Uzbekistan, the Vatican, and Venezuela; some are land- prejudicial to the peace, good order or security of the coastal
locked while others have perhaps abstained for political State’ (Article 19, page 31, UNCLOS Convention).
reasons. Nevertheless, foreign aircraft is not permitted to fly
Under UNCLOS, each nation’s boundaries in the sea is through its airspace without clearance.
extended to five zones; 1. Internal waters, 2. Territorial 3. Contiguous zone
waters, 3. Contiguous zone, 4. Exclusive Economic The contiguous zone allows for another 12 nautical
Zone, and 5. International Waters. Below is a brief miles beyond a State’s territorial waters i.e. 24 nautical
summary describing the territorial rights of each zone: miles (44.44 km) from baseline. Here, a State only has
1. Internal waters jurisdiction over the surface of the sea and the ocean
Member States have total sovereign rights of internal floor, but not the airspace. The contiguous zone helps
waters and airspace. in bolstering a State’s law enforcement capacity as States
2. Territorial waters are allowed to exercise necessary control to prevent
Extending 12 nautical miles (22.22 km) from baseline others from infringing its customs and immigration.
(low-water line), Coastal States have sovereignty and Foreign aircraft is permitted to fly through the airspace
jurisdiction of the sea from airspace, water column to within this zone.
the seabed and subsoil. However, it allows for the right 4. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
of innocent passage for foreign ships, submarines, and Each Coastal State has a further 176 nautical miles (326
other underwater vehicles through a State’s territorial km) from the State’s contiguous zone, or 200 nautical
waters and transit through international straits as miles (370 km) from baseline, to exploit and conserve
all resources found within the water, on the sea bed

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Figure 2 – The fives zones under UNCLOS

and subsoil. This includes exploiting or conserving the deep ocean floor. There is freedom for all ships
living resources like fish and non-living resources e.g. and underwater vehicles to navigate, fish and conduct
oil and natural gas. Member States have exclusive rights undersea exploration, and all aircraft is free to fly across
to develop offshore energy generated from waves, this zone.
currents, and wind. Windfarms are a good example of Though UNCLOS has laid out a fair framework for
such energy sources. States can also establish and use the maritime rights of its member States, disputes over
artificial islands, installations and structures, conduct the interpretation and application of the treaty have
marine scientific research, and are obliged to protect been unavoidable. Maritime disputes are submitted to
and preserve the marine environment. Foreign aircraft the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS)
are permitted to fly through the airspace within this in Hamburg, Germany or at the International Court
zone. Figure 1 shows the EEZ boundary lines for of Justice at The Hague, Netherlands. In 2013, the
Malaysia, Vietnam, Philippines, and Brunei. In this map, Philippines initiated arbitration at the International
the boundary lines for Malaysia, Philippines and Brunei Court of Justice against China’s occupation of
are clearly defined. Vietnam’s EEZ boundary line in the Scarborough Shoals in Philippines’ EEZ zone.
the north, in the Gulf of Tonkin however, overlaps Philippines won the case in 2016 but China has rejected
with China’s EEZ boundary line (from Hainan island). the tribunal’s ruling, stating that there was no legal
In this case, both countries have successfully taken basis. There is also a dispute over the Spratly Islands
UNCLOS’ guidelines into account to settle the dispute. whose 96 small islands are located across the EEZs
Though it took nine years of negotiations (1992-2000), of Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei.
both countries finally agreed to delimit their lines China is also claiming the Spratly Islands as her own
respectively and consult each other on the ‘most effective since they lie within the nine-dash line. Meanwhile,
way of exploitation and on the equitable sharing of benefits from diplomatic negotiations are on-going to resolve these
the exploitation’ (page 12, Manh Dong). Similarly, in the territorial disputes. One proposal is that the countries
Straits of Melaka, the boundary line is delimited equally concerned should settle their differences peacefully by
between Sumatra, Indonesia and Peninsular Malaysia. creating joint development programmes which would
5. International waters be economically beneficial for the countries concerned,
Beyond the 200 nautical miles of the exclusive taking into account the example of a similar successful
economic zone lies the International Waters zone, agreement between China and Vietnam over the Gulf
also referred to as the High Seas. This zone includes
of Tonkin. w

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Manuskrip Al-Quran Melayu Terengganu di
Muzium Negara

Muhammad Azam Adnan

Al-Quran merupakan kitab suci umat Islam yang Quran in Southeast Asia’, penulisan manuskrip Al-Quran
diturunkan oleh Allah melalui malaikat Jibrail kepada Melayu bermula pada penghujung abad ke-13 apabila
Nabi Muhammad s.a.w pada abad ke-7 Masihi di Tanah sultan atau raja kerajaan Pasai di utara Sumatera memeluk
Arab. Penurunan wahyu ini berlaku secara beransur- Islam. Kebanyakan tinggalan manuskrip Al-Quran
ansur selama 23 tahun, sejak Nabi Muhammad s.a.w Melayu abad ke-19 berada dalam simpanan muzium
dilantik sebagai Rasulullah atau utusan Allah yang dan perpustakaan di Malaysia seperti Muzium Kesenian
ditugaskan untuk menyampaikan dakwah kepada Islam Malaysia, Pusat Manuskrip Melayu, Muzium
umatnya. Penulisan Al-Quran dalam kalangan sahabat Negara dan muzium-muzium negeri Terengganu,
Baginda bermula apabila Nabi Muhammad s.a.w. Kelantan dan Melaka. Terdapat juga salinan manuskrip
melantik mereka sebagai penulis wahyu, berterusan milik persendirian.
sehingga zaman pemerintahan Khulafa al-Rasyidin Muzium Negara memiliki senaskhah manuskrip Al-
serta disambung oleh para sahabat dan tabiin. Quran Melayu Terengganu yang dipamerkan di ‘Galeri
Kedatangan agama Islam di alam Melayu seawal abad B: Kerajaan-Kerajaan Melayu’ setelah Muzium Sejarah
ke-13 bukan sahaja membawa kepada pengislaman Nasional ditutup pada tahun 2007. Ia telah didaftarkan
masyarakat tempatan malah mengangkat Al-Quran pada tahun 1992 sebagai MSN32.1992. Menurut Riswadi
sebagai budaya kebendaan orang Melayu yang penting. Azmi (2020) dalam bukunya ‘Manuskrip Al-Quran Emas:
Menurut artikel Annabel Gallop (2007), ‘The Art of the Warisan Kesultanan Terengganu’, isi kandungan manuskrip

kiri: Kulit manuskrip Al-Quran Melayu
Terengganu berwarna merah yang
diperbuat daripada kulit kambing.
Kulit manuskrip ini tidak lagi dalam
keadaan baik – kebanyakan hiasan
perada emasnya telah rosak dan
hilang.

kanan: Ragam hias pada helaian
tengah manuskrip Al-Quran Melayu
Terengganu. Dakwat hitam tulisan
tangan pada kedua-dua helaian
muka surat manuskrip ini telah
mengalami kerosakan.

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kiri: Helaian permulaan manuskrip Al-Quran Melayu Terengganu
kanan: Motif gunungan pada seni ragam hias manuskrip yang
menggunakan perada emas.

ini telah dikaji berulang kali oleh penyelidik manuskrip ini pada helaian terakhir dan kadangkala di bahagian
Al-Quran alam Melayu. Dengan saiz 40cm x 30cm, tengah. Warna merah, biru dan hijau pada manuskrip
manuskrip ini merupakan yang kedua terbesar selepas MSN32.1992 juga mirip dengan warna-warna khas
manuskrip Al-Quran Terengganu IAMM 1998.1.3.3427 yang sinonim dengan seni ragam hias Al-Quran Melayu
(43cm x 28cm) yang disimpan di Muzium Kesenian Terengganu.
Islam Malaysia. Manuskrip MSN32.1992 tidak Motif gunungan yang digunakan dalam manuskrip
mempunyai kolofon iaitu petunjuk pada bahagian akhir MSN32.1992 juga merupakan ciri khas ragam hias
yang menerangkan nama penulis, tahun dan lokasi manuskrip Al-Quran Melayu Terengganu. Motif ini
penulisan. Ini adalah kerana penulis-penulis manuskrip pada asalnya mempunyai pengaruh agama Hindu yang
Al-Quran Melayu percaya bahawa sebagai wahyu atau melambangkan gunung-gunung kepulauan Melayu
ayat yang diturunkan oleh Allah, tugas penulis hanyalah iaitu Jawa, Sumatera dan Semenanjung Tanah Melayu.
untuk menyalin semula ayat-ayat suci Al-Quran. Selepas kedatangan Islam, motif gunungan dikekalkan
Manuskrip MSN32.1992 dikategorikan sebagai dalam seni kebudayaan masyarakat Melayu termasuklah
manuskrip Al-Quran Melayu Terengganu kerana pada hiasan manuskrip Al-Quran dan ukiran kayu.
memiliki ciri-ciri yang menunjukkan bahawa ia berasal Perada emas juga merupakan elemen istimewa manuskrip
dari negeri tersebut. Ini dapat dilihat melalui seni Al-Quran Melayu Terengganu memandangkan ia tidak
iluminasi atau ragam hias lembaran kertasnya. Menurut ditemui dalam mana-mana manuskrip Al-Quran Melayu
Annabel Gallop (2012) dalam artikel ‘The Art of the yang lain. ‘Manuskrip Al-Quran Emas: Warisan Kesultanan
Malay Quran’, manuskrip Al-Quran Melayu Terengganu Terengganu’ karya Riswadi Azmi (2020) menyatakan
dicari-cari oleh kerajaan Melayu yang lain disebabkan bahawa penggunaan perada emas adalah ciri hiasan
nilai seni ragam hiasnya yang indah – berbentuk seakan yang amat istimewa. Warna kuning hiasan ini bukanlah
permata yang bersinar, ditambah dengan ukiran seni terhasil daripada kunyit tetapi merupakan tempelan
dan perada emas yang halus. Selain itu, beberapa muka emas tulen yang berfungsi sebagai pelengkap keindahan
suratnya mempunyai lukisan gerbang dan bingkai manuskrip Al-Quran Melayu Terengganu. Menurut
hiasan luar yang selalunya hanya ditemui pada helaian Hasnira Hassan (2013) dalam ‘Seminar Antarabangsa
pembukaan surah Al-Fatihah dan ayat-ayat terawal ke-2 Arkeologi, Sejarah dan Budaya di Alam Melayu’, emas
surah Al-Baqarah. Seni ragam hias sebuah manuskrip melambangkan ketinggian dan kekuasaan Pencipta
Al-Quran Melayu Terengganu sebaliknya akan turut segala karya.
meperlihatkan lukisan gerbang dan bingkai hiasan luar

15

bawah kanan:
Beberapa surah terakhir pada
penghujung manuskrip Al-Quran.
Setiap nama surah ditulis dengan
dakwat merah manakala perada emas
digunakan pada setiap pembahagi ayat
dalam surah.

bawah dan bawah kiri:
Tera air pada kertas manuskrip
MSN32,1992.

Kertas manuskrip MSN32.1992 adalah buatan Eropah
yang dikenal pasti melalui dua tera airnya. Tera air
pertama merupakan simbol bunga teratai bersama
perkataan ‘N Pannekoek’ manakala tera air kedua ialah
simbol nombor roman ‘VI’. Jelle Samshuijzen (2017)
dalam bukunya ‘A unique collection of old watermarks from
the Smoorenburg collection: 165 watermarks on 143 blank
paper sheets’ menyatakan bahawa kedua-dua simbol ini
adalah tera air kertas buatan kilang negeri Belanda pada
abad ke-19.
Manuskrip Al-Quran Melayu Terengganu (MSN32.1992)
yang dipamerkan di Muzium Negara merupakan bukti
peninggalan masyarakat Melayu terdahulu yang tidak
ternilai. Ia perlulah sentiasa dipelihara agar generasi
sekarang dan masa hadapan dapat terus menghargai
warisan seni budaya kebendaan Melayu ini agar ia tidak

pupus ditelan zaman. w

16

The Sultanate of Aceh:

Memories of a Golden Age

Anne Deguerry Viala

The Golden age
When the Dutch invaded the palace of the Sultan of
Aceh in 1874, it was so dilapidated that it was difficult
for them to imagine that its floor could once have
been covered with rich Persian rugs. Yet local tales
and legends portrayed the splendour of the court in
the 17th to 18th centuries: its precious stones, delicate
rugs, tapestries and brocades, richly inlaid musical
instruments, and weapons.
The Golden Age of Aceh began at the dawn of the
17th century during the reign of the legendary sultan,
Iskandar Muda, whose name means young Alexander.
At that time, Aceh was the hub of the pepper trade.
The wealth of the Sultanate rested on one hand on the
export of gold from the mines of Minangkabau in the
northwest and of pepper in the interior of Sumatra, and
on the other hand on the import of Indian textiles. Aceh
had already been prospering since the sixteenth century,
becoming a cosmopolitan sultanate where traders from
Negapatam, Bengal, Gujerat, Calicut, Cape Comorin,
Ceylon, Burma, Siam and China, amongst others, sold
their goods.
Although a commercial crossroads, it was also a religious
crossroads; Aceh was the first region of the East Indies
to convert to Islam, or rather the neighbouring sultanate

Illuminated letter from Sultan
Iskandar Muda to King James
I of England, 1615. Bodleian

Library, Oxford.

17

Aceh gold coin dating from the reign of Sultana Tajul Alam
Safiatudin Syah (r. 1641-1675). Private collection

of Pasai more precisely. The city of Kota Raja – now of the calligraphic craftmanship of the day, is the finest
Banda Aceh – was at that time the obligatory point of and earliest illuminated Malay letter in existence, and
passage for pilgrimages, even known as ‘The Porch is also notable for its extraordinary dimension, at one
to Mecca’, as described in the Bustan al-Salatin – ‘The metre in height.
Garden of the Kings’. The Golden Age continued with Sultana Tajul Alam
Aceh had a formidable army and was very famous Safiatudin Syah, daughter of the great Iskandar Muda
for its war elephants, which were even exported to and widow of his successor Iskandar Thani. As she had
India. Its fleet aroused the admiration of all European no heir, she reigned for 34 years, from 1641 to 1675.
travellers who ventured that far. The authority of Aceh After her death, three other sultanas ruled. The nobles
was recognized throughout the Straits of Malacca. The - the orang kaya - enjoyed the peaceful reigns of these
Sultan promulgated a law concerning his monopoly: any sultanas, until in 1699, driven by political impulse, a
foreign vessel had to obtain his authorisation to trade. fatwa from Mecca forbade women to rule in Aceh.
Iskandar Muda also conducted a series of campaigns A ceramic dish from Aceh, a story of influences
which ensured him the control of the Sumatran In the National Museum, Malaysia, there is a ceramic
coast, then allowed him to annihilate his rivals on the dish that alone sums up the globalised and intricate
Peninsula: Johor, Perak, and Kedah (where he ordered history of the time. It is a Chinese porcelain belonging
the destruction of the pepper plantations). Only to the Swatow ware family, also known as Zhangzhou
Portuguese Melaka resisted, despite Aceh’s redoubled ware after its place of production. In this family of
efforts, which included the fiasco of the great expedition ceramics, those decorated with Arabic calligraphy
of 1625. The city of Melaka was not taken, however, were commissioned by Acehnese nobility, hence their
until 1641, when it fell at the hands of the Dutch. alternative name: Aceh ware.
The court of Aceh was at that time the place of vibrant Almost no specimen of Zhangzou ware has been found
culture and religious debate. In addition to a biography in its place of production, Fujian Province. But pieces
of the Sultan Iskandar Muda, and a Mirror for the are found in significant quantities throughout the Malay
Prince (a traditional Islamic literary genre that advises Archipelago, in the Philippines, and even in Japan where
princes on how to be virtuous rulers), the preserved they were prized for their raw but unsophisticated
manuscripts of this era include a metaphysical treatise, aesthetic. This type of ceramic was not appreciated by
as well as numerous writings of Sufi inspiration, both the Chinese elite, nor by Europeans. Quite the opposite,
in prose and verse. During the Golden Age, Aceh had they preferred the refined productions of Jingdezhen.
diplomatic contacts with the Ottoman Empire, the In the mid 16th century, Jingdezhen was the Chinese
Mughal Empire, and the British and Dutch crowns. production centre for export porcelain. Swatow was
In 1615, Iskandar Muda sent a letter to the king of
England, James I. This famous manuscript, the epitome

18

secondary; these plates are coarse and show a crude the Malay world did not erase its usage. Inherited from
finish, with sandy grit on the base. When not adorned this tradition, the lotus can also be seen on Malay seals,
with Arabic calligraphy, their decorations were largely as well as on early Islamic gravestones of the Malay
inspired by Jiajing and Kraak porcelain made for world, known as Batu Aceh.
export in Jingdezhen, but the quality of the painting There has been much less research, however, on the
was usually noticeably inferior to the original. Patterns interactions between Muslim India and the East Indies.
were sometimes drawn so quickly and sketchily that it In the 17th century, the Aceh Sultanate borrowed from
is difficult to recognise exactly what is being depicted. Arabic and Persian culture. For the latter, this came not
The thick, milky glaze of the dishes is also often heavily from direct links with the Safavid dynasty that ruled
crackled. Iran at the time, but rather via the Ottoman and Mughal
Within the Malay Archipelago, people from rich Empires which themselves borrowed much of their
Muslim-dominated trade centres purchased these traditions, literature, and art from Persian culture. Three
ceramics in order to enhance their social prestige, as a regions in India were major textiles centres trading
status symbol for communal banqueting. The ceramics with the Malay world: Gujerat, Bengal, and the Tamil
were also kept as heirloom treasures, were useful for region. The first two were under Mughal domination.
paying debts, given to brides as a dowry, and used in These influences are mostly seen in literature, but also
other exchanges which required a display of decorum in trade; scholars have traced some direct diplomatic
and wealth. It would seem that they were produced only contacts on both sides. The nine-part genealogical
for inter-Asian trade. seal of the Sultans of Aceh, known as the ‘nine-fold
The Aceh plate at the National Museum, Malaysia tells seal’ or cap sikureueng, was inspired by the seal of the
us a story of influences: it was made in China, decorated Mughal emperors, which had the name of the reigning
with Arabic calligraphy, and surrounded by a frieze of sultan in the centre and those of his principal ancestors
lotus petals of Hindu-Buddhist inspiration. The motif arranged around. Unlike that of Aceh, which has kept
of eight circles surrounding a central circle is inspired nine circles until today, the Mughal seal added more and
by the seal of the Mughal emperors. Arabic calligraphy more circles with subsequent successions, which makes
is one of the most distinctive features of Islamic art, it possible to date this assimilation from the reign of
along with arabesque and geometric patterns. Arabic Jahangir. (1605-1627), when the latter contained exactly
scripts from the holy Qu’ran are sacred. In this case, nine circles.
although not all the text has been deciphered, the Zhangzhou ware with the same ‘nine circles’ pattern,
inscription depicts the Muslim Creed, as well as several however, is not depicting any particular genealogy.
surat from the Qu’ran, an invocation or prayer, and It might be that the craftsmen borrowed from this
even perhaps a talismanic formula to invoke protection. elegant style, merely for its decorative quality. External
When talking about Indian influence in the Malay world, influences are always processed and reinterpreted
we rather think about the Indianisation of the 5th to the locally, often creating artefacts unique to the region,
15th century, during which Hindu-Buddhism spread all which have passed through many filters of history and
over the Archipelago. At that time, the Lotus motif,
a symbol of purity in both Hinduism and Buddhism, legend. w
appeared on all monuments. The conversion to Islam in

Zhangzhou ceramic, 16th century.
National Museum, Malaysia

19

Adat Perpatih

From Sumatra to Malaysia, Mother Knows Best

Zahara Shahriman

On a hot, sultry day at the end of the 17th century, ethnic group, which anthropologists say is the world’s
a group of young men from a small village on the largest matrilineal society.
island of Sumatra set sail across the Strait of Malacca Leaving behind their horn-roofed homes in the shadow
to the Malay Peninsula, bringing with them not only of the towering Mount Merapi to the east, these men
their desire to seek new knowledge and fortune but a were on a journey known as merantau, a traditional
distinctively unique social system that has survived to cornerstone of Minangkabau culture. Like other men
this day. Indigenous to the highlands of West Sumatra, from their village who had come of age, they were
these men belonged to the largely Muslim Minangkabau encouraged to explore the outside world as a journey of

Village of Pariangan in West Sumatra at
the foot Mount Merapi. This is a typical

Minangkabau Village.

20

Minangkabau women on the way to the Many Minang men leave their villages in search of work
market, 1953. and adventure in a tradition known as merantau. The image
shows a group of Minangkabau chiefs in the early 1900s.

self-discovery as well as to earn a living, mainly through to the merantau tradition which enabled the women who
the trade in gold and pepper. Most returned home stayed behind to take care of family and property.
but some, like these young men, decided to leave their The foreign shores to which these young Minang men
villages permanently. The place they chose to settle was navigated were vastly different from the one they left
a piece of land on the southwest coast of the Malay behind. Although in the 17th century Negeri Sembilan
Peninsula, now known as Negeri Sembilan. was already under the protection of the Malay Sultan
Belonging to a society where women hold much of the of Johor, it was unlike thriving and prosperous Johor
social and economic privileges, these men agreed that settlements such as Riau. The indigenous inhabitants of
they would have a better future elsewhere. True, if they Negeri Sembilan were ancestors of the Semai, Semang
stayed in their villages, they would have the power to and Jakun people who lived either as hunter-gathering
represent their communities in political and religious nomads, or as subsistence farmers. What the Minangs
affairs. However, in Minangkabau’s unique and complex found were tiny, scattered settlements with basic
social structure, ancestral property and buildings, such dwellings and rudimentary social structures.
as padi fields and the traditional rumah gadang long In contrast, the Minangkabau society they had left behind
houses, are owned by the women of the family, passing followed a relatively sophisticated administrative system
from mother to daughter. Children take their mother’s and customary laws (adat) which divided settlements
name; a man is considered a guest in his wife’s home. into mini states (nagari) with their own independent
As head of the household and as controllers of matters political and judicial powers. These nagari comprised
involving land and family, women arbitrate and resolve several clans (suku) headed by community leaders (datuk
property disputes, advise on domestic matters and play penghulu). Each Minangkabau traditionally belonged to
crucial roles in traditional rituals. a lineage descending from a female ancestor, although
It’s hard to pinpoint exactly when and how this unique the datuk penghulu would be male. In the 17th century,
society came about but legend has it that in the mid- the Minangs were ruled by the Pagarruyong-based
12th century, Maharajo Dirajo, who established the Minangkabau Royal family, which had established
Koto Batu Kingdom, died leaving behind three infant itself as an important trading partner for gold during
sons from his three wives. His first wife Puti Indo the Melaka Sultanate, the one-time main power in the
Jalito, took charge of the children and the kingdom, region.
thus sowing the seeds of a matrilineal society. Scholars,
however, have attributed the emergence of this society

21

Over 200 year-old family heirlooms
(keris & spear) from Negeri Sembilan.

Private collection

Ignoring the struggles ahead, the young Minangkabau is familiar. The main difference, however, is in the way
men, and others who followed, first settled in the the ruler is elected. In Negeri Sembilan the monarch,
southern part of an area now known as Rembau, known as Yam Tuan Besar is chosen by four chieftains
gradually populating the surrounding valleys and (undang) from the districts of Rembau, Sungai Ujong,
hillsides that eventually made up this Minangkabau Jelebu and Johol. These undang are descendants of
heartland on the Peninsula. Later, subsequent waves noble matrilineal Minangkabau families who have been
of men would spread their influence to the northern leaders of their clans.
part of Rembau. They built settlements (kota) that were More than 400 years have passed since that first group
similar to those back in West Sumatra. In each kota, of intrepid men navigated their wooden boats from
there would be a communal house (balai), a mosque, a West Sumatra to the Malay Peninsula. Since then,
religious school (surau) and several modest homes with societies across the globe continue to bend towards
their distinctive upward-curved gables. more patriarchal structures, making them pervasive in
Through intermarriage with local communities and most communities in modern times. As such, it is not
the assimilation of other traditions, slightly different surprising that the demise of this matrilineal society has
customary laws, known locally as Adat Perpatih, evolved. long been expected. Yet, with approximately 4 million
As in Minangkabau society in West Sumatra, ancestral Minangs still living in West Sumatra and about 3 million
or customary land and properties are passed down more scattered throughout the Malay Peninsula, this
through the female line, the men in the family having unique society has proven that it is not only surviving
the right to use, live and earn a living off the land. There the encroachment of the modern world, but continues
are also similar councils of leaders known as datuk
penghulu to govern each district. Even the dialect spoken to thrive. w

22

The Minangkabaus left West Sumatra for the Malay Peninsula in the 17th century.
Illustrated by Nicolas Sanson (1600-1667).

.

The old Sri Menanti palace in Negeri
Sembilan, 2006.

23

The Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie

The United Dutch East India Company

V. Jegatheesan

“There are no Ten Commandments south of the equator!”

The maritime spice trade from East to the West earned unto themselves. In fact, until about 1590, Dutch and
fantastic profits for the Dutch and other European other western powers, knew nothing of the precise
countries, who initially traded for spices, but later also location of the Spiceries. However, a breakthrough
for other commodities like precious metals, cotton, came in 1592, in one of the earliest examples of
porcelain and jewellery. Spices had been known from industrial espionage, when a Dutchman, Jan Huyghen
at least Roman times and were always expensive trade van Linschoten, returned after a long period in Goa
goods. These were in great demand in Europe for use in the service of the Portuguese. Between 1595-97
in foods and medicine. The region at the source of this he published three books in The Netherlands, giving
trade, referred to as ‘The Spiceries’, was located broadly detailed accounts of his voyages to the East Indies, the
between India and the east of the Malay Archipelago. West Coast of Africa, and Brazil. Crucially, he described
The journey of spices began in the East, transported the Portuguese sailing routes that other countries so
by indigenous traders to the western archipelago where desired.
they were sold to Arab, Indian and Persian merchants With the printer’s ink barely dry on the first book,
who traded them in Constantinople to Venetian and three merchants, led by a Reinier Pauw, formed the
Genoans purchasing them for the European markets. It Compagnie de Verre (Long Distance Company). Using
took some two years from harvesting to reach western Linschoten’s writings, they prepared a rutter, which is a
dinner tables, the spices preserving themselves on their compilation of charts and data on sailing instructions,
long voyages. The trade in pepper and other spices led to landing points, geographical features, and weather
conditions. In 1595, they raised 290 000 guilders to fund
a vast industry but also an expedition, referred to as the Eerste Schipvaart (First
contributed to major Fleet). Unfortunately, the expedition failed because
geopolitical upheavals of incompetent leadership, internal conflicts, and an
in the East Indies. inability to deal with the Javanese, which had violent
consequences on both sides. They returned home two
Once the Portuguese years later with just enough pepper to cover their costs,
discovered the sea route and then only because spice prices had risen in the
to India, they gained and meantime. Reinier Pauw did not give up. In 1598, he
monopolised the access merged with rivals and sent out a larger Tweede Schipvaart
to these markets, giving (Second Fleet). Better planned after the lessons of the
them a stranglehold first, this successful voyage brought a 400 percent profit.
on every aspect of
Nutmeg and Mace the trade, which was a
jealously guarded secret

24

The return in Amsterdam of the Second Fleet (Tweede Schipvaart) to the East Indies,
under the leadership of Jacobus van Neck, on July 19, 1599.

The smell of money wafted across The Netherlands Dutch controlled Ambon, Tidore, and Ternate, the
encouraging further expeditions, some 14 voyages eastern spice islands at the heart of the trade which
sailing out by 1601 until The Netherlands broke produced the world’s cloves.
Portugal’s supremacy in the East. But internal rivalry The ships sailed in fleets. Until the mid- 18th century, the
rose amongst the Dutch, each group trying to outbid senior merchant or Supercargo representing the VOC,
the other, causing prices to rise and reducing profits, was theoretically the highest authority aboard ship,
directly threatening trade. To solve this problem, in superseded only by the fleet-commander. Assisted by an
1602, the representatives of the rival groups met to under-merchant with similar powers, he had a team of
merge all their interests into one large company to assistants, bookkeepers, and clerks to keep very detailed
which The States-General (Dutch Parliament) granted account books, notes, and ledgers about the voyage and
a monopoly for all Dutch trade east of the Cape of trade matters abroad for presentation on return to the
Good Hope. Directors of the Company. He was also the person who
On 20 March 1602, the syndicates formed the ‘Verenigde conducted all the sale in goods from The Netherlands
Oostindische Compagnie’ or VOC, commonly called the and the purchase of commodities in various ports.
Dutch East India Company. In the early 1600s, the Navigation, the cargo and the maintenance of each ship
VOC issued bonds and stock to the general public, was the responsibility of each ship’s captain but they
thereby becoming the world’s first formally listed public were restricted to following written orders from the
company. The Directors were called the Heren Zeventien, Supercargo, who could instruct the captains on when to
the Gentlemen XVII. This company was a major make sail, stay at anchor in any port, or if disease struck.
success from the very beginning. The VOC made huge Ships were of many types. The most expensive were the
profits, challenging the Portuguese in their very front retourschepen or ‘return ships.’ These were built to carry
yard with superior ships, so that within three years, the

left: A 17th-century etching of the Oost-Indisch Huis, built in 1606
right: A view in recent times of its inner courtyard.

25

The Directors Room at East
India House. Willem V takes
his position as a director of
the VOC. Painted by Simon

Fokke in 1768.

cargo as well as passengers. Then there was the fluyt, of Texel. Ships could not be fully loaded because of
the dedicated, cheaper cargo ship. Finally came the jacht, the shallow waters and shoals. At the Texel roadstead,
a light and speedier craft for cargo less than 50 tons, provisions, cargo and some crew were loaded. Most
which was also used to chase pirate ships. These vessels precious was the water from Texel, which, because of
also had cannons and soldiers for protection. Their its mineral content, kept well in the ship’s barrels for
passengers were from various backgrounds travelling to drinking.
and from the Indies. In time, with colonies established, Sailing past the stormy Bay of Biscay and Cape
they would include leading officials, military men of all Finisterre on the Portuguese coast, the first stop was
ranks, merchants, administrators, priests, teachers, and at Cape Verde Islands where fresh water, fresh food,
their families. Usually three fleets left for Java about and livestock were replenished. These stops were also
Easter, early autumn and Christmas. After an eight- an opportunity for the fleets to reassemble – weather,
month voyage, a trading spin around the Indies of say storms and the different speeds of vessels meant they
three months, they would return, the whole trip taking were often scattered. The next destination was Table
an average of twenty months or so. Money and profit Bay at the Cape of Good Hope. The journey from The
governed the very route the ships had to take. All this Netherlands to the Cape took an average of about four
was specified in the rutter, and the logbooks would be months. From 1620 onwards, the ships sailed non-stop
checked upon return. Any deviation from the route, or to the Cape of Good Hope to shorten the journey. It
any other reason which caused a delay or loss had to be must also be noted that because of winds and currents,
explained to the VOC Directors with possible severe the sailing route was not directly from one point to
consequences. another. Ships in the Atlantic, for example, might be
From Amsterdam and various ports in the Zuider Zee blown almost to Brazil before making for the Cape.
in The Netherlands, ships would sail out to the island

A shipyard owned by
the Dutch East India
Company. xxxxxx

26

Texel

Cape Verde Ceylon
islands
Madagascar Batavia
St. Helena

Cape of Île Amsterdam
Good Hope

route to Batavia (Brouwer Route)
return to Holland
direct route to Ceylon (Sri Lanka)

By the mid-17th century, the Cape had a fort with heading for the Mozambique Channel. Drawn into the
stores, repair facilities and a Dutch settlement to supply powerful westerly winds of the ‘Roaring Forties’ (40°-
the needs of the fleets. Fresh food was grown there 50° latitude), the speed eastward was greatly increased.
and livestock was traded with the local natives. After Turning north, Brouwer reached the Sunda Straits and
a stop of about three weeks for fresh provisions, to Bantam in a few days short of six months from The
drop off sick or injured crew and passengers, or to Netherlands. He had outclassed the Portuguese and
replace the crew, the ships embarked on the final non- reduced the voyage by 3200 kilometres and cut sailing
stop stretch across the Indian Ocean to the Sunda time by half. Passengers and crew did not have to endure
Straits. Initially, VOC ships headed east, following the the long voyage, so morale was much improved. This
established Portuguese route via East Africa through the was most welcome for the Gentlemen XVII. Quicker
Mozambique Channel, or passing east of Madagascar round trips meant more and faster profits. From
and setting course for Mauritius in a northerly direction. 1616, all Dutch ships used this route, passing the tiny
Then across the Indian Ocean to Java, sometimes via Amsterdam Island, a way point on the way further east
India. This whole voyage could take anywhere between before they altered course northwards for the Sundas.
12 and 16 months depending on current, winds and They were perhaps the first and only European ships
weather. And there were many ports on the way. Ships that successfully used this route.
were greatly battered, crew and passengers suffered But there was still a major problem, avoided only by
illnesses, and discipline was hard to maintain. The VOC the reckoning of experienced skippers and by the sheer
Directors continually looked for ways to reduce sailing good luck that Brouwer himself experienced. The
times, even offering bonuses to the crew. problem was when to turn north. At this time, there was
In 1610, a VOC official, Hendrik Brouwer established no way of determining longitude at sea. The Roaring
the Brouwer Route. He sailed south into the Southern Forties were strong and so were the southern currents,
Indian Ocean from the Cape of Good Hope instead of which made it difficult to estimate distance travelled

27

Table Bay in 1679, wirh the Dutch East A Dutch ship off Batavia
Indiaman ‘Africa’ in the foreground. Painted by

Aernout Smit (c1642-1710) in c. 1683.

from the Cape and so to calculate the exact point to thrown into the water and the time of its progress from
turn north. Determining latitude was easy. To measure two given two points on the ship’s side were measured.
this distance from the Equator, a reading was taken at It is no wonder that many ships missed the turn north!
noon of the angle the sun makes with the horizon at This meant running into shoals or floundering on reefs
its zenith. This angle is the latitude. But, until John such Houtman’s Abrolhos, both of which meant certain
Harrison’s invention of a reliable ship’s clock in the mid shipwreck. Just as bad, was ending up on the barren
18th century, the estimation of longitude was a very Western Australian coast. Sailing charts were also vague
imprecise calculation. until at least the mid-17th century after which charts
Early sailors were forced to rely on their visual experience began to show land in this area.
for tell-tale signs such as the colour of water changing Krakatoa was the next landmark, a volcanic island in the
from deep blue to green, the sighting of seaweed, or middle of the approach to the Sunda Straits. From there,
the presence of birds, which indicated nearby shoals the sheltered Bay of Batavia with the nearby Thousand
that acted as markers. But this was impossible at night Islands was within a few days’ sailing. It was a welcome
and difficult in the case of hidden shoals and reefs. relief and an end to a long and hazardous journey for
Calculating speed was also crude: a block of wood was the skipper, crew and passengers alike who had risked

Terra Incognita In the earliest days, before the mid-17th century,
western sailors had heard of the existence of a
28 southern continent but never knew its exact location.
It was always guessed, however, that there was a great
land somewhere in the south, referred to as Terra
Australis Incognita, or ‘The Unknown Southern Land.’

Sailing charts were vague about landmass in that
general area. If a ship saw land, which might in
fact be Western Australia, it was simply assumed to
be a small island and a course was set to sail north
around it. Some sailors did land on Australia before
its official ‘discovery’ but they had probably either
been marooned by storms and shipwreck, or were
abandoned mutineers, surviving among the local
aborigines. They say the existence of indigenous
Australians with blonde hair may be evidence of their

descendants. But that is another subject in itself! w

gales, shoals, reefs, rocks, shallows and navigational The Problem of Longitude
errors. Then there were diseases such as typhoid, scurvy,
and dysentery, which the ships’ surgeons could not To find out one’s location at sea east to west, or
cure. Finally, there was insubordination, riots, mutinies, longitude, was not possible from an imaginary line
personal clashes, cramped living conditions and other of zero. The sun takes 24 hours to travel the earth
horrors to contend with. ‘There are no Ten Commandments which is marked as 360 degrees, so it travels 15
south of the equator!’ Ironically, almost every arrival to degrees every hour. Knowing the current time at the
Batavia brought further deaths, not of the sickly, but last port, the skipper could calculate how far east or
of the healthy passengers and crew who over-ate of the west a ship had travelled. Yet even with accurate
readily available local food and fruit on arrival after a charts, the next problem was to find a suitable
journey of the unpalatable ship’s fare! chronometer, or clock, especially one adapted for
After a rest stop, the trade journeys to the islands would sea travel. Existing clocks were not accurate enough
begin and then the long arduous journey back home to calculate exact time. Early clock mechanisms
by means of the straightforward route used from the were primitive with pendulums, tiny wheels and
first voyages: from Java, through the Sunda Straits, right springs. These were sensitive to movement and
across the Indian Ocean to the Cape of Good Hope air temperatures, so were impractical at sea where
and then back to The Netherlands. The returning VOC the waves and currents greatly tossed the ship
sailors were temporarily ennobled as ‘The Lords of Six about. Some ships even made use of an imprecise
Weeks’. With all that money earned on the trip, they hourglass. All these issues caused the calculations
indulged in all forms of entertainment. But when the to go awry. It may be a surprise to learn that the
money was spent, they signed on again for the next Greenwich Observatory was set up in 1675 solely
arduous cycle. This to-and-fro route became the VOC to determine longitude! Improved chronometers
standard, known as the wagenspoor, or cart track. Between over many years enabled better calculations but
1700-10, at the midpoint of the VOC’s history, some it was only in the mid-18th century, with the help
280 voyages to Batavia sailed from The Netherlands, of the chronometers originally created by John
of which 237 arrived, taking an average of 224 days or Harrison, that they became accurate enough to be
7.5 months. In the same decade, 193 voyages returned
to the Netherland with 142 arrivals. These voyages accepted as reliable. w
averaged 216 days or 7.2 months.
Over 200 years, the VOC had become a behemoth, 29
and this was also the cause of its downfall. It had
risen from a trading syndicate to a mighty company-
state, that built forts, maintained armies, signed treaties
with local rulers, and governed vast possessions. But
corruption, low salaries, private trading, incompetence,
greed and excessive dividends were among the reasons
for its ultimate collapse. On 31 December 1799, the
Charter of the VERENIGDE OOSTINDISCHE
COMPAGNIE expired. The Dutch government then
took over the VOC territorial possessions and created
the Dutch East Indies, which was a significant part of

the Dutch Empire. w

A Special Little Town, Beruas

Shafinaz Ahmad Shaharir

As I start to write this article, the wonderful this research project took place. It was also the transit
reminiscences of my early childhood slowly enter the station for artefacts from the excavation sites. I still
sight of my memories. Beruas holds a fond memory remember vividly how the child version of me would
for me; indeed, it is how I first developed my love peek at the recovered artefacts and feel amazed to see
of history. My grandfather, Dato’ Haji Shaharudin, them. It may have been many decades ago, but my
was the chairman of The Researchers and History memories are still crystal clear. Therefore, in this article,
Enthusiasts Association of Manjung District, while my I am summarizing the history of Beruas in line with
father, Ahmad Shaharir, worked closely with him as the promise that I once made to myself to promote the
the secretary. Back in 1991, both of them were actively town. My father’s undying passion and dedication to the
involved with Projek Penelitian Sejarah Beruas Fasa 1, an history of Perak has always been such an inspiration to
archaeological research project initiated by the Perak me.
State Government in cooperation with various other Beruas Today
agencies.

When I was a child, my family and I lived just behind my Beruas (also Bruas) is a small town within the Manjung
grandparents’ house, where any discussions regarding district of Perak. With a population comprised of
Malays, Chinese and Indians, the town was historically
known as Belukar Sambang. Fast forward, the name later
changed to Beruas from the many beruas trees found
within the area: beruas (Garcinia hombroniana) is a species
belonging to the mangosteen family.

The Beruas fruit (Garcini hombroniana), seashore mangosteen, Some may call Beruas a backwater. It is very peaceful
is native to Malaysia. Its peel is rose-red, different from the and quiet, surrounded by nature with only one main
road and few rows of double-storey shop houses,
well-known purple mangosteen. not forgetting the one and only main intersection,
accompanied by traffic lights. Who would know that
this humble intersection itself actually connects three
major towns in Perak, namely Taiping, Kuala Kangsar
and Manjung?

30

What draws me close to Beruas is the atmosphere at the same spot ever since I was a child; among my
itself. It’s hard to resist the nostalgic vibe whenever memories, I clearly recall going to the same pasar malam,
you step into the town. During the evening, you can feeling happy as I successfully persuaded my parents to
see senior citizens drinking coffee with their friends at buy me hair accessories. Apart from Pekan Rabu, there
the few restaurants. There are several small-sized kedai is also Beruas Museum that tells the history of Beruas
runcit selling all the basic household items. A number in the form of information panels, illustration of maps,
of Malay vendors near the bus stand sell traditional and artefacts.
Malay cakes, offering a wide selection that ranges from Although Beruas is a little ‘out in the sticks’ today, this
kuih Seri Muka, kuih Peria and kuih Tepung Talam. You small town had an eventful past and is actually well-
can easily spoil yourself with these palatable desserts, known, especially among scholars and researchers.
and most importantly, with such cheap prices that you Beruas is believed to have been the location of the
wouldn’t find anywhere in Kuala Lumpur! ancient Malay kingdom of Beruas on the coast of
Just like many other small towns, there is the Wednesday Perak, said to have been so large that it took a cat three
night market known as Pekan Rabu, but the only months to go around the rooftops of its houses! In fact,
difference in Beruas is that it opens right after noon Beruas is also reputed to be the site of the capital of
and closes as the sun calls for the sunset. For as long Gangga Negara, the earliest kingdom in Perak.
as I can remember, the night market has always been

The town of Beruas in Perak

31

right: Paper clipping
shows Ahmad Shaharir
with one of the artefacts
found in Beruas.
From the personal
collection of Ahmad
Shahrarir

bottom: Jalong Brahmin
statue discovered in
Kinta Valley in 1936,
believed to be from
the Gangga Negara
kingdom. Currently
on display at Gallery
B, National Museum,
Malaysia.

The Ancient Kingdoms of Beruas exist, particularly that Raja Ganji Sarjuna of Kedah was
The Lost Kingdom of Gangga Negara its founder. On the other hand, there is also an account
Gangga Negara is one of many ancient kingdoms of that Khmer kings from Cambodia established the
Perak. According to Sejarah Melayu, it is believed to kingdom. Based on the discovery of several Buddhist
have been located in the Dinding district (now known statues, however, historians believe that this lost
as Manjung). There have also been suggestions that kingdom had already existed approximately five to six
the name Gangga might have been inspired by the centuries earlier, and that it was located in the centre of
Ganges River in India while Negara is from the Sanskrit Beruas. Gangga Negara was among the largest ancient
language meaning region. However, up to this point, kingdoms at that time.
no solid evidence, be it historical or archaeological, has According to Ptolemy in his Geographike Hyphegesis,
confirmed the truth behind this. Furthermore, several c. 150 CE, there is a mention of Coconagara, a placename
different oral traditions regarding this lost kingdom that resembles Gangga Negara. Ptolemy emphasized
that the location of Coconagara was either Sungai
Bernam or Sungai Perak, and that the kingdom had
existed since the second century CE. The glory of this
kingdom was typified by its luxurious palace, in which
the tiles were made of gold, the kitchen of silver, and
the walls were decorated with pearls. There were even
two ponds coated in gold.

According to Sejarah Melayu, Raja Gangga Shah Johan
ruled Gangga Negara during the attack of the Indian
Chola kingdom from the Coromandel around 1025-
1026 CE, when the kingdom was badly damaged, and
was subsequently destroyed in the aftermath.

The Malay Kingdom of Beruas

After the fall of Gangga Negara, two Malay kingdoms,
known as Beruas and Manjung, rose in the region, but
they were rivals and fought against each other. The
Malay kingdom of Beruas was the victor with help from
Melaka during the reign of Sultan Mahmud Shah (1488-
1511). Later on, Sultan Mahmud awarded the king of

32

Manong

Batu Hampar

Beruas River Kg. Dendang

Pengkalan Bharu Kg. Kota Kubang
Kuala (Beruas Kingdom) Aji
Beruas
Kg. Gelang
Kg. Segari
(Manjung Kingdom) Dinding River

Perak River

Lumut Sitiawan

Pangkor Raja Muda Perak and Dato’ Shaharudin examining
Island the tombstone relic that was found in Beruas. New
Straits Times (1986, May 12). From the personal
Strait of Malacca
collection of Ahmad Shahrarir
Beruas a new title: ‘Tun Aria Bijaya Diraja’. Although
Beruas and Manjung were both vassal states of Melaka, This ancient kingdom has many oral traditions. Some
Sultan Mahmud Shah put Manjung under the rule of believe that it was established by people from Gangga
Tun Aria Bijaya Diraja because of his good relationship Negara, as both kingdoms were situated in the same
with Beruas. Even when the Portuguese conquered area. Gangga Negara, however, was Hindu-Buddhist,
Malacca in 1511, Tun Aria Bijaya Diraja still showed while Beruas is identified as an Islamic kingdom, due to
his loyalty toward Sultan Mahmud Shah by giving the presence of Islamic tomb stones (Batu Nisan Aceh).
an audience to him after he had fled to Bentan, Riau These tomb stones were found in 1976 at Kampung
following the Portuguese victory. Kota, Beruas and belonged to the first king of Beruas,
According to Tome Pires in Suma Oriental (1512 CE), Sultan Malik al-Mansur and his family. Sultan Malik al-
many merchant ships were anchored at Beruas from Mansur was a younger brother of Sultan Malik al-Zahir,
Gujerat, Siam, China and Kedah. This statement has the ruler of Pasai (Sumatra) 1326- 1350. Indeed,
been backed up through the discovery of artefacts such based on the discovery of the Aceh stones, it is clear
as blue and white Chinese ceramics, an anchor chain, that the Malay Kingdom of Beruas existed during the
coins and tin. Beruas was known as ‘Zabaj’ by the Arabs 14th century and was ruled by members of the Pasai
and ‘Cho Pu’ by the Chinese. The Beruas kingdom Kingdom of Sumatra.
was centred in Kota (now Kampung Kota). During
the heyday of the Malay Kingdom of Beruas, trade The history of the ancient kingdoms of Perak
played an important role, and Beruas was known as an contributed to the establishment of the Perak Sultanate
emporium with a large population. The main source of that was itself a direct link to the Sultanate of Melaka.
income of its people included farming; there were two Raja Muzaffar, the son of Sultan Mahmud Shah, became
Malay settlements along the Beruas river. the first Sultan of Perak (1528-49) as Sultan Muzaffar

Shah I. w

33

Rosewater Sprinklers

Afidah Rahim

Chemists from the Islamic Golden Age (8th to 13th Mughal rulers celebrated this Id-i-Gulabi (Rosewater
century CE) discovered rosewater as a by-product of Festival) at the start of the rainy season. The royal family
rose oil distillation. Its discovery led to the making of and courtiers enjoyed sprinkling rosewater over each
rosewater sprinklers in Persia. Eventually, rosewater other. Thus, the gulab pash became a court ritual item.
sprinklers became popular in Mughal India as a court Throughout the Islamic world, rosewater sprinklers
ritual item, known as gulab pash. Emperor Akbar became a hospitality item, used primarily to welcome
introduced the Persian festival Ab-i-Pashan, held in guests. Scent is encouraged in the Prophet’s tradition.
memory of the rain which had ended a famine. Similar to incense, rosewater gives a sense of luxury and
well-being. Mixed with zamzam water, it is used in the
biannual cleansing of the Kaabah.

The shape of a rosewater sprinkler is bulbous at the
bottom to fit one’s palm comfortably. It is tapered
near the top to prevent quick evaporation and wastage.
The small hole-piercings at the apex assist in sparing
use of rosewater. The design of rosewater sprinklers
reflects the regional arts of the Islamic world. Chinese
sprinklers are mainly made of porcelain with metal tips.
Indian and Middle Eastern versions tend to be made
of metal.

top: Rosewater sprinkler The late 19th century Malay rosewater sprinkler in
at the Malay Ethnology Gallery B is made from silver. It is influenced by the
Museum, Malaysia. Indo-Islamic metalwork design of Mughal India, with
right: Rosewater sprinkler beautiful chasing, engraving and repoussé work. This
at the National Museum, sprinkler is decorated with cloves and stylised flowers.
Malaysia. An openwork ring graces its middle section while the
finial features a single clove, which gives a local flavour
to its design, reminiscent of the spice’s origin in the
Malay world. The pierced ring is likely to be moveable,
as those on Mughal sprinklers. Above this ring sits what

34

Sprinkling the bride with
rosewater.

looks like a pineapple, reflecting the sprinkler’s tropical Rosewater sprinklers are mainly used to welcome guests
background. at Malay ceremonies, with a special function at Malay
R.O. Winstedt had noted that patterns on Malay weddings. The Malay bride and groom are regarded
silver mainly derived from native flowers and fruits. as raja sehari (king and queen for the day). Sprinkling
Foreign observers had admired the improvisational of tepung tawar (scented water) is conducted on a royal
skills of Malay craftsmen. Roth (1993) highlighted that couple in preparation for their installation ceremony,
19th century Malay silversmiths were secured in their prior to the istiadat bersiram (cleansing ceremony). Hence,
livelihoods by royal patronage and were, therefore, rosewater sprinklers are used for the merenjis (sprinkling)
artistically free to craft exquisite pieces with minimal ceremony at Malay weddings. Elder members of the
time and cost constraints. family are invited to bless the newlyweds sitting on the
More common in Malaysia today are the white copper pelamin (dais) with rosewater and bunga rampai (fresh
or brass rosewater sprinklers. There are samples of potpourri made from thinly sliced pandan leaves and
these at the Malay World Ethnology Museum and flowers). The elder is then rewarded with bunga telur
Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia (IAMM) respectively. (flower egg) as a token of appreciation, when they leave
These sprinklers are modestly designed and smaller in the dais.
size to the silver one. They usually come in pairs. Research shows that many rosewater sprinklers were
made for, or commissioned by, Muslim women. These
artefacts reflect the power, beauty and intelligence of

Muslim women, supported by skilful craftsmanship. w

Greeted with rosewater and petals upon arrival at Rosewater sprinkler in front of the bridal couple at the
Madinah airport for umrah, 1 January 2018. wedding diorama, Malay Ethnology Museum.

35

Tepak Sirih: A Cultural Perspective

Afidah Rahim

Betel leaf chewing was a custom practised throughout featured in ceremonies even in the royal court of 15th
South East Asia in the past. It is said to have originated century Melaka, when betel leaves were distributed
in India over 2000 years ago and spread through among high officials, according to strict rank protocol.
traders and migrants along the maritime silk and spice Nowadays, betel sets remain as royal regalia and feature
routes. The Malays named their betel set ‘tepak sirih’ during the state ceremonial proclamation of the new
and regarded it as an essential hospitality, as well as King, as well as at royal weddings.
ceremonial, item. Betel sets are still used at events relating to Malay
In the past, it was Malay adat (custom) to offer guests betrothals including merisik (enquiry), bertunang
the tepak sirih. Most Malay households owned a brass or (engagement) and nikah (wedding). The tepak sirih
wooden set. Gullick (1987) noted that ‘in all classes of is a non-verbal communication tool, especially at the
society, the offer of a betel was a mark of friendship enquiry stage, when the boy’s family seeks acceptance
and – on the part of a ruler – a favour’. Betel chewing

A betel set at Gallery B, A betel set complete with betel leaves in
National Museum of Malaysia. upright holder, slaked lime, gambier, areca nuts,
36
tobacco and cloves in open caskets.

The tepak sirih is placed on a dulang (footed The groom takes his wedding vows next to the
tray) as part of the gifts exchanged at a wedding. tepak sirih – a subtle reminder for virtues.

It contains betel leaves and bunga rampai.

for their proposal. The girl’s representative would usually Just as the betel set design is carefully considered, so
accept a betel quid offered by the boy’s side, taking care are its intended contents. The Malay adab (code of
to position the betel leaf holder appropriately. Should conduct) is reflected in the contents of the betel set.
the girl’s side not be agreeable, the holder would be left Daun sirih (betel leaves) are a subtle reminder of dignity
lying on its side, instead of standing. Thus, the proposal since the creeper plant climbs but does not choke
could be rejected diplomatically. If the holder remains its surroundings. The kapur (slaked lime) is white in
upright, the boy’s representative could then proceed to colour, which contrasts with, yet complements, the
discuss arrangements for the engagement and wedding. taste of green betel leaves. The gambir leaves red marks,
The silver betel set in Gallery B was used in Malay signifying resilience. Pinang (areca nut) is cracked open,
cultural rites and ceremonies in the 18th and 19th symbolizing cooperativeness. Tembakau (tobacco) is
centuries. During this time, silver sets were a status a reminder of steadfastness in adversity, while cengkih
symbol, reserved for the nobility. Royal silversmiths (cloves) bring joy.
underwent ten to fifteen years of apprenticeship from Sekapur sirih refers to the betel quid (both its leaves and
around the age of twelve under a master craftsman. components), which is generally chewed to combat
They used silver ingots imported from China, or silver fatigue or indigestion; warmed betel leaves were placed
pieces melted down from antiques and trade coins. The on a baby’s stomach to settle colic. Traditionally, betel
purity of the silver varied between 80 to 90 per cent. quids were also used to solve personal and relationship
The anonymous craftsmanship of this particular betel problems, for example: marital strain, difficult people,
set is distinctively refined, with a restrained balance of or to gain confidence. Each affliction required its own
decorative elements. Neatly arranged bamboo shoot particular dosage in regards to the specific contents of
motifs on the betel leaf holder contrast against the the quid.
scrolling vines. Three circular caskets are countered Considering that betel chewing is no longer practised by
by the angles of the platter, the small vase and the Malay society, the main function of tepak sirih today is
remaining casket. An elegant horse adorns the blade of ceremonial in nature. It is hoped that this iconic cultural
the nutcracker, which is embellished with silver handles. heritage item can also provide the younger generation
The overall tebuk tembus (openwork) featured on the
individual pieces of this betel set is broken only by a with an appreciation for societal values and tradition. w
single casket that is unadorned with piercings.

37

Persian Ceramics at Bujang Valley

Junko Mori

Bujang Valley, located in Kedah in the north of Malaysia, Many excavations have taken place in the Bujang Valley
is the most important protohistoric archaeological area uncovering numerous Hindu and Buddhist temple sites
on the Malay Peninsula, dated from around the mid- and many artefacts: e.g. Buddhist statues, Hindu statues,
first millenium to the mid-second millenium CE. The stone monuments, stone tools, beads, and ceramics.
valley has an area of more than 200 sq. kilometres, One of the most common finds are ceramics. Apart
extending from Mt. Jerai in the north, to the Muda from unglazed earthenware, all ceramics unearthed in
River in the south, and the Straits of Malacca in the the Bujang Valley were imported from outside. They are
west. It is believed that Bujang Valley was prosperous referred to as Trade Ceramics because only unglazed
in the protohistoric era, when it was known in various earthenware was produced on the peninsula before the
historical documents as Qie Zha to the Chinese, modern era. Trade Ceramics found in the valley include
Kadaram, Kidaram or Kalagam in Tamil, and Kataha pottery from China, Vietnam, Thailand, and West Asia.
in Sanskrit. Chinese ceramics are the most common but ceramics

Padi plantation near Muda River, Bujang Valley.

38

found in Africa, India, South East Asia, China, and
Japan, dating from the seventh to the tenth century CE.
For example, some shards of Persian ceramics found in
Nara, Japan, were accompanied by an engraved wooden
tablet dated to 768 CE. It is believed that when Persian
bluish-green jars were brought to China, those jars had
contained water, wine and trade goods. But Japanese
archaeologists suggest that the contents may have been
emptied when the Persian jars arrived in China, and that
the jars were exported from China to Japan because of
their beautiful colour.

Bluish green glazed Persian jar at The sites in east Asia which have revealed significant
Museum of Art, Japan. amounts of Persian ceramics are Ko Kho Khao in
Southern Thailand, Yangzhou in China, and the Bujang
from West Asia, known as Persian or Islamic ceramics, Valley. In all of these sites, Chinese ceramics are the
are the second most common type in some sites. Most most common find but sizeable shards of Persian
of the Persian ceramic shards found in the Bujang ceramics also have been found. In the Bujang Valley,
Valley were glazed with a bluish-green glaze, and stand the percentage of Persian ceramics compared to total
out amongst the others. trade ceramics (including Chinese and South East Asian
ceramics) is very high. For example, the percentage
of Persian ceramics in the Sungai Mas archaeological
excavation (2007) was more than 10 percent, and in the
excavation at Candi Kampung Baru site (2016/2017)
nearly 20 percent. Additionally, these two sites also have

Persian ceramics were first crafted almost 3500 years Artefacts from Candi Kampung Baru site,
ago in the Mitanni Kingdom of West Asia and an Kota Kuala Muda Kedah, Bujang Valley.
abundance of Persian ceramics have been made since
then. Persian ceramics have many types and colours
although their quality is not as good as Chinese
ceramics. Because of this, Persian ceramics were not
generally popular trade items. One kind, however, a
type of bluish-green glazed jar, was used by merchants
as containers for trade and travel goods, and many
were brought out from West Asia. These jars have been

39

Candi Bendang Dalam, relocated to the grounds of the
Bujang Valley Archaeological Museum.

Persian ceramics other than the bluish-green glazed the ceramics found at Koh Kho Khao thought that
jar, such as Whiteware and Three-Colour Glazed-ware, many traders from West Asia had visited Koh Kho
which are rare outside West Asia. Khao and some of them had lived there. There is a
The location of these two sites is very similar to Koh possibility that the situation in Bujang Valley was the
Kho Khao; all three sites are located on the west coast same. But this does not mean that West Asians formed
of the Peninsula. The archaeologist who reported on the main community of the Bujang Valley because there
is evidence of consecutive settlements of indigenous
communities at the Sungai Mas archaeological site.
From the prehistoric to protohistoric eras, the site had
been used by local people who had used their own skill
to build candi in the Bujang Valley. Traders from West
Asia came to the Bujang Valley to trade and may have
decided to settle.

Beads made from glass and stone, found at Information on the Bujang Valley is also available in
Kampung Sungai Mas, Bujang Valley. several ancient literary sources; records exist from both
Chinese and Arab sources. The most famous one was
written by I-ching who was a Chinese Buddhist monk of
the Tang Era (618-907 CE). His account of his travels is
an important source for the history of kingdoms along
the sea route between China and India. He stayed in
Kedah on the way to and back from India at the end of
the seventh century. This means that Kedah was already
an international port at that time.

40

Candi Bukit Batu Pahat, reconstructed in-situ on
the grounds of the Bujang Valley Archaeological
Museum.

Another document, ‘Accounts of China and India’ written
by Abū Zayd al-Sīrāfī in the tenth century said that a total
of more than 120 000 people were killed in the Huang
Chao Rebellion of 877 in Guangzhou, China, which
included Muslims, Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians.
After the rebellion, many Arabian and Persian traders
moved their base from China to Kedah. This suggests
that Kedah was already an international emporium by
the end of the Tang Dynasty, and many Arabian and
Persian traders came to Kedah.

Archaeological evidence from Persian ceramics and
literary sources indicates that the Bujang Valley was one
of the early trading hubs in the network of international
trade. Arabian and Persian traders may even have had
their base in Bujang Valley in the Protohistoric Era.
Traders from West Asia brought Persian ceramics to the
Bujang Valley, some of which might have been taken
further east to China and Japan by both West Asian and

indigenous merchants. w

top: Persian ceramics pieces at the National
Museum, Malaysia.
bottom: Persian ceramics and glass pieces at the
Bujang Valley Archaeological Museum.

41

The History of Fraser’s Hill

Eric Lim

Hill stations were popular retreats for British colonialists stations, but remained undeveloped until Fraser’s Hill
throughout the Empire. The earliest on the Peninsula came into the picture.
was Penang Hill, originally Flagstaff Hill, first settled When it was established in 1922, Fraser’s Hill became
in 1788 by Francis Light himself. The search for hill the third principal hill station, after Penang Hill and
stations continued and in 1884, Maxwell Hill (now Maxwell Hill. At that time, it was both the largest,
known as Bukit Larut) in Taiping, became the first hill at approximately 2830 hectares, and the highest, at
station located on the mainland. It was named after between 852-1460 metres. Fraser’s Hill comprises seven
William George Maxwell. By this time, the British were individual peaks, starting at The Gap up to Bukit Pokok
involved in the politics of the tin mining states of Pine at the summit. Apart from its size and cooler
Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan and Pahang. Gunung climate, it is also ideally located between two FMS
Kledang in Ipoh, Gunung Angsi in Negri Sembilan, states, Selangor and Pahang. Since its establishment in
and Treacher’s Hill (present name Bukit Kutu) near the early 20th century, much has been written about
Kuala Kubu in Selangor were proposed as possible hill Fraser’s Hill and how the hill station acquired its name.
Presently, however, there is strong evidence to suggest
that many of the earlier stories were incorrect.

Bruce Fraser (third from left), grandson It is generally assumed that Fraser’s Hill is named either
of Lewis Fraser, at the Smokehouse. for Louis J. Fraser or James Louis Fraser, but in actual
fact, it was a Lewis James Fraser (LJF from now on) who
was the original settler. He was born in Singapore on 12
November 1841, the second child of James Fraser and
Mona Ann Cumming. James originated from Scotland
and when LJF was just one year old, the family returned
to London. LJF came back to Singapore in 1864, a
wealthy young man of twenty-three. He worked his way
up and became a well-known and popular businessman,
even selected as a government appointee of the
Municipal Committee of Singapore for a period of 18
months. After his retirement from the Committee, he
spent more time on his own business interests, investing
in commodities, agriculture and trading, but all his

42

Kuala Lipis

Trunk Road 1898 PAHANG

SELANGOR Raub
Tras

THE GAP Bilut Semantan
Kuala Kubu River River

Pahang River

Temerloh Pekan

Kuala Lumpur NEGERI
Klang SEMBILAN

ventures failed and he found himself in deep financial ‘Fraser traded in tin ore until the fateful day he disappeared in
difficulties. In 1882, this resulted in a court case in the forested hills. Despite his newly found wealth and status,
which he was found guilty of cheating, and sentenced Fraser mysteriously disappeared without trace. He died before I
to two years ‘rigorous’ imprisonment. went there in 1904’ [as stated by J.B. Scrivenor, FMS geologist].

After his release, his whereabouts were unknown until The truth, however, is less exciting. Probably in late
much later. After many reports, articles and interviews, 1900, LJF left the country for England, where he
it was found that LJF had made his base at the village stayed with his sister, Sophia, who had recently lost
of Tras in Pahang. With a small capital, he financed her husband. Records showed that on 4 July 1901, at
Malay and Chinese miners, and bought the tin that the age of 59, LJF married Maria Ellen Cheere at the
they produced. He started a transport business using Kensington Parish Church in London. He died on 27
mules, ponies and later oxen, plying the bridle path September 1906 in Salzburg, Austria, while on holiday
from Kuala Kubu to Kuala Lipis. He also used rafts with his wife to escape the heatwave that was sweeping
for transportation from Tras to Pekan using the Pahang Europe at that time.
River. From 1890-95, the Tras mines exported the
highest amount of tin in the Ulu Pahang district. In
1896, LJF moved his main operations to the Sempan
Valley (which later became known as Fraser’s Hill). This
venture was less successful than Tras, so in May 1900,
LJF decided to exchange his mining rights for shares in
the Sempan Mining Company Limited.

The Sempan Mining Company Limited began operations This is a colorized edition of a black & white photo
at Sempan Valley in July 1900, and by November had of tin mining at Fraser’s Hill, Pahang, taken in 1906.
reported that they were making a new bridle path down
to Gap to connect with the trunk road. 1907 saw the
construction of a new bungalow to replace the basic
dwelling that had been built in 1901. However, the
problem with disposal of tailings caused the mines to
be closed for the construction of a dam. As for Fraser,
himself, it was widely reported that he disappeared on
the Hill sometime in 1904, and was never found.

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View from Fraser’s Hill looking towards the Titiwangsa Range

In 1911, the wife of the Acting Resident of Pahang, In August 1918, after a tour of the area, the Assistant
E.J. Brewster, hiked up the now overgrown path to Surveyor General, J.N. Sheffield, published a report
Fraser’s Hill where she came upon the old bungalow. favourable to the idea of a hill station. Immediately
She suggested to her husband that it could be used as a afterwards, F.W. Mager, State Engineer of Pahang,
sanatorium. The venture, however, was not successful. began clearing the jungle for an access road from Gap
The old bungalow was rediscovered again six years to the old bungalow, as well as exploring potential sites
later, in November 1917, in a very dilapidated and for buildings. In 1919, work officially started on the
uninhabitable state, by the bishop of Singapore, the Right access road to the hill, a development committee was
Reverend C.J. Ferguson-Davie and Rev. A.B. Champion, set up, and the first police post was opened. In 1922,
Chaplain of Selangor. This discovery proved to be very an excellent metalled road to the hill station, which was
important as, upon the bishop’s return to Singapore, named Fraser’s Hill, was completed; it was opened to
he reported that the place was ‘eminently suitable for a hill visitors the same year. A 9-hole golf course was built on
station, which could be rapidly, easily and cheaply developed’. It the site of the former tin mines, and Frank Hemmant
prompted the government to consider the site for a designed the lay-out of the golf links.
much-awaited hill station in the area. The first four bungalows (Ledeghem, Mogador, Polygone
and Hollebeke) were named after ‘pillboxes’ because of
their small size. In 1923, Bishop Ferguson-Davie made
a visit and a bungalow, named ‘The Retreat’ was given
to him in recognition of his original recommendation
of the hill station. Interestingly, he rode back down to
Kuala Kubu on his bicycle whilst wearing his surplice!

By 1927, three buildings that served as medical facilities
were built with funds from The Red Cross Society
and the Order of St. John of Jerusalem. They were
named Convalescent, The Red Cross House (present name
Smokehouse) and Victory House.

Another set of houses was named after the early
British Residents of Pahang – Clifford, Duberly, Wray
and Parr. ‘Cicely’ was named after the wife of E.J.
Brewster who discovered the first old bungalow and

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‘Kindersley’ named after Ronald C.M. Kindersley,
the chairman of the development committee. Two
roads were named after the wives of very important
people in the development of Fraser’s Hill, namely Sir
George Maxwell and High Commissioner Sir Laurence
Guillemard. The road names were Lady Maxwell’s Road
and Lady Guillemard’s Road.
Today, Fraser’s Hill is widely known internationally
as the premier bird watching site in the region. It is
recognized as a critical area for the conservation of birds
and biodiversity. The International Bird Race, a bird-
spotting competition to identify as many bird species as
possible within a given time frame, is organized on the
second week of June every year. For hiking enthusiasts,
there are eight forest trails. These bridle paths were
established in the early days as a means of connecting
the bungalows to the town centre. Six of the trails
are named after individuals who played a part in the
development of the hill station. According to WWF,
92 percent of Fraser’s Hill is still covered with virgin
rainforest. Last year, we saw the 100th year anniversary
celebration and, earlier, our present King made a
personal inspection of the preparations for the event.
In the past, on the last 8 kilometres journey from Gap
to Fraser’s Hill, vehicles had to negotiate a narrow and
winding single carriageway which only allowed one-way
traffic. There was a schedule for vehicles to ascend to
Fraser’s Hill and descend to Gap. With the completion
of a new stretch, visitors can now drive up using the old

road and descend using the new road. w

top to bottom: Seri Berkat Rest
House (Convalescence), Fraser’s

Hill town centre in the 30s/40s,
the famed Clock Tower at the
town centre

45

Creatures of The King

Three Portuguese navigators of the early 16th century

Daniela Barrier

The Portuguese were without a doubt the greatest Unlike the fidalgos, or traditional landowning nobility,
navigators and pioneers of the early 16th century. In these young men came from a distinct group of families,
the name of a tiny kingdom with a small population, the nobreza de servico or nobreza da corte, an upwardly mobile
the Portuguese built a vast network of port cities bourgeois class, comprising migrants from Castile,
and outposts across four continents. On the Malay France or Galicia, and cristãos novos, Jewish converts
Peninsula, Afonso de Albuquerque is probably the most to Catholicism. They had earned their titles (capitan-mór,
famous of them. But beyond their unpronounceable estribeiro-mór, alcaide-mór) for personal services to the
names and titles, who were these Portuguese men Crown. Indebted to kings such as Dom Manuel (1495-
and what motivated them to thrust themselves into 1521) and Dom João III (1521-1557), they embodied
unknown seas? the spirit of Manueline imperialism (For Gold, God,
Glory) and were responsible for the financing and the
The Kings’ Men defence of most of the Crown’s overseas expeditions.
More than navigators, adventurers and soldiers, these
In 1434, King Dom Duarte (1433-8) had instituted a ‘magnates’ of the 16th century – often related by blood
law (lei mental) creating within the nobility a system of or marriage – quickly gained control of a global network
entangled estates (morgadíos), which established that all of businesses and power.
grants made by the Crown were inalienable, indivisible By the second half of the 16th century, however,
and heritable only by the eldest son. Most Portuguese the majority had lost most of the wealth they had
navigators of the early 16th century were thus younger accumulated. The Empire’s economic difficulties caused
landless sons of noble families, obliged to search their by overspending added to growing rivalries within the
fortune elsewhere. Court, the fidalgos increasingly suspicious of the Crown’s
usurpation of mercantile opportunities. The political
Western face of winds in Lisbon were turning. When Philip II of Spain
Monument of the seized the Portuguese crown in 1580, their possessions
Discoveries, in Santa overseas came under attack from Spain’s European
Maria de Belém, rivals (The Netherlands, England, France), resulting in
Lisbon. It depicts 14 a change in the demographics of Portuguese colonies.
famous navigators, led Most of the Portuguese navigators who survived both
by the king, Henry the war and the dangerous sea voyages returned to Portugal
Navigator, holding a only to spend their last days either in poverty or oblivion.
miniature carrack.

46

Pedro Álvares Cabral Vasco da Gama reports to Dom Manuel about India, painting
Born in 1468, Cabral was the second son of the alcaide- by unknown, National Library, Portugal, c.1900.
mor (governor) of Belmonte; his great grandfather,
Álvaro Gil Cabral, had won this title in 1385 at the
Battle of Aljubarrota. His father, Fernão, known as
a lady-killer, married Dona Isabel Gouveia, a wealthy
heiress and their son Pedro received an education at
Court. In 1500, at the age of 32 and with little naval
experience, Cabral became commander of the largest
and most expensive fleet ever constituted by any nation,
intended to impress the Raja of Calicut and establish a
permanent factory in India.
Cabral ruled over a genuine floating city: 13 ships and
1500 men, 2.5% of Lisbon’s entire population. Although
he was headed to Calicut, winds and currents drove him
westward. Cabral landed in and unintentionally founded
what is today Brazil. He then continued to Calicut.
Historians do not know exactly why he was chosen for
this position. Although Cabral had most likely ‘stuck
a spear in Africa’ as most of the young men of his
class at the time, the likeliest reason was his excellent
marriage. Despite his lack of heritage, Cabral’s wife
was one of the richest fidalgas of Portugal, Dona Isabel
de Castro, grand-daughter of the kings Ferdinand I of
Portugal and Henry II of Castile, and niece of Afonso
de Albuquerque. By being the first to set sail westwards
across the Atlantic Ocean to unknown Brazil, one can
say Cabral led the first expedition to set foot on four
continents: Europe, America, Africa and Asia.
After returning to Portugal from this trip, Cabral
competed with Vasco da Gama for the command of
the ‘Revenge Fleet’, bound for Calicut and Cochin in
1502, a dispute that da Gama won. Cabral then lost
favour with Dom Manuel, disappearing completely
from official records for the two decades preceding his
death in 1529 from fever, most likely malaria, contracted
in India.

47

Coat of arms Duarte Coelho Duarte Coelho
Born in 1485, the bastard son of a fidalgo family (his
48 mother, Catarina Anes Duarte, was a commoner),
Duarte Coelho was brought up by his aunt, a prioress
in a monastery. At the age of 15, he accompanied
his father, Gonçalo Coelho, Registrar of the Royal
Treasury and experienced navigator, on the first
official expedition to Brazil (1502). Historians believe
he may have returned to Brazil with his father a year
later, accompanied by the Florentine cartographer,
Amerigo Vespucci. Deciding to serve the Crown and
pursue a career in the army, Duarte Coelho left for
India in 1509, together with 1600 soldiers commanded
by Dom Fernando Coutinho. He was charged with
attacking Calicut to remove Francisco de Almeida from
his post as Viceroy of India, and installing Alfonso de
Albuquerque in his place. Considered a good diplomat,
Coelho helped Albuquerque to reconquer the city.
Two years later, he took part in the attack against Melaka,
returning in 1518 from where he was sent to establish
diplomatic and commercial relations with Siam. Having
met the Siamese king Ramathibodi II, he obtained very
favourable conditions (including freedom of worship)
for the establishment of a Portuguese factory in
Ayutthaya. In 1523, Coelho was sent on a diplomatic
mission to Cochin China by Jorge de Albuquerque,
nephew of Alfonso de Albuquerque, then governor of
Melaka.
In 1528, Coelho returned to Europe and married a
rich fidalga, Dona Brites de Albuquerque, cousin of
Alfonso and sister-in-law of Manuel de Moura, king
Dom João III’s official bookkeeper. A year later, he was
sent to Morocco to oversee the construction of the
fortifications, then to Africa in charge of the security
of the Guinean coast. Between these two assignments,
Coelho was despatched to France by the king’s main
counsellor, Dom Antônio de Ataíde, to help settle
an increasingly important dispute between the two

countries: French pirate raids on the coast of Brazil.
In 1534, Dom João III granted Coelho a Capitania
Hereditária, a huge overseas land grant given to noble men
who had to finance the venture themselves in exchange
for the sole rights of ownership and governance. The
plot given to Coelho measured 300 kilometres wide.

A firm believer in sugar cane plantations, Coelho of beneficiaries of the Capitanias Hereditárias in Brazil.
gathered 200 men on two ships and set sail for Brazil This may be because when he returned from Africa,
in October 1534, accompanied by his wife, probably Coutinho had bought a mansion in Alenquer, becoming
the first Portuguese woman to set foot there, and her the next-door neighbour of Antônio de Ataíde, the
younger brother, Jerônimo de Albuquerque, who was king’s main counsellor. As soon as he received the
to marry the daughter of a local chief. Many were the donation of land, which he most probably had not
difficulties faced by Coelho, most notably attacks from asked for, Coutinho sold everything he owned, and set
both the indigenous tribes and the numerous Portuguese out for Brazil. Historians disagree on his motivation,
outlaws sent out by the king to colonise Brazil. During some portraying him as the typical loyal Renaissance
the almost twenty years Coelho lived there, he wrote knight, while others believe he wanted to found an
regularly to the king asking for help and advice, never independent kingdom in Brazil. He was even accused
to receive an answer. In 1553, he embarked to Lisbon by Duarte de Lemos, another beneficiary of the king,
with his two sons in order to meet the king personally, of considering an alliance with the French in Brazil.
leaving his wife to take care of his estates. He was so Coutinho’s main difficulties in achieving his Brazilian
badly received by the sovereign that he died a few days dream, however, came from the king himself, in the
after the infamous meeting. Dona Brita stayed in Brazil shape of shiploads of outlaw settlers who often allied
until her death in 1584. She was the first woman ever to with the locals to sack and destabilise the domains of
hold a position of government in the Americas. the official appointees. These included two fidalgos, Dom
Simão de Castelo Branco and Dom Jorge de Meneses.
Vasco Fernandez Coutinho
Born in Serpa in 1490, Coutinho travelled to India
for the first time at the age of eighteen. In 1511, he
took part in the invasion of Melaka, during which he
showed immense courage, ‘charging against a herd of
fencing elephants holding swords in their trunks’. Thanks to
this performance, Coutinho was named alcaide-mor of
Ormuz in 1514, a position he occupied for ten years.
In 1527 he was sent to Morocco to protect Portuguese
forts against the Muslim attack. Coutinho was already a
rich man when he decided to return to Lisbon in 1528
and ‘rest from the weariness of the Orient’. Although he
kept a distance from Court intrigues during this period,
Coutinho’s name is one of the twelve named in the list

49

Flor de la Mar

Built in Lisbon for the Portuguese-India run, Flor de and Melaka. As a cargo ship, however, she left a lot
la Mar took her maiden voyage in 1502. Throughout to be desired, proving to be dangerously difficult to
her nine years of service, which was a lot for a manoeuvre when fully loaded. On two occasions,
carrack at the time, compared to the average of four Flor de la Mar was stranded in the currents off the
years, she carried important Portuguese navigators, coast of Mozambique, and only ever completed one
such as Estevão da Gama, cousin of Vasco da full Portugal-India run. Despite this, the ship served
Gama; João da Nova, who lent his name to islands as a model upon which to improve shipbuilding and
in the Mozambique Channel and the Seychelles; to refine navigation routes. She eventually became
Francisco de Almeida, first viceroy of Portuguese the prototype of the 16th century India-run carrack.
India; and of course, Afonso de Albuquerque. In 1511, loaded with treasure looted from the palace
of the sultan of Melaka and carrying more than 400
With a cargo capacity of 400 tons, she was the largest men, the Flor de la Mar sank off the coast of North
carrack of her time. In her capacity as warship, she
participated in the battles of Muscat, Ormuz, Diu Sumatra. w

The former had lost the king’s favour after serving in and they were often used as propaganda to justify the
Morocco and the latter had committed terrible atrocities costly investments of the king’s expeditions. Historical
in the Moluccas, for which he had been thrown into jail. facts, however, show that reality was somewhat
In 1539, when Vasco Fernandes Coutinho left Brazil
for Lisbon on a trip to find sponsors for a gold mining different. w
project, de Meneses proceeded to govern using the
same methods he had employed in Asia, but was killed
by a local poisoned arrow. In 1546, Coutinho returned
to Brazil to find his property destroyed and abandoned.
He became addicted to alcohol and local tobacco and
suffered from hallucinations. Coutinho died in 1561,
poor to the point of having to beg for food.

The fascinating accomplishments of Portuguese “The Giant Adamastor”, painting on tiles. Adamastor
navigators in the early 16th century opened up worlds is a personification of The Cape of Good Hope in
and riches hitherto unknown to Europeans. A mix of “The Lusiads” (1572), an epic poem by Portuguese
ambition and bravery, coupled with the narratives of
their lives as told by famous Portuguese writers such as writer Luís de Camões.
Luís de Camões (The Lusiads), made them into legends,

50