Robert K. Merton - Social Theory and Social Structure (Enlarged Edition)-Free Press (1968)

the Journal des Scavans, Feb. 25, 1675. This led to the notorious dispute between Hooke and
Oldenburg, who defended Huyghens' priority in actual construction. It is of some interest, in
connection with the question of pecuniary motivation, that Hooke, at the meeting of the Society
following that at which Huyghens' communication concerning his "new pocket watch" was read,
mentioned "that he had an invention for finding the longitude to a minute of time, or fifteen
minutes in the heavens, which he would make out and render practical, if a due compensation
were to be had for it." Whereupon Sir James Shaen promised "that he would procure for him a
thousand pounds sterling in a sum, or a hundred and fifty pounds per annum. Mr. Hooke
declaring that he would choose the latter, the council pressed him to draw up articles accordingly,
and to put his invention into act." Cf. Birch, op. cit., III, 191. For further details, see Waller, op.
cit., Introduction.((/footnote))

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Wren and others of their company, he would "discourse about Celestial' Motions" over a pot of
tea while at nearby tables more mundane speculations engrossed the attention of stock-jobbers
and lottery touts. Problems considered at Garaways were often made the object of special inquiry
by the Society. In short, the prevailing picture is not that of a group of "economic men" jointly or
severally seeking to improve their economic standing, but one of a band of curious students
cooperatively delving into the arcana of nature. The demands of economically-derived needs
posed new questions and emphasized old, opening up fresh avenues of research and coupling
with this a persistent pressure for the solution of these problems. This proved largely effective
since the scientist's sense of achievement was not exclusively in terms of scientific criteria.
Scientists were not immune from the interest in social acclaim, and discoveries which promised
profitable application were heralded far beyond the immediate circle of virtuosi. Scientific
achievement carried with it the seldom-undesired privilege of mingling with persons of rank; it
was, to some extent, a channel for social mobility. The case of Graunt is well-known. Similarly,
Hooke, the son of a humble curate of Fresh-water, found himself the friend of noblemen and
could boast of frequent chats with the King. The untutored reactions of the laity to the different
orders of scientific research might be represented by the contrasting responses of Charles II to the
"weighing of ayre," the fundamental work on atmospheric pressure which to his limited mind
seemed nothing but childish diversion and idle amusement, and to directly utilitarian re-searches
on finding the longitude at sea, with which he was "most graciously pleased." Attitudes such as
these served to guide a consider-able part of scientific work into fields which might bear
immediate fruit.29

A CASE: PROBLEM OF THE LONGITUDE

This engrossing problem of finding the longitude perhaps illustrates best the way in which
practical considerations focused scientific interest upon certain fields. There can be no doubt that
the contemporary astronomers were thoroughly impressed with the importance of discovering a
satisfactory way of finding the longitude, particularly at sea. Time and time again they evince this
predominant interest. Rooke, Wren, Hooke, Huyghens, Henry Bond, Hevelius, William
Molineux, Nicolaus Mercator, Leibniz, Newton, Flamsteed, Halley, La Hire, G. D. Cassini,
Borelli-

((footnote))29. In this connection, see Adam Anderson's remarks on the Royal
Society:((/footnote))

.. its improvements in astronomy and geography are alone sufficient to exalt its reputation, and to
demonstrate its great utility even to the mercantile world, without insisting on its many and great
improvements in other arts and sciences, some of which have also a relation to commerce,
navigation, manufactures, mines, agriculture, &c.," Origin of Commerce, II, 609.

((669))

practically all of the leading astronomers and virtuosi of the day repeatedly testify to this fact.

The various methods proposed for finding longitude led to the fol-lowing investigations:

1. Computation of lunar distances from the sun or from a fixed star. First widely used in the first
half of the sixteenth century and again in the latter seventeenth century.

2. Observations of the eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter. First proposed by Galileo in 1610;
adopted by Rooke, Halley, G. D. Cassini, Flamsteed and others.

3. Observations of the moon's transit of the meridian. Generally current in the seventeenth
century.

4. The use of pendulum clocks and other chronometers at sea, aided by Huyghens, Hooke,
Halley, Messy, Sully, and others.

Newton clearly outlined these procedures, as well as the scientific problems which they involved,
upon the occasion of Ditton's claim of the reward for an accurate method of determining
longitude at sea3° The profound interest of English scientists in this subject is marked by an
article in the first volume of the Philosophical Transactions, describing the use of pendulum
clocks at sea.31 As Sprat put it, the Society had taken the problem "into its peculiar care" Hooke
attempted to improve the pendulum clock and, as he says, "the success of these [trials] made me
further think of improving it for finding the Longitude, and .. .

quickly led me to the use of Springs instead of Gravity for the making a Body vibrate in any
posture. . . ."32 A notorious controversy then

raged about Hooke and Huyghens concerning priority in the successful construction of a watch
with spiral balance spring. However the question of priority be settled, the very fact that two such
eminent men of

((footnote))30. William Whiston, Longitude Discovered ( London, 1738), historical
preface.((/footnote))

((footnote))31. Major Holmes, "A Narrative concerning the Success of Pendulum Watches at Sea
for the Longitude," Phil. Trans., 1665, 1, 52-58.((/footnote))

((footnote))32. Richard Waller, The Posthumous Works of Robert Hooke (London, 1705),
Introduction. Galileo had apparently described a pendulum clock in 1641; Huyghens' invention in
1656 was independently conceived. Huyghens went on to invent the watch with a spring
mechanism. See his description of the invention in the Phil. Trans., 1675, 11, 272; reprinted from
the Journal des Sgavans, Feb. 25, 1675. This led to the notorious dispute between Hooke and
Oldenburg, who defended Huyghens' priority in actual construction. It is of some interest, in
connection with the question of pecuniary motivation, that Hooke, at the meeting of the Society
following that at which Huyghens' communication concerning his "new pocket watch" was read,
mentioned "that he had an invention for finding the longitude to a minute of time, or fifteen
minutes in the heavens, which he would make out and render practical, if a due compensation
were to be had for it." Whereupon Sir James Shaen promised that he would procure for him a
thousand pounds sterling in a sum, or a hundred and fifty pounds per annum. Mr. Hooke
declaring that he would choose the latter, the council pressed him to draw up articles accordingly,
and to put his invention into act." Cf. Birch, op. cit., III, 191. For further details, see Waller, op.
cit., Introduction.((/footnote))

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science, among others, focused their attention upon this sphere of inquiry is itself significant.
These simultaneous inventions are a resultant of two forces: the intrinsically scientific one which
provided the theoretical materials employed in solving the problem in hand, and the non-
scientific, largely economic, concern which served to direct, interest toward the general problem.
The limited range of practicable possibilities leads to independent duplicate inventions.

This problem continued to fire scientific research in other directions as well. Thus, Borelli, of the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris (organized at the suggestion of the perspicacious Colbert),
published an offer in both the Journal des Scavans and the Philosophical Transactions to explain
his method of making large glasses for telescopes or even to send glasses to those persons who
were not in a position to make them, so that they might "observe the eclipses of the Satellites of
Jupiter which happen almost every day, and afford so fair a way for establishing the Longitudes
over all the Earth." Moreover, "the Longitudes of places at Sea, Capes, Promontories, and divers
Islands being once exactly known by this means, would doubtless be of great help and
considerable usefulness to Navigation!'"

It is precisely these episodes, with their acknowledged practical implications, which clearly
illustrate the role of utilitarian elements in furthering scientific advance. For it may be said, upon
ample documentary grounds, that Giovanni Domenico Cassini's astronomical discoveries were
largely a result of utilitarian interests. In almost all of Cassini's papers in the Transactions he
emphasizes the value of observing the moons of Jupiter for determining longitude, by means of
the method first suggested by Galileo.34 It is perhaps not too much to say that from

((footnote))33. Phil. Trans., 1676, 11, 691-92.((/footnote))

((footnote))34. See Leonard Olschki, Galileo und seine Zeit (Halle, 1927), 274 and 438, and the
chapter on "Die Briefe fiber geographische Ortbestimmung." This method did not enable
sufficient precision to be of much practical use. In the paper discussing his discovery of an
unusual spot on Jupiter and fixing the period of the planet's rotation, Cassini observes that "a

Travellour ... may make use of it [the rotation) to find the Longitudes of the most remote places
of the earth," Phil. Trans., 1672, 7, 4042. In his discussion of the inequality of the time of rotation
of the spots in different latitudes, he indicates the importance of this fact for a more precise
determination of the longitude, ibid., 1676, 6, 683. The announcement of his discovery of the
third and fourth satellites of Saturn begins thus: "The Variety of wonderful Discoveries, which
have been made this Century in the Heavens, since the invention of the Telescope, and the great
Utility that may possibly be drawn therefrom, for perfecting natural Knowledg, and the Arts
necessary to the Commerce and Society of Mankind, has incited Astronomers more strictly to
Examine, if there were not some-thing considerable that had not been hitherto perceived."
Translated from the Journal des Sgavans, April 22, 1685; reprinted in Phil. Trans., 1696, 16, 79.
In the presentation of Cassini's tables for the eclipses of the first satellites of Jupiter, it is
remarked that beyond doubt observations of these eclipses best enable the use of portable
telescopes for finding the longitude. "And could these satellites be observed at Sea, a Ship at Sea
might be enabled to find the Meridian she was in, by help of the tables Monsieur Cassini has
given us in this volume [Recueuil d'observations((/footnote))

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this interest derived his discovery of the rotation of Jupiter, the double ring of Saturn, and the
third, fourth, fifth, sixth and eighth satellites of Saturn35 for, as he suggests, astronomical
observations of this sort were "incited" because of their practical implications. Lawrence Rooke,
who was one of the original company constituting the Royal Society, often noted the "nautical
value" of these observations.36 Flamsteed frequently noticed the usefulness of observing the
satellites of Jupiter, because their eclipses "have been esteemed, and certainly are a much better
expedient for the discovery of the Longitude than any yet known."37

Newton was likewise deeply interested in the same general problem. Early in his career, he wrote
a now famous letter of advice to his friend, Francis Aston, who was planning a trip on the
Continent, in which he suggested among other particulars that Aston "inform himself whether
pendulum clocks be of any service in finding out the longitude." In a correspondence which we
have reason to believe ultimately led Newton to the completion of the Principia, both Halley and
Hooke urged New-ton to continue certain phases of his research because of its utility for
navigation.38

faites en plusieurs Voiages pour perfectionner l'Astronomie & la Geographie}, dis-covering with
very great exactness the said Eclipses, beyond what we can yet hope to do by the Moon, tho' she
seem to afford us the only means Practicable for the Seaman. However before Saylors can make
use of the Art of finding the Longitude, it will be requisite that the Coast of the whole Ocean be
first laid down truly, for which this Method by the Satellites is most apposite: And it may be
discovered, by the time the Charts are compleeted; or else that some Invention of shorter
Telescopes manageable on Ship-board may suffice to shew the Eclipses of the Satellites at Sea.

," Phil. Trans., 1694, 17, 237-38. The latter part of this quotation definitely and lucidly illustrates
the way in which scientific and technical research was "called forth" by practical needs. Worthy
of note is the fact that Halley was commissioned by the Admiralty "to continue the Meridian as
often as conveniently may be from side to side of the Channell, in order to lay down both coasts

truly against one an-other" as well as to observe "the Course of the Tides in the Channell of
England.

." See his letter of June 11, 1701 to Burchett in Correspondence and Papers of Edmond Halley,
edited by E. F. MacPike (Oxford, 1932). 117-18.

((footnote))35. The third ( Tethys) and fourth (Dione) satellites were discovered in 1684; the fifth
(Rhea) in 1672; the sixth (Titan) and eighth (Japetus) in 1671.((/footnote))

((footnote))36. See "Mr. Rook's Discourse concerning the Observations of the Eclipses of the
Satellites of Jupiter," reprinted in Sprat, op. cit., 183-90. Booke was Gresham professor of
astronomy from 1652 to 1657 and Gresham professor of geometry from 1657 until his death in
1662.((/footnote))

((footnote))37. Phil. Trans., 1683, 12, 322. Flamsteed elaborated this view more pointedly in
other papers on the same subject. See Phil. Trans., 1685, 15, 1215; XVI (1686), p. 199; XIII
(1683), p. 405-7. In passing it might be noted that Leibniz invented a portable watch "principally
designed for the finding of the longitude." See his paper in Phil. Trans., 675, 10, 285-
88.((/footnote))

((footnote))38. This is the type of evidence which G. N. Clark overlooks entirely when he writes
that "the one piece of evidence which can be adduced to show that during his great creative
period he [Newton} was actuated by an interest in technology is the letter to Francis Aston . . .,"
op. cit., 67. See Hooke's letter to Newton ( Jan. 6, 1680) in which he writes: ". . the finding out
the proprietys of a curve made by two such principles [one of which was the hypothesis of
attraction varying inversely((/footnote))

((672))

In 1694, Newton sent his well-known letter to Nathanael Hawes out-lining a new course of
mathematical reading for the neophyte navigators in Christ's Hospital, in which he criticized the
current course, saying in part, that "the finding the difference of Longitude, Amplitude, Azimuts,
and variation of the compass is also omitted, tho these things are very useful in long voyages,
such as are those to the East Indies, and a Mariner who knows them not is an ignorant."39 In
August, 1699, Newton made public an improved form of his sextant ( independently invented by
Hadley in 1731), which in conjunction with lunar observations might enable the finding of the
longitude at sea. He had already presented the initial outlines of his lunar theory in the first
edition of the Principia. Furthermore, it was upon Newton's recommendation that the Act of 1714
was passed for a reward to those persons who should devise a successful method for ascertaining
longitude at sea.40 In the course of these activities, Newton was demonstrating his awareness of
the utilitarian implications not only of much of his own scientific work, but also that of his
contemporaries.

Newton's lunar theory was the climactic outcome of scientific concentration on this subject. As
Whewell suggests,

The advancement of astronomy would perhaps have been a sufficient motive for this labour; but
there were other reasons which would urge it on with a stronger impulse. A perfect Lunar
Theory, if the theory could be perfected, promised to supply a method of finding the Longitude of
any place on the earth's surface; and thus the verification of a theory which professed to be
complete in its foundations, was identified with an object of immediate practical use to navigators
and geographers, and of vast acknowledged value 41

Halley, who had decided that the various methods of determining

as the square of the distance!] will be of great conceme to mankind because the invention of the
longitude by the heavens is a necessary consequence of it." See the letter in W. W. Rouse Ball,
An Essay on Newton's Principa (London, 1893) 147. Likewise, Halley, in his letter of July 5,
1687, writes: "I hope . . . you will attempt the perfection of the Lunar Theory, which will be of
prodigious use in navigation, as well as of profound and subtle speculation." Complete letter is
quoted ibid., 174.

((footnote))39. Newton's letters to Hawes are published in J. Edleston, Correspondence of Sir
Isaac Newton and Professor Cotes (London, 1850), 279-99. An examination of the scientific
preparation which Newton deemed necessary for a properly trained mariner finds that it includes
a smattering of a substantial part of the physical re-search most prominently prosecuted during
this period. In the list Newton mentions the subjects and problems with which not only he was
chiefly concerned in the course of his own scientific career, but also his confreres. He indicates
further that he was far from unaware of the practical bearings of the greater part of his abtruse
discussions in the Principia; for example, his theory of the tides, the determination of the
trajectory of projectiles, the lunar theory, his work in hydrostatics and
hydrodynamics.((/footnote))

((footnote))40. Edleston, op. cit., LXXVI. The importance attributed to the solution of this
problem may be gauged from the rewards offered by other governments as well. The Dutch had
sought to persuade Galileo to apply his talents to its solution; Philip III of Spain also offered a
reward and in 1716, the Regent Duke of Orleans established a prize of 100,000 francs for the
discovery of a practical method.((/footnote))

((footnote))41. William Whewell. History of the Inductive Sciences (New York, 1858), I,
434.((/footnote))

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longitude were all defective and had declared that "it would be scarce possible ever to find the
Longitude at sea sufficient for sea uses, till such time as the Lunar Theory be fully perfected,"
constantly prompted New-ton to continue his work 42 Flamsteed, and (from 1691 to 1739)
Halley, also endeavored to rectify the lunar tables sufficiently to attain "the great object, of
finding the Longitude with the requisite degree of exactness." Observations of the eclipses of the
moon were recommended by the Royal Society for the same purpose.43

Another field of investigation which received added attention be-cause of its probable utility is
the study of the compass and magnetism in general. Thus, Sprat specifically relates such

investigations by Wren to current needs when he states that "in order to Navigation he [Wren] has
carefully pursu'd many Magnetical Experiments."44 Wren himself, in his inaugural address as
Gresham professor of astronomy, strikes the same keynote. The study of the magnetic variation is
to be pursued diligently for it may prove of great value to the navigator, who may thus be enabled
to find the longitude, "than which former Industry hath hardly left any Thing more glorious to be
aim'd at in Art."45 La Hire, remarking that nothing is so troublesome on long sea voyages as the
variation of the needle, states that "this put me upon finding out some means independent from
Observations to discover the variations at Sea:'46 Henry Bond, Hevelius, Molineux and Mercator
were likewise interested in the study of magnetic phenomena with the same general aim in
view.47 Halley, in the famous paper in which he made known his theory of four magnetic poles
and of the periodic movement of the magnetic line without declination, emphasized repeatedly
the utilitarian desirability of studying the variation of the compass, for this research "is of that
great concernment in the Art of Navigation: that the neglect thereof, does little less than render
useless one of the noblest Inventions mankind has ever yet attained to." This great utility, he
argues, seems a sufficient incitement "to all philosophical and Mathematical heads, to take under
serious consideration the several Phenomena...." He presents his new hypothesis in order to stir
up the natural philosophers of the age that they might "apply themselves more attentively to this
useful speculation!'" Apparently the currently assiduous work in this field was not sufficient to
satisfy his standards. It was for the purpose of enriching this useful speculation that Halley was
given the rank of a captain in the

((footnote))42. Correspondence and Papers of Edmond Halley, 212.((/footnote))

((footnote))43. Phil. Trans., 1693, 17, 453-54.((/footnote))

((footnote))44. History of the Royal-Society, 315-16.((/footnote))

((footnote))45. Christopher Wren, Parentalia (London, 1750), 206.((/footnote))

((footnote))46. Phil. Trans., 1687, 16, 344-50.((/footnote))

((footnote))47. See Phil. Trans., passim; e.g., 1668, 3, 790; 1670, 5, 2059; 1674, 8,
6065.((/footnote))

((footnote))48. "A Theory of the Variation of the Magnetical Compass," Phil. Trans., XIII 1883,
13, 208-21. See also his addendum, ibid., 1693, 17, 563-78.((/footnote))

((674))

navy and the command of the Paramour Pink in which he made three voyages. One outcome was
Halley's construction of the first isogonic map.

Thus we are led to see that the scientific problems emphasized by the manifest value of a method
for finding longitude were manifold. If the scientific study of various possible means of achieving
this goal was not invariably dictated by the practical utility of the desired result, it is clear that at
least part of the continued diligence exercised in these fields had this aim. In the last analysis it is

impossible to determine with exactitude the extent to which practical concern focused scientific
attention upon certain problems. What can be conscionably suggested is a certain correspondence
between the subjects most intensively investigated by the contemporary men of science and the
problems raised or emphasized by economic developments. It is an inference—usually sup-
ported by the explicit statements of the scientists themselves—that these economic requirements
or, more properly, the technical needs deriving from these requirements, directed research into
particular channels. The finding of the longitude was one problem which, engrossing the attention
of many scientists, fostered profound developments in astronomy, geography, mathematics,
mechanics, and the invention of clocks and watches.

NAVIGATION AND SCIENCE

Another navigational problem of the period was determining the time of the tides. As Flamsteed
indicated in a note appended to his first tide-table, the error in the almanacs amounted to about
two hours; hence a scientific correction was imperative for the Royal Navy and navigators
generally.49 Accordingly, from time to time, he drew up several tide-tables accommodated to
ports not only in England but also in France and Holland. This work was the continuation of an
interest in providing a theory of the tides emphasized by the Royal Society from its very
inception. The first volume of the Transactions included several papers presenting observations
of the time of the tides in various ports. Boyle, Samuel Colepresse, Joseph Childrey, Halley,
Henry Powle, and most notably, John Wallis made contributions to this subject.

Newton took up the task as a further basis for the verification of the general law of attraction and,
as Thomson remarks, "his theory of the tides is not less remarkable either for the sagacity
involved, or for its importance to navigation." His theory accounted for the most evident aspects
of the tides: the differences between the spring and neap tides and the morning and evening tides,
the effect of the moon's and sun's declination and parallax, and the tides at particular places,
making use of the observations of Halley, Colepresse and others to check his cal-

((footnote))49. Phil. Trans., 1683, 13, 10-15; for later tables see ibid., 1684, 14, 458 and 821;
1685, 15, 1226; 1686, 16. 232 and 428.((/footnote))

((675))

culated results.80 Halley, seelcing as always to minister to the marriage of theory and practice,
was not slow to inform the Lord High Admiral of the "generall use to all shipping" to be derived
from these researches.61 It was not, however, until the work of Euler, Bernoulli and D'Alembert,
and later of Laplace, Lubbock and Airy, that the theory could be applied with sufficient precision
to promise service for practical purposes. Again, one can correlate scientific interests—in this
instance, the study of so esoteric a subject as the theory of attraction—with economic exigencies.

Another problem of grave concern for maritime affairs was the depletion of forest preserves to
the point that eventually unseasoned wood had to be used in the construction of ships. Timber
had become relatively scarce, both because of its use as fuel and its rapid consumption in the
naval wars and in the rebuilding of London. The solution to the fuel problem was partially solved
by the use of coal for various industries—such as brass and copper casting, brewing, dyeing and
ironware, though not for the production of raw iron. The depletion of timber so jeopardized

shipbuilding that the commissioners of the Royal Navy ap-pealed to the Society for suggestions
concerning the "improvement and planting of timber." Evelyn, Goddard, Merret, Winthrop, Ent
and Willughby contributed their botanical knowledge toward the solution of this problem, their
individual papers being incorporated in Evelyn's well-known Sylva. Not unrelated to such
practical urgencies, then, is the fact that one of the "chief activities" of the Society was the
"propagating of trees." Furthermore, says Sprat, the members of the Society "have employ'd
much time in examining the Fabrick of ships, the forms of their Sails, the shapes of their Keels,
the sorts of Timber, the planting of Firr, the bettering of Pitch, and Tarr, and Tackling."52 This
led not only to the study of silviculture and allied botanical studies, but also to investigations in
mechanics, hydrostatics and hydrodynamics. For as Newton noted in his letters to Hawes, the
solution of such problems as the determination of the stress of ropes and timber, the power of
winds and tides and the resistance of fluids to immersed bodies of varying shapes would be of
great utility for the mariner.

Moreover, when one compares the requisites of a man-of-war as enumerated by Sir Walter
Ralegh in his Observations on the Navy at the beginning of the century with the types of research
conducted by the Society, it becomes apparent that all the major problems had become the object
of scientific study. Ralegh lists six desirable qualities of a fighting ship: strong build, speed, stout
scantling, ability to fight the guns in all weathers, ability to lie easily in a gale, and ability to stay
well. Contemporary scientists attempted to devise means of satisfying all these

((footnote))50. Principia Mathematica (London, 1713; second edition), Bk. III, Prop. XXIV,
XXXVI and XXXVII.((/footnote))

((footnote))51. Correspondence, 116.((/footnote))

((footnote))52. Sprat, op. cit., 150.((/footnote))

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requirements. In many instances they were led to solve derivative problems in "pure science" in
the prospect of using their knowledge for these purposes. Thus, Goddard, Petty and Wren
investigated methods of ship-building with the object of improving existing procedures. Hooke
was ordered by the Society to determine the most "stout scantling" by testing the resistance of the
"same kinds of wood, of several ages, grown in several places, and cut at different seasons of the
year."53 At times in cooperation with Boyle, Hooke performed numerous experiments to "try the
strength of wood," and of twisted and untwisted cords. These experiments were in progress at the
time Hooke arrived at the law which bears his name (ut tensio sic cis. )

In order to discover ways of increasing the speed of ships, it is necessary to study the movement
of bodies in a resistant medium, one of the basic tasks of hydrodynamics.b4 Accordingly, Moray,
Goddard, Brouncker, Boyle, Wren and Petty were concerned with this problem.55 In this
instance, the connection between a given technical task and the appropriate "purely scientific"
investigation is explicit. Petty, at the time he wrote that "the fitts of the Double-Bottome [ship) do
return very fiercely upon mee," experimented in hydrodynamics to determine the velocity of
"swimming bodies." The general connection is established by Sprat in his description of the
instruments of the Society:

[There are] several instruments for finding the velocity of swimming Bodies of several Figures,
and mov'd with divers strengths, and for trying what Figures are least apt to be overturn'd, in
order to the making of a true theory, of the Forms of Ships, and Boats for all uses.b6

Christopher Wren, who was for Newton one of "the greatest Geometers of our times," also
investigated the laws of hydrodynamics precisely because of their possible utility for improving
the sailing qualities of ships.57 And Newton, after stating his theorem on the manner in which the
resistance of a fluid medium depends upon the form of the body

((footnote))53. Birch, op. cit., I, 460.((/footnote))

((footnote))54. Cf. Hessen, op. cit., 158-59.((/footnote))

((footnote))55. The Petty-Southwell Correspondence, ed. by the Marquis of Lansdowne (London,
1928), 117; Birch, op. cit., I, 87.((/footnote))

((footnote))56. Sprat, op. cit., 250. See Hooke's letter to Boyle in the latter's Works, V,
537.((/footnote))

((footnote))57. "It being a Question amongst the Problems of Navigation, very well worth
resolving, to what Mechanical powers the Sailing (against the wind especially) was reducible; he
[Wren) shew'd it to be a Wedge: And he demonstrated how a transient Force upon an oblique
Plane, would cause the motion of the Plane against the first Mover. And he made an Instrument,
that Mechanically produc'd the same effect, and shew'd the reason of Sayling to all
Winds.((/footnote))

"The Geometrical Mechanics of Rowing, he shew'd to be a Vectis on a moving or cedent
Fulcrum. For this end he made Instruments, to find what the expansion of Body was towards the
hindrance of Motion in a Liquid Medium; and what degree of impediment was produc'd by what
degree of expansion: with other things that are the necessary Elements for laying down the
Geometry of Sailing, Swimming, Rowing, Flying, and the Fabricks of Ships." Sprat, op. cit., 316.
Once again we see how the immediate technical aim leads to the study of derivative problems in
science.

((677))

moving in it, adds: "which proposition I conceive may be of use in the building of ships.."5s

The Society maintained a continued interest in under-water contrivances, ranging from diving
bells to Hooke's proposal of a full-fledged submarine which would move as fast as a wherry on
the Thames. A committee on diving considered leaden "diving boxes" and Halley's "diving bell,"
which were tested in the Thames and, with more convenience to the spectators than the diver, in a
tub set up at one of their weekly meetings. Wilkins laid great stress on the feasibility and
advantage of submarine navigation which would be of undoubted use in warfare, would obviate
the uncertainty of tides and might be used to recover sunken treasures.59 Hooke linked many of
his experiments on respiration with technical problems deriving from such efforts.

Wilkins introduced the "umbrella anchor" to the Society; a device "to stay a ship in a storm."
Wren proposed "a convenient way of using artillery on ship-board," and Halley, pointing out that
England "must be masters of the Sea, and superior in navall force to any neighbour," described a
method of enabling a ship to carry its guns in bad weather 80 Petty, fondly hoping "to pursue the
improvement of shipping upon new principles," built several of his double-bottomed boats with
which the Society was well pleased. Unfortunately, his most ambitious effort, the St. Michael the
Archangel, failed miserably, which led him to conclude that both the fates and the King were
opposed to him.

The Society periodically discussed means of preserving ships "from worms," a problem which
proved greatly disturbing both to the commissioners of the Royal Navy and to private
shipowners. Newton had evidenced interest in this same vexing problem, asking Aston to deter-
mine "whether the Dutch have any tricks to keep their ships from being all worm-eaten." No
appreciable progress resulted from these discussions, however.

In general, then, it may be said that the seventeenth century men of science, ranging from the
indefatigable virtuoso Petty to the nonpareil Newton, definitely focused their attention upon
technical tasks made urgent by problems of navigation and upon derivative scientific research.
The latter category is difficult to delimit. Although it is true

((footnote))58. Principia Mathematica, Bk. II, Sect. VII, Prop. XXXIV, Scholium. To my
knowledge, Newton's remark has not been noticed heretofore in this connection. It reads: "Qum
quidem propositionem in construendis Navibus non inutilem futuram ease censeo."((/footnote))

((footnote))59. John Wilkins, Mathematical Magick ( London, 1707; 5th edition), Ch. 5. As early
as 1551, Tartaglia had suggested a largely effective means for raising sunken ships to the water's
surface. Several patents had been granted for "diving engines" since at least 1631. By the help of
one of these devices "and good luck," says Ander-son, Sir William Phipps "fished up" nearly
200,000 pounds sterling in pieces of eight from a Spanish fleet which had been sunk off the West
Indies. See Origin of Commerce, III, 73. Hooke and Halley, as well as several others, responded
to this success with new devices for recovering treasures from the deep.((/footnote))

((footnote))60. Wren, Parentalia, 240; Correspondence . . . of Halley, 165.((/footnote))

((678))

that a congeries of scientific research may be immediately traced to technical requirements, it
appears equally evident that some of this research is a logical development of foregoing scientific
advance. It is indubitable, however, in the light of what the scientists themselves had to say about
the practical implications of their work, that practical problems exercised an appreciable directive
influence. Even that "purest" of disciplines, mathematics, was of primary interest to Newton
when de-signed for application to physical problems.61

Some attention was likewise paid to inland transportation although to a less extent than to
maritime transport, possibly because of the greater economic significance of the latter. The
growing interior traffic demanded considerable improvement. Such improvements, said Defoe,
are "a great help to Negoce, and promote universal Correspondence without which our Inland

Trade could not be managed."82 Travelling merchants, who might carry as much as a thousand
pounds of cloth, extended their trade all over England,63 and required improved facilities.
Because of the "great increase of carts, waggons, &c., by the general increase of our commerce,"
says Adam Anderson, the King (somewhat optimistically, no doubt) ordered in 1662 that all
common highways be enlarged to eight yards. Characteristically, contemporary scientists also
sought to overcome technical difficulties. Petty, with his keen interest in economic affairs,
devised several chariots guaranteed to "passe rocks, precipices, and crooked ways."64 Wren
endeavored to perfect coaches for "ease, strength and lightness" and, as did Hooke, invented a
"way-wiser" to register the distance travelled by a carriage.66 Wilkins, possibly fol-lowing
Stevin's invention of a half century earlier, described a "sailing Chariot, that may without Horses
be driven on the Land by the Wind, as ship are on the Sea?'" Likewise, the Society delegated
Hooke, at his own suggestion, to carry on "the experiment of land-carriage, and of a speedy
conveying of intelligence:'67 Such efforts indicate the attempts of scientists to contribute
technological props to business enterprise; in these particular instances to facilitate the possible
extension of markets, one of the primary requirements of a nascent capitalism.

((footnote))61. E. A. Burtt, The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science,
210.((/footnote))

((footnote))62. D {Øel) D [efoe}, Essays upon Several Projects (London, 1702), 73
if.((/footnote))

((footnote))63. Daniel Defoe, Tour of Great Britain, (London, 1727), III, 119-20.((/footnote))

((footnote))64. Petty-Southwell Correspondence, 41, 51 and 125. "And it seems to
me((/footnote))

(writes Petty) that this carriage can afford to carry fine goods between Chester and

London for lesse than 3d in the pound." With all due honesty, Petty admits that this

"Toole is not exempt from being overthrown," but adds comfortingly, "but if it

should bee overthrowne (even upon a heape of flints) I cannot see how the Rider

can have any harme."

((footnote))65. Parentalia, 199, 217 and 240.((/footnote))

((footnote))66. Wilkins, op. cit., Bk. II, Ch. 2.((/footnote))

((footnote))67. Birch, op. cit., I, 379 and 385; Hooke, Diary, 418. This subject was dis-cussed at
some fifteen meetings of the Society within a three-year period.((/footnote))

((679))

THE EXTENT OF ECONOMIC INFLUENCE

In a sense, the foregoing discussion provides materials which only illustrate the connections we
have been tracing. We have still to deter-mine the extent to which socio-economic influences
were operative. The minutes of the Royal Society as transcribed in Birch's History of the Royal
Society provide one basis for such a study. A feasible, though in several obvious respects
inadequate, procedure consists of a classification and tabulation of the researches discussed at
these meetings, together with an examination of the context in which the various problems came
to light. This should afford some ground for deciding the approximate extent to which extrinsic
factors operated.

Meetings during the four years 1661, 1662, 1686 and 1687 will be considered. There is no reason
to suppose that these did not witness meetings typical of the general period. The classification
employed is empirical rather than logically ordered. Items were classified as "directly related" to
socio-economic demands when the individual conducting the research explicitly indicated some
such connection or when the immediate discussion of the research evidenced a prior appreciation
of such a relation. Items classified as "indirectly related" comprise researches which had a clear-
cut connection with current practical needs, intimated in the context, but which were not
definitely so related by the investigators. Researches which evidenced no relations of this sort
were classified as "pure science." Many items have been classified in this category which have
(for the present-day observer) a conceivable relation to practical exigencies but which were not
so regarded explicitly in the seventeenth century. Thus, investigations in the field of meteorology
could readily be related to the practical desirability of forecasting the weather but when these
researches were not explicitly related to specific practical problems they were classified as pure
science. Likewise, much of the work in anatomy and physiology was undoubtedly of value for
medicine and surgery, but the same criteria were employed in the classification of these items. It
is likely, therefore, that if any bias is involved in this classification, it is in the direction of over-
estimating the scope of "pure science."

Each research discussed was "counted" as one "unit." It is obvious that this procedure provides
only a gross approximation to the extent of extrinsic influences upon the selection of subjects for
scientific study, but when greater precision is impossible one must rest temporarily con-tent with
less. The results, as summarized in the following tabulation, can merely suggest the relative
extent of the influences which we have traced in a large number of concrete instances.6S

((footnote))68. For a more complete discussion of the procedure used and a detailed classification
of the categories, see my Science, Technology and Society in Seventeenth-Century England, Ch.
10. Appendix A provides illustrations of the items classified in the various
categories.((/footnote))

((680))

From this tabulation it appears that less than half ( 41.3%) of the investigations conducted during
the four years in question are classifiable as "pure science." If we add to this the items which
were but indirectly related to practical needs, then about seventy per cent of this research had no
explicit practical affiliations. Since these figures are but grossly approximate, the results may be

summarized by saying that from forty to seventy per cent occurred in the category of pure science
and correlatively that from thirty to sixty per cent were influenced by practical requirements.

Again, considering only the research directly related to practical needs, it appears that problems
of marine transport attracted the most attention. This is in accord with the impression that the
contemporary men of science were well aware of the problems raised by England's insular
position—problems both military and commercial in nature—and were eager to rectify them 69
Of almost equal importance was the influence of military exigencies. Not only were there some
fifty years of actual warfare during this century, but also the two great revolutions in English
history. Problems of a military nature left their impress upon the culture of the period, including
scientific development.

Likewise, mining which developed so markedly during this period, as we may see from the
studies of Nef and other economic historians, had an appreciable influence. In this instance, the
greater part of scientific, if one may divorce it from technologic, research was in the fields of

APPROXIMATE EXTENT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC INFLUENCES UPON

THE SELECTION OF SCIENTIFIC PROBLEMS BY MEMBERS OF

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, 1661-62 AND 1686-87

Total for the four years

Number Per cent

Pure Science 333 41.3

Science related to socio-economic needs 473 58.7

Marine transport 129 16.0

Directly related 69 8.6

Indirectly related 60 7.4

Mining 166 20.6

Directly related 25 3.1

Indirectly related 141 17.5

Military technology 87 10.8

Directly related 58 7.2

Indirectly related 29 3.6

Textile industry 26 3.2

General technology and husbandry 65 8.1

TOTAL 806 100.0

((footnote))69. See, for example, Edmond Halley's observation: "that the Inhabitants of an Island,
or any State that would defend an Island, must be masters of the Sea, and superior in navall force
to any neighbor that shall think fitt to attack it, is what I suppose needs no argument to enforce."
In his paper read before the Royal Society and reprinted in Correspondence ... of Halley, 164-
65.((/footnote))

((681))

mineralogy and metallurgy with the aim of discovering new utilizable ores and new methods of
extracting metals from the ore.

It is relevant to note that, in the latter years considered in this summary, there was an increasing
proportion of investigation in the field of pure science. A conjectural explanation is not far to
seek. It is probable that at the outset the members of the Society were anxious to justify their
activities (to the Crown and the lay public generally) by obtaining practical results as soon as
possible; therefore, the initially marked orientation toward practical problems. Furthermore,
many of the problems which were at first advisedly investigated because of their utilitarian
importance may later be studied with no awareness of their practical implications. On the basis of
the (perhaps biased) criteria adopted in this compilation, some of the later researches would
arbitrarily be classified as pure science.

On the grounds afforded by this study it seems justifiable to assert that the range of problems
investigated by seventeenth century English scientists was appreciably influenced by the socio-
economic structure of the period.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

I am indebted to the f ollowing editors and publishers for permission to reprint the papers in this
volume:

Editors of the American Sociological Review

"The bearing of empirical research upon the development of social theory," 1948, volume 13.

Editors of the American Journal of Sociology "Sociological theory," 1945, volume 50.

Harper and Brothers

"Social structure and anomie," from The Family: Its Function and Destiny, Ruth N. Anshen
(editor), 1949.

"Patterns of influence: a study of interpersonal influence and of communications behavior in a
local community," from Communications Research 1948-49, Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Frank
Stanton (editors), 1949.

Editors of Social Forces

"Bureaucratic structure and personality," 1940, volume 18.

"The role of the intellectual in public bureaucracy," 1945, volume 23.

Editors of the Antioch Review

"The self-fulfilling prophecy," Summer 1948.

The Philosophical Library

"The sociology of knowledge," from Twentieth Century Sociology, G. Gurvitch and W. E.
Moore (editors), 1945.

Editors of the Journal of Liberal Religion

"Karl Mannheim and the sociology of knowledge," 1941, volume 2.

New York Academy of Sciences

"Studies in radio and film propaganda," from Transactions of the New York Academy of
Sciences, 1943, series II, volume 6.

Editors of Philosophy of Science

"Science and the social order," 1938, volume 5.

Editors of the Journal of Legal and Political Sociology

"Science and technology in a democratic order," `1942, volume 1.

Editors of Science

"The machine, the worker and the engineer," 1947, volume 105.

Editors of the Sociological Review

"Puritanism, Pietism and science," 1936, volume 28.

Editors of Science and Society
"Science and the economy of 17th-century England," 1939, volume 3.
Random House
For permission to quote from The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden, 1945.

SUBJECT INDEX

Academic man, role of, 539
Accidie, 242
Accumulation in physical science, 13, 27, 28
and adumbrationism in social science, 23, 28-29, 35
Action, theory of, 43
Adaptation, individual, 193-195 Adumbrations, 8, 17
and anticipations, 12, 25
defined, 13
identification of, 16
and pseudo-anticipations, 19 Aggression, 190, 574
Alienation, 217
process of, 53, 54
Alternative cultural goals, 237, 238 Altruism, 419
Ambiguity, intolerance of, 240-241 Ambivalence, 190
in ex-member of group, 349-350 American dream, 190, 191
Analysis, qualitative, 71
Anarchism, 175
Ancients and moderns, battle between, 19, 21, 31-32

Anhedonia, 243
Anomic factor, 219
Anomic pressures, family influence and, 233-234
Anomics, 216
Anomie, 41, 63, 117, 163, 165, 189, 211-212, 321
acute, 117
class differentials in, 217
distinguished from value-conflict, 244-245
indicators of, 218-220
innovation as response to, 230-234, 235 need for data on, 229-230
objective scale of, 219-220, 229 as part of social processes, 234 psychological concept of, 215-
216
as result of strains of mobility, 235-236ritualism as adaptation to, 239-241 simple, 217
sociological concept of, 215, 216, 217 subjective scale of, 218-219, 229 Anomy, 215-216
Anticipations of scientific discoveries, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 17, 18, 25, 33n
and adumbrations, 12, 17, 20, 25 defined, 13
and pseudo-anticipations, 15 identification of, 16
and prediscoveries, 19
Anticipatory socialization, 319-322, 344, 359, 438, 439
in context of mobility, 347
processes curbing, 323-324, 325 Anti-intellectualism, 393, 394
Anxiety, in de-grouping process, 328, 329 Apathy, 243-244
Aristocracy, 273
A-socialization, 324

Assimilation, 333
Attitude scales, 170
Audience, 536
in communications research, 504-506 measurement, 505
and social bases of knowledge, 536-537
Authority, in group, 393-394, 395, 396, 400-401, 402, 404, 407
Authority, theory of, 41
Autism, 413
Autonomy, group, 376
Behavior, deviant, see Deviant behavior Behavior, social, 175, 176, 194
Biological drives, 185, 186
Boomerang effect, in propaganda, 571-575
Boss, political, 126-130
Bourgeoisie, 245-247, 531
Breakage effect, 388
Bureaucracy, 179, 250, 254, 255, 266, 371
(693)
(694)
Bureaucracy (cont.)
discipline in, 252-253, 254 displacement of goals in, 253-255 dysfunctions of, 251-254
as formal organization, 258-259
norm of personality in, 256-257
and personality types in, 259-260 power in, 249

as rationally organized social structure, 249-250
secrecy in, 251
theories of, 61
trained incapacity in, 251-252, 256-257 Bureaucrat, relations with public, 256-258
Bureaucratic dysfunctions, 178 Bureaucratic personality, 177-178 Bureaucratic structure, 177-
178 Bureaucratic virtuosos, 239 Bureaucratization, 250-251
Business class culture, 191-192
Categories, 501-534
morphological, 549
social, definition of, 353-354
of thought, social basis of, 526-529, 533-534, 543-544
Catholics, and science, 647-649, 656 Ceremonials, 110, 118-119
social, 110, 118-119
Change, cultural, 101
social, 94, 101, 135, 176-177
structural, 94
Civilization, 26
Class, social, 26n, 97
and anomie, 217
conflict, 68, 262
and ideology, 516-517, 530-533, 537 middle, 245-246, 531
and religion, 97
structure, 198-199, 200, 201, 545 Classical theory, functions of, 34-37 Classics, in science, 28, 34
in sociology, 28, 34-35

scientists' ambivalence toward, 30 Codification, 69-72, 154-155
defined, 69
of qualitative analysis, 71
Cohesion, social, 315, 369-370, 379 Collective representations, 160-161 Collectivities, 353-354
Communication, of public opinion, 407-408
within group organization, 396, 400, 401, 402, 404-405
Communism, in science, 588, 610-612 Community structure, 458-459 Comparative analysis, 108
Comparative sociology, 64, 108
Completeness of group, 342, 343, 345, 368-369
Compulsive alienation, 349
conformity, 217
Concepts, sociological, 143-147 Conceptual, analysis, 145, 147, 154 clarification, 144-145, 168-
171
lag, 146
Conflict, 190
racial, 477-479, 489-490
of reference groups, 295-299
role, 385
social, 53, 53n, 54, 68
Conformity, 175, 185, 188, 193, 195, 217, 236, 308
and mobility in U.S. Army, 316-319 social, 318
to norms of out-group, 412 Consciousness, false, 313, 333, 506, 531, 547
Consequences, multiple, 105
net balance of, 90, 105

nonfunctional, 51, 105
objective, 105
unanticipated, 105, 115-116, 120 Conservatism, 413
Conspicuous consumption, 112, 123-124 Content analysis, 503, 566-570, 578 Continuities in
social theory, 8-14 Contrary suggestion, 412
Convert, to a group, 323, 350, 406 Correlation, measurement of, 12
Covert cultural patterns, 113-114 Craftown study, 159-161
Crime, 144
and anomie, 230, 231
definitions of, 144
differential rates of, 199-201
in American social structure, 256-258 inadequacies as a blanket concept, 231-233
white-collar, 144, 198
Cultural, goals, 186-188, 190, 193, 194, 195, 203, 207, 209
integration, 520, 535, 556
structure, 216, 218
Culture mentalities, 520-521
Culture, 26, 113-114
pattern, 113-114
popular, 465
sensate, 520
Deduction, 154
Definition of the situation, 474-475, 478, 599
De-grouping process, anxieties in, 329

in replacement depot, 326, 328, 329 Delinquency, juvenile, 231-232, 233
and anomie, 230, 239
(695)
Democracy, ethos of, 365-366 Demographic uniformities, 61 Demoralization, 190
Dependence group, 376 Depersonalization, 256-258
Deprivation, differential, 296 Deprivation, relative, see Relative deprivation
Derivation, formalized, 154, 512 Deviance, 174, 175, 185, 193, 195, 200, 211, 217-218
as adaptation to anomie, 230-234 rates of, 198-199
role played by family in, 212-213 Deviant behavior, 374
alternative goals as curbs on, 237 countervailing mechanisms and, 237 differential rates of, 237
retreatism as, 243
theory of, 61, 413, 414
Deviation from norms, as functional, 236 Dialectical materialism, ideological implications of, 93-
96
Differential association, 260
Discipline
in bureaucracy, 252-253, 254
in factory, 618-619
Discontinuities, of empirical research, 153 of social theory, 8-14
Discoveries, multiple independent, 8, 10, 20, 43n
Discrimination, racial, 372-373 Disinterestedness, in science, 612-614 Dispositions, subjective,
see Motives Dissonance theory, 64
Distrust, reciprocal, 511-512 Dysfunctional consequences of social forms, 90
Dysfunctions, 105-107

definition of, 105
relation to social dynamics, 107
Economic theory of value, 11
Elites, 346, 529, 553
Elmira study, 386-389
Empathy, 436
Empirical generalizations, 66, 149-154 in relation to theory, 150-153
Ends, heterogony of, 253
see also Unanticipated consequences Engineer, as technician, 621-623 Epithets, 258
Erudition, vs. originality, 29-34
scientists' ambivalence toward, 31-33 Ethnocentrism, 351, 482, 573, 607
Ethos, 515
see also Science, ethos of
Eunomic individuals, 220
Ex post facto interpretations, 284
Fallacy, of affirming the consequent, 152 of misplaced concreteness, 560
of unwarranted extrapolation, 559 Family, and deviance, 222-223
Fathers of sciences, 2n
Feedback mechanisms, 178, 374
Focus of attention, 554
Folkways, 373
Formal group, 371, 396
bureaucracy as, 258-259

see also Informal group
Formal organization, 43, 68
Frames of reference, 292, 386, 527 Freudian error, 159
Friendship, 375, 379
Frustration, 194
Function, connotations of, 74-76, 100, 101
distinguished from motives, 115 indispensability of, 96, 100, 101
see also Latent Function and Manifest
Function
Functional, alternatives, 87-90, 106 autonomy, 15-17
consequences, 86, 90
equivalents, 106
prerequisites, 87-88, 90, 102-103, 106 requirement, 106
substitutes, 52
unity, 79-82, 90
Functional analysis, 43, 55, 69
compared to method of dialectical materialism, 93-96
as conservative ideology, 91-92, 93, 96, 108
definition of, 75-77
description of observed pattern in, 109, 112-114
design of studies in, 103-104
logic of procedure in, 102-103 paradigm for, 104-109
postulate of universal functionalism in, 84-86, 90

prevalence in other sciences of, 100-104
problems of validation of, 108
as radical ideology, 92-93
specification of unit in, 84, 90, 106
Gemeinschaft, 371, 447, 526, 535 Generalizations, empirical, see Empirical generalizations
General theoretical orientations, 52, 141-143, 154
Gesellschaft, 271, 447, 526, 535
Goal, of success, 199, 224-230
see also Success
Goal-transmission, 191
(696)
Goals, 200
acceptance of, 229
alternative cultural, 237
and anomie, 256, 263
disenchantment with American, 244 displacement of, 253-254, 255
and institutional norms, 186-194, 195, 203, 207, 209, 211, 213
Group, 315, 339, 353, 354, 377
affiliation, 308, 309, 348
authority in, 393-394, 395, 396, 400, 401, 402, 404, 407
autonomy or dependence, 376-377 completeness of, 342, 343, 345, 368-369
duration and size of, 366-367 membership defined and extended by, 346-347, 364-365
norms and values of, 323-324, 373, 384-385, 406

primary, 18, 114, 121-122, 166, 371, 387, 388-389
rank and power in, 377-378
social processes in, 369-371
selection as reference group, 365 unity, 327
visibility in, 373-376 Group-membership, and conformity, 308 duration of, 365-366
effects of situational changes on, 341-342
eligibility for membership, 343, 344, 351
non-membership as category of, 351 position of ex-members in, 350 psychological aspects of
assimilation
to, 326-327
psychological attachments due to, 348, 349
shifts in, 331
see also Membership
Group-properties, 364-380
problem of measurement of, 379 Grouplessness, 328
Guilt, 190
Hawthorne effect, 20, 120-121 Hawthorne Studies, 120-121
History and systematics of sociological theory, 1-37
History of science, 3, 14, 51
and published record of science, 5, 6, 14
Hopi rain ceremonial, 118, 121 "Humanistic coefficient," 142
Hypotheses, sociological, development of,
142
Ideas, social determinants of, 512-513, 516-520

Identification, 356, 358
Ideological analyses, 512-513
Ideological superstructure, 26, 522 Ideology, concept of perspectivism in, 559
existential basis of, 516, 521
interest hypothesis in, 554
Marxist view of, 531-533, 547 relativism of total, 556-558
and social structure, 549-551
structural warranties of validity in, 560-562
theory of, 546-548, 557
Illness, as deviance, 236
Indeterminacy, in findings of social scientists, 264-265
Indices of variables, in research, 169-171 Indispensability, of function, 86, 90, 91 of item, 86, 90
postulate of, 86-90
of social structures, 96
Induction, 154
Industrial relations, and government role, 610
Influence, forms of, 473
in local communities, 181-182
Influence, interpersonal, 443, 444, 456 as asymmetrical social relation, 471-
473
criteria of, 469-470
differential rates of, 464-465, 467 monomorphic, 381, 468
polymorphic, 381, 468

Informal groups, 114, 166, 371, 396 ambiguity of membership of, 340 in bureaucracy, 255
see also Primary groups
Information, about group norms and values, 391-394, 404
lag in, 402
Information theory, 374, 375
In-group, 351-353, 371
Innovation, 195-199, 218
as response to anomie, 230-234, 235 Institutional interdependence, theory of, 41, 63
Institutionalized evasion, 372, 397, 398, 399
Institutions, social, 176, 177
Integral sociology, 43, 68
Integration, of biological organisms, 81
social, 79-82, 90, 315, 535, 536 Intellectual, alienated, 268, 270, 271,
272, 273
as bureaucratic technician, 267-269 definition of, 263
distinction between bureaucratic and unattached, 265-267
and frustrations arising from bureaucracy, 277-278
(697)
as occupational type, 262-263, 539 recruitment by bureaucracy, 266
in relation to policymakers, 269-273 social origins of, 561
unattached, 268, 270, 271, 272, 273 and value-conflict with policymakers, 273-277
Interest assumption, 553, 554
see also Perspectives

Intermarriage, 113, 117
Intervening opportunities, theory of, 19 Intervening variables, 146-147, 151 Interview, focused,
500, 571, 575
panel technique of, 166-167 Intolerance of ambiguity, 240-241 Inventions, independent multiple,
523,
669-670
Inventories, propositional, 69
Isolate, social, 359
and orientation to values of non-membership groups, 322-324
Kibbutzim, 376
Knowledge, existential basis of, 516-520 relations with existential basis, 530-537 types of, 521-
530, 550-552
see also Sociology of knowledge
Latent function, 105, 115-121, 122-123, 182
as contribution to sociological analysis, 122-123
definition of, 105, 117
distinguished from manifest function, 115-120
focus of research, 120-121
in analysis of mental productions, 515 of political machine, 125-127
Law, 373, 522, 523
Laws, sociological, criteria of, 150 Leader, inadequacies of nativist, 403-404 of group, 392, 396
Leadership, 381
Legitimacy, 191-209, 256
ascribed to institutional arrangements, 321, 322, 325
of power, 176

Levels of aspiration, 204, 205, 206 Logical structure of experiment, 102 Longitude, social
sources of research on,
668-674
Looking-glass self, 18-19
Luck, 201-203
Macro-sociology, 61, 64, 68
Magic, 88, 89, 110, 162-163
Manifest functions, 105, 115-120
defined, 105, 117
distinguished from latent function, 115-120
in analysis of mental productions, 515 Marginal man, 319, 320, 344, 345 Martyr, 418-419
Mandan theory, 26, 43, 44, 55, 59, 60n, 68
Marxism, 516-517, 532, 533
Mass, culture, 505
communications, 504
persuasion, 163-165, 166
Membership, attributes of eligibility and
ineligibility for, 343, 344, 351
defined and extended by groups, 346-
347, 364-365
degrees of, 341
see also Non-membership
Membership groups, 317-318

as reference groups, 290-295, 358-362 classification of types of, 362-364 criteria of, 338, 339,
340 cross-pressures of, 298-299
selection of, 380
Methodology (logic of procedure), 140-141
of social research, 73
Micro-sociology, 61, 68
Middle range, theories of the, 3-72 assent to the policy of, 56-62
attributes of, 68-69
consolidation of, 51, 61, 65, 68 examples of sociological, 39-40, 41, 61, 64
historical roots of, 56-58
polarized responses to, 53
rejection of, 62-67
stereotypes of theorists, 53
and total sociological theory, 50-53 uses of, 39
Milieu, social, 358
Mirriri, responses to, 111
Mobility, 200, 227
and conformity, 290-291, 316-319 and intellectual perspectives, 549, 554 rates of, related to
anomie, 245-246 and election of reference groups, 357,
359-360
Mores, 187, 373
Motivations, assimilative, 312
and institutions, 586
Motives, 114, 123-124

distinguished from functions, 77-79, 113
for conformity or deviation, 113 functional autonomy of, 253
of scientists, 586, 591, 613, 660-662 transformation of, 253, 255
Multiselved person, 170
Myth, 512, 513, 525
Natural law, 416
(698)
Natural science, in relation to economic base of society, 523
Needs, in determining scientific research, 538
social, 553
Negative prestige, 355
Negroes, and assimilation of success-values, 227, 228
and mobility, 200, 227
and unions, 478
Neophobia, 188
Nominal group member, 341 Nonconformist, 417, 419, 420 Nonconformity, 186, 411, 412, 413,
418,
420, 421
distinguished from crime, 414, 415, 416
see also Deviance
Nonfunctional consequences, definition of, 105
Non-members, status of, 344
typology of, 343-351
Non-membership, concept of, 342-343 Non-membership groups, 318, 338, 339, 340

as reference groups, 358-362
positive orientation to values of, 319-322, 336
see also Anticipatory socialization "Normal science," 12, 13
Normlessness, see Anomie
Norms, 236, 353, 412
and anomie, 216, 223
and convert, 406
and cultural goals, 186-194, 195, 203, 207, 209, 211, 213
dynamics of, 245
Nullifiability, 148
Observability, 301, 428-429
see also Visibility
Observations, creative role of, 158-159 protocols of, 105, 114
Occupational personality, 178 Occupational psychosis, 251-252
see also Trained incapacity Occupational subsystem, theory of, 61 Occupations, cumulative
research in, 189
functional significance of, 187, 190-
191
intellectual as type of, 215-216
ranking of, 199
social evaluations, 131
specialization in, 612
Oedipus complex, 142, 356 Open-class-ideology, 199, 200 Operationalism, 169
Opinion, public, as focus of mass communications research, 495 observability of, 407-411

Oral history, 3, 3n
distinct from public record, 5, 6 Orientations, general, in sociology, 141-143, 154
social, 392
Out-group, 351, 353, 371, 412 Out-marriage, taboo on, 113 Over-compliance, 206, 236, 239
Over-conformity, 236
Panel technique of interviewing, 166-167 Paradigm, of functional analysis, 136
categories embodied in, 104-105
purposes of, 106
Paradigms, codification of theory, 69-72 on deviant behavior, 69n
on functional analysis, 104-108, 136 functions of, 70-72, 109
on racial intermarriage, 69n
on the sociology of knowledge, 69n Paradoxie der Folgen, 253
see also Unanticipated consequences Parsimony, concept of, 313
Participation, differential, 114
Pathos, 256
Pattern variables, 371
Pecking order, 249, 257
Peer groups, 354
Perception, 404
Peripheral group member, 341 Perspectives, 271, 273, 275, 313, 494,
504, 524, 554, 559, 560, 561 Perspectivism, 553-554
Physical and life sciences, accumulation in, 27
compared to sociology, 23
development of, 23n

misconceptions about development of, 46-48
style of exposition, 70
Pietism, and science, 643-647
Plausibility, 147-148
Pluralism, 388
Pluralistic ignorance, 431
Polarization, process of, 53-56 Policy-makers, 273-276
and intellectuals, 269-273
Political machines, functional analysis of, 125-136, 246-247
and welfare state, 247-248
Post factum interpretations, 147-149, 153-154
Power, 127, 170, 176, 187, 596, 621 in bureaucracy, 249, 257
of groups, 378
Marxist view of, 532-533
of those in role-set, 426-427 Predictability, 249
Prediction, 148, 152, 559
ground of, 152
(699)
problems of sociological, 264
suicidal, 182, 184, 477-478 Prediscoveries, and anticipations, 14, 19 defined, 9
identification of, 15
and rediscoveries, 13
Prejudice, function of, 484-485 Prescribed behavior, 187, 249, 605 Pressure group, 408, 409

Pride of craft, 256
Primary groups, 114, 121-122, 166, 371, 387, 388-389
Privacy, in groups, 397, 398, 400 Production, concentration of tools of, 250-251
relations of, 516
Professional code, 432
Professional deformation, 252
Proletariat, 531, 532
Propaganda, 160, 166
boomerang effect in, 571-575
content analysis in, 366-370, 569 definition, 563
as explanation, 160
technological, 578-582
unexpected responses to, 565-566 Propaganditis, 163, 165, 513, 578 Proscribed behavior, 182,
195, 203, 605 Protestant ethic, in relation to business,
437
Protestants, propensity for scientific study, 651, 655
Pseudo-Gemeinschaft, 163, 513
Public image, 164
Public opinion, theory of, 61
Punishment, social functions of, 115-116 Puritan, ethic, 628-637
influence on scientific education, 634-637, 639-641
and science, 629, 631, 632
values, and science, 641-642, 650-651, 652, 657, 659
Puritanism and science, 63n

Puritans, in Royal Society, 637-639
Quakers, and science, 651 Qualitative analysis, 443-444 Quantification, 170
Radicalism, 414
Rank, social, of groups, 377-378 Rationalization, 188, 512
Reactionary, 413
Rebellion, 201, 209-211, 218
as adaptation to anomie, 244-246
in youths, 245
Rediscoveries, 8, 9, 10, 12-14, 35 Reductionism, 418
Reference, frame of, 292, 386, 527
Reference group, 287
as a concept, 279, 330, 354
conflict of, 295-299
contexts in, 303-304, 347
definition of, 338
functional kinds of, 337-338 membership group as, 290-295 multiple, 293, 295-304
mutually sustaining, 299-304
negative, 349, 354, 355, 405
positive, 354, 405
processes in selection of, 304, 355-362, 365, 380-390
segmental relevance of, 383-386 theory of, 39, 40, 64
Reference group behavior, assimilation of values in, 309, 310, 311, 332-333
common reference groups in, 300

dysfunctional anticipatory socialization in, 320, 321, 322
impersonal status categories in, 300-301
nonconformity in, 411
orientation to non-member groups, 286 relations between types of groups in, 331
self-appraisal in, 330
and social mobility, 316-325
structural elements in, 290
visibility in, 375-376, 390-394, 404-405
Reference group behavior, theory of, 181, 301-302, 352-353, 438
concept of relative deprivation in, 285, 289
discontinuities in, 330-334
frames of reference in, 285-287
and functional sociology, 280, 335 group contexts in, 303-305
indexes of social properties in, 312 orientation to non-membership groups as concern of, 288
in social psychology, 335
Reference individuals, 338
selection of, 356-358
successful people as, 294-295 Relationism, Mannheim's concept of, 558-560
Relative deprivation, 289, 295, 302
deprivation component of, 288-289
as interpretative intervening variable,
283-284
operational definition of, 282-283 theory of, 40-41

utility of the concept, 281, 283, 284 Relativism, 556-562
Reliability, of observations, 50-503, 507, 508
Religion, dysfunctions of, 83-84
(700)
Religion dysfunctions (cont.)
functional analyses of, 82-84, 89, 90, 96-99, 118-119
indispensability of, 87
integrative functions of, 82-83
Marxist theory of, 98, 99
as social control, 96
Renegade, 323, 333, 349, 350
Research, empirical, conceptual analysis in, 145-147
creative function of, 291 discontinuities in, 153
effect on refocusing of theory, 165-168 hypotheses in, 154
indices of variables in, 169-171 interpretative variables in, 154
role in functional analysis, 73 serendipity pattern in, 157-162
and theory, interplay of, 149-150, 162-165, 168-171, 279, 283, 284, 291, 302-303, 342
theoretical function of, 156-157 Response analysis, in propaganda analysis, 570-578
Ressentiment, 209-210
Retirement, and retreatism, 242-243 Retreatism, 207-209, 218, 242-243
as adaptation to anomie, 241-244
in bureaucracy, 253-254
defined, 238

Role-gradations, 438, 439
Role-model, 356-357
Role-performance, 374, 375, 376 visibility and, 395-400, 401, 402, 404 Role-sequence, 242, 439
Role-set, 422-438
disruption of, 433
mechanisms in articulation of, 425-433, 434
Role-sets, theory of, 41-45
conflict in, 42, 43
mechanisms which articulate, 43 source of mechanisms, 44
Roles, 289, 429,, 446
conflicting, 40, 170-171, 287
loss of, 242-243
multiple, 42, 44, 423-424
social, 41, 42
Romantic love complex, 111
Sacred, 255-257, 601, 614
norms, 187
schools of thought, 526
Sacrifices, 299, 300
related to relative deprivation, 282-283, 284
Sanctification, process of, 256
Sanctions, 249
Science, assumptions of, 635-636

disinterestedness in, 612-614
doctrine of national character of, 607-608
empiricism in, 633, 636, 643
ethos of, 588, 595, 596, 604-615 hostility to, 590-591, 598, 599, 601-603 and military needs, 594,
663, 680 in Nazi Germany, 541, 586-587, 591-
594, 602
as organized skepticism, 601, 603, 614-615
priority of discovery in, 610-611, 613 propensity of religious groups for, 643, 647-649, 651, 655,
656, 659
public images of, 600-601
pure, function of, 597-600
rationality in, 633
selection of problems in, 668-674, 675, 676, 680
social determinants of, 661, 663, 668, 670, 679-681
social status of, 588, 589, 591
and social structure, 541-542, 589 sociology of, 584-587, 605
taboo on secrecy in, 588, 611
and technical needs, 589, 666-668, 670-674, 678, 680
universalism in, 607-610
"Scientific revolutions," 12, 13
Scientists, motivations of, 586, 59, 613, 660-662, 668
Secondary group, 371
Secrecy, bureaucratic, 400
Secularization, 633-634

process of, 256
Security in bureaucratic structure, 250 Self, appraisal, 294, 307, 330, 384
image, 207, 310
social, 269
Self-fulfilling prophecy, 20, 182-183, 475-490
Serendipity, 150, 158-162
in social research, 157-158, 283, 295 "Significant others," 20, 40, 269
Small groups, theoretical place of re-search in, 389-390
Social, change, 94, 135, 176-177, 525 circle, 536
cohesion, 150, 151, 152, 161
control, 395, 402, 404, 405, 415, 416 differentiation, 177
equilibrium, 178
homeostasis, 178
perception, 404
relations, among workers, 617
self, 269
Social differentiation, theory of, 64 Social mobility, 39, 61, 68
Social norms, formation of, 40
(701)
Social scientist, 178, 180, 264
Social structure, 41-44, 110, 161, 428, 436
alternative, 87-88
and anomie strains, 218

and behavior, 179-180, 181
generating behavior, 176-177, 186-189, 193, 194, 202-203, 209-210 inconsistency in, 200
integrated, 79-80
interdependence of elements in, 106-107
and knowledge, connectives between, 552-556
and perspectives, 549-559
and science, 541-542, 589
and technology, 616, 620
Social systems, statistical indices of, 314-315
theory of, 41, 68
Socialization, anticipatory, 319-322, 323-325, 357
child, 205, 212-213
Sociological theory, see Theory, sociological
Sociological theory, total, 45-48, 51-53 stereotypes of, 53-54
utilitarian pressures for, 48-50 Sociologists, Soviet, 66-67
Sociology, public expectations of, 48-49 and social problems, 48-50
sociologists' expectations of, 49-50 Sociology, humanistic, 53
Sociology of knowledge, connectives of knowledge and society in, 552-556 cultural bases of, 515
mental productions analyzed in, 515 and occupations, 552-556
social context of, 511-514
theorems in, 448-450
Sociology of science, 3, 584-587, 605 Sociometry, 380
Solidarity, social, 80, 171, 255

see also Social cohesion
Specification, of units, 90
Stande, 256, 472
Status, 188, 422, 432, 434
achieved, 436-437
ascribed, 437
change in, 142
differentiation, 54
function of professional codes for, 432 related to conspicuous consumption, 123-124
social, 41, 42, 123-124 Status-sequence, 424, 436, 439
Status-set, 424, 434-435, 437
Stereotypes, 19, 54, 567
of theorists, 53-54Stratification, social, 369, 483, 619, 620 theory of, 41
Structural, constraint, 106-107, 176, 194 context, 106-107, 127-128, 131, 302-304, 347, 377, 390
description, 110
identities, 534, 535
sources of behavior, 131
variables, 142
Structure, social, see Social structure Sub-cultures, 159
Subgroups, 176, 245, 341, 370
Success, 199, 201
cult of, 189-190, 193
monetary, 189, 190-191, 196, 211, 221, 222, 223

prototypes, 192
Success-theme, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224 Success-values, differentials in assimilation of, 224-230
Suicidal prophecy, 182, 184, 187-188 Suicide rates, 130-152
Survivals, social, 85-86
Symbol-counts, in propaganda analysis, 569
System, social, 41
Taboo, on out-marriage, 113
Technician, engineer as, 621-623
social, apolitical nature of, 266-269 Technological change, 616
as instrument of social power, 619 research needed in, 624-627
social consequences of, 617-621 Tension, 190
Thematic analysis, in propaganda analysis, 569
Theory, sociological, codification in, 154-155
compared to other sciences, 140 concepts in, 143-147
conceptual clarification due to re-search, 168-171
consolidation of, 333, 334, 382
data exerting pressure on, 157-162 empirical generalizations in, 149-150 functions of, 150-153
general sociological orientations, 141-143, 154
internal coherence of, 153
interplay with methodology and technique, 140, 239
of the middle range, 3-72
post factum interpretations, 147-149, 153-154
role of empirical research in develop-

ment of, 139, 153-154, 162-165,
279, 283, 284, 291, 302-303, 442 Thomas theorem, 19, 474, 478, 499
(702)
Trained incapacity, 19, 178, 251-252, 256, 623
Trobriand Islanders, 114, 162, 483-484 Truth, as socially conditioned, 513-514 types of, 529, 530
Unanticipated consequences, 105, 115-
116, 120, 182, 617, 651 Unattached intellectual, 256 Unintelligibility, cult of, 600 Universal
functionalism, 84-86, 90 Universalism, in science, 607-610 Urbanization, 487
Utopia, 557-558
Utopianism, 414, 550
Validity, criteria of, 557-558
structural warranties of, 560-562 Value, 186, 555-556
Value-assimilation, 322, 323 Value-conflict, 196, 197
distinguished from anomie, 244 245 Values, business class, 191-192
group, 241, 388-389
processes in assimilation of, 332-333 social, 178, 350, 383, 560
Variables, intervening, 146-147
indices of, 169-171
interpretative, 154
Vested interests, 160, 256, 553, 554 Vice, as business, 132-134
Visibility, 41, 373-376
of group norms and values, 390-394 of norms and role-performance, 395-400, 401, 402, 404
obstacles to, 401-402
of public opinion, 407-408

personality types suited to maintain, 402-404
resistance to, 397, 398, 399
see also Observability
Voting behavior, 171, 386-389
Wealth, 190, 191
Welfare-state, and decline of political machines, 247-248
Weltanschauung, 524, 525, 555 Wertbeziehung, 531, 545, 559, 560 White-collar crime, 144, 208
Wishful thinking, 19
Wissenssoziologie, see Sociology of knowledge
Wit, 196
Working hypothesis, 39, 39n