Military_History_-_Spring_2024

Buzz Aldrin Recalls Korea and theMoon The Fighting Sons of Theodore Roosevelt Young Longshanks’ Costly Loss atLewes Ukraine’s Unrest Has 17th Century Roots The development of military satellites over the past half century has enabled such devastating weapons as the MQ-1 Predator drone, above. FROM THE EARLIEST SATELLITES TO THE LATEST DRONES HISTORYNET.com SPRING 2024

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2 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024 24 Eyes in the Sky & Hellfire From the Heavens For the past half century emerging satellite technology has transformed warfare By Paul Xavier Rutz 32 When Cossacks Ruled Ukraine In 1648 Zaporozhian hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky started a regional uprising whose consequences linger today By David T. Zabecki 18 Valor Last Rifleman Standing 14 Interview Buzz Aldrin Beyond the Moon SPRING 2024 Letters 6 Dispatches 8 Departments Features

3 50 Young Longshanks’ Loss at Lewes In 1264 a rash Edward lost a battle and nearly the throne By Chuck Lyons 20 What We Learned From... Sir Julian Corbett 22 Hardware MQ-1 Predator 76 Hallowed Ground Masada, Israel On the cover: The development of satellite technology has spawned such lethal unmanned aerial vehicles as the MQ-1 Predator drone, shown test-firing AGM-114 Hellfire missiles. (Top: NiseriN/iStock/Getty Images; Bottom: Corporal Timothy Childers/U.S. Marine Corps) 64 A Little Clash With Big Consequences William Henry Harrison won back a territory at the Thames By James F. Byrne Jr. 42 The Fighting Roosevelts Quentin Roosevelt (below) and his brothers followed their Rough Rider father’s example in two world wars By John Miles 56 Chaaarge! Almost from the moment humans first learned to master the horse, man and beast have been linked—often in war By Randi Samuelson-Brown Reviews 72 War Games 78 Captured! 80

NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM OF LOS ANGELES COUNTY DAVID LAUTERBORN EDITOR JON GUTTMAN SENIOR EDITOR DAVID T. ZABECKI CHIEF MILITARY HISTORIAN BRIAN WALKER GROUP DESIGN DIRECTOR ALEX GRIFFITH DIRECTOR OF PHOTOGRAPHY JON C. BOCK ART DIRECTOR CLAIRE BARRETT NEWS AND SOCIAL EDITOR C O R P O R A T E KELLY FACER SVP Revenue Operations MATT GROSS VP Digital Initiatives ROB WILKINS Director of Partnership Marketing JAMIE ELLIOTT Senior Director, Production A D V E R T I S I N G MORTON GREENBERG SVP Advertising Sales [email protected] TERRY JENKINS Regional Sales Manager [email protected] D I R E C T R E S P O N S E A D V E R T I S I N G MEDIA PEOPLE / NANCY FORMAN [email protected] © 2024 HistoryNet, LLC SUBSCRIPTION INFORMATION: 800-435-0715 or SHOP.HISTORYNET.COM Military History (ISSN 0889-7328) is published quarterly by HistoryNet, LLC, 901 N. Glebe Road, 5th Floor, Arlington, VA 22203 Periodicals postage paid at Arlington, Va., and additional mailing offices POSTMASTER, send address changes to Military History, P.O. Box 900, Lincolnshire, IL 60069-0900 List Rental Inquiries: Belkys Reyes, Lake Group Media, Inc. 914-925-2406; [email protected] Canada Publications Mail Agreement No. 41342519 Canadian GST No. 821371408RT0001 The contents of this magazine may not be reproduced in whole or in part without the written consent of HistoryNet, LLC PROUDLY MADE IN THE USA MICHAEL A. REINSTEIN Chairman & Publisher SPRING 2024 VOL. 40, NO. 4 VISIT HISTORYNET.COM A look at the Winchester Model 1873 rifle and the Colt M1873 Single Action Army revolver, the latter of which saw military use. By George Layman historynet.com/the-guns-that-won-the-west Guns ThatWon theWest TRENDING NOW Sign up for our FREE e-newsletter, delivered twice weekly, at historynet.com/newsletters HISTORYNET PLUS! Todayin History What happened today, yesterday— or any day you care to search. Daily Quiz Test your historical acumen—every day! Weapons&Gear The gadgetry of war—new and old— effective, and not-so effective. Listen to daily selections from our archive of 25,000-plus stories! HISTORYNET PODCAST N E W !

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6 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024 HERITAGE IMAGES (GETTY IMAGES) Letters Regarding the use of gunpowder, infantry and cavalry as described in “The Day Combined Arms Prevailed,” by David T. Zabecki [Spring 2023]: It wasn’t Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden [at the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1631] but Spain in the 1482–92 last phases oftheReconquista that developed combined arms— namely, the tercios (“thirds”) each of pikemen, swordsmen and harquebusiers(then heavy muskets)—later honed in 1499–1504 amid the Italian wars. Due to their discipline, skills and esprit de corps, the tercioswere for a century and a half the dominant European fighting force, though still written off, put down and envied today. Gustavus’ commanders helped develop their combined arms variant until the 1620s.The Swedes did defeat non-Spanishtercios, butwhen on Sept. 6, 1634, at the Battle of Nördlingen they did face the bona fide Spanish tercios, they received a crushing setback. Spain’s indebtedness led to undermanned tercios and disaster in 1643 at the Battle of Rocroi when facing superior odds. The tercios’ preeminence ended at the 1658 Battle of the Dunes. Arms have mostly been combined since the sad dawn offighting. Somehurled sticks or stones, others kicked or punched. Still later some threw spears as othersstruck with cudgels. Onward men fought,somewith spears and bows and arrows, otherswith axes or swords. Then some rode horses or camels with the rest onfoot. Further ahead in time came catapults and rams, then firearms. Nowadays warriors employ tanks or armored transports, choppers electronics and so forth. José Luis Haupt G. Tijuana, Mexico David Zabecki responds: As Hauptnotes,no commanderin history has ever invented any tactical system out of whole cloth. All innovations have been improvements on past practice. The tercio was an improvement onthe Swiss phalanx. The tercio had its day for almost a century, but then it became obsolete. Spanish commandersrefused to adapt to the times and still clung to the tercio. The Spanish were crushed by the French at Rocroiin1643,thus ending Spain’s run as a world power. As Haupt also points out, the tercio was used in coordination with cavalry and artillery.Butthe terciowasfirst and foremost a defensive formation. It had little ability tomaneuver. Once it didmove, itsimmobile artillery couldnotmovewith it. Gustavus introduced artillery that maneuvered with the infantry.Gustavus also returned shock action to the heavy cavalry. By the start of the 1600s most cavalry action on the battlefield had been reduced to the ineffective caracole tactic, with successive ranks of cavalry riding up to the line ofcontact,discharging twosingle-shot pistols per rider and then retiring to the rear to reload as thenextrank rodeup andfired. Quoting theWestPointseries The Dawn of Modern Warfare: “Attempting to maneuver with 3,000 tightly packed men—later, versions of 1,500— wasrisky business. If the solid wall of pikes was ever broken, the tercio was doomed. The formationwascumbersome.It was used on occasion to attack, but the circumstances had to be justso. Essentially,the tercio was an immobile, defensive organization.Itlacked flexibility. It flourished for lack of competition, not because of any degree of inherent strength.” The bottom line is there is nothing that takes place on the modern battlefield that hasits roots in the tercio. Significant in its time, it was a historical dead end. One the other hand, Send letters via e-mail to [email protected] Please include name, address and phone number @MilitaryHistoryMagazine the tactical systems on today’s battlefields are deeply rooted in the methods of Gustavus. Admittedly, there have been countless improvements and technical innovations since. Airpower was added to the mix in 1914. The beginnings ofcybercame in during World War II. But Gustavus’ foundations are still there. BerlinAirlift I was very pleased to read the article “Miracle From the Air,” by Don Smith [Summer 2023], because during the mid-1960s I flew between Wiesbaden and Berlin (Tempelhof) on a weekly basis. A recenttrip back to Berlin, and especially to Tempelhof, only reinforced the memories. My companions on the 2022 trip were quite appreciativewhen I sent them copies of the article,since it gave themadeeper perspective ofthe importance of the airfield and the airlift. L.J. Zimmerman Rockville, Md. I would like to compliment Chris Davey for his excellent illustration of the Douglas C-47 Skytrain on PP. 22–23 [Hardware, by Jon Guttman] of your Summer 2023 issue. The artwork is so accurate that Davey even included the weathered invasionstripesleft overfrom D-Day on the bottomofthe fuselage.Welldone! Tom Murray Barrington, Ill. WhoInvented CombinedArms? 1631 Battleof Breitenfeld

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8 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024 U.S. MARINE CORPS HISTORY DIVISION By Dave Kindy O n Oct. 23, 1983, amid the Lebanese Civil War, two Islamic suicide bombers in separate trucks loaded with high explosives detonated their payloads outside buildingsinBeirut housingU.S. and French service members oftheMultinational Force in Lebanon,which included Italian andBritish peacekeepers.The explosion at the four-story building serving as barracks for Battalion Landing Team 1/8 of the U.S. 24th MarineAmphibious Unit collapsed, killing 220 Marines, 18 Navy sailors and threeArmy soldiersinwhatremainsthe largestsingle-day death toll forthe Marinessince the 1944 Battle of Iwo Jima. (See “‘The BLT Building Is Gone!’” by Richard Ernsberger, in the November 2016 Military History or online at HistoryNet.com.) Minutes later 58 French soldiers and six civilianswere slain in the bombing ofthe French barracks building. Last fall, amid renewed tensions in the region, American officials marked the 40th anniversary of the catastrophic bombingswith a memorialservice in Lebanon. Following the Oct. 7, 2023, terrorist attack by Hamas on Israel and the subsequent offensive by Israel against Hamas positions in Gaza, many in the region fear fighting may erupt again in Lebanon, home to Hezbollah and othersIslamic militant groups with tiesto Iran, which supported the 1983 attacks and remains committed to the destruction of the Jewish state. While the United States has condemned the recent attack by Hamas, expressed solidarity with Israel and deployed naval, air and ground forces to the region as a deterrent, it has left Israel to defend itself in the ongoing war. Whether that remains the case has the whole world watching. TensionsSoar40Years AfterBeirutBombings ‘Whowould have thought, 25 years later, herewe are [fighting] essentiallythe same crowd?’ —Retired Colonel Timothy J. Geraghty, former commander of the 24th Marine Amphibious Unit in Lebanon, speaking in 2008 about the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan S O U N D O F F R E M E M B R A N C E On Oct. 23, 1983, truck bombs collapsed buildings in Beirut housing American and French peacekeepers, killing 305 people. Lebanon remains a haven for terrorists. Dispatches

9 TOP: PUBLIC BROADCASTING SERVICE; BOTTOM: U.S. ARMY March 29,1978 Navstar 1, the world’s first Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite, reaches its target orbit. Initiated bythe Department of Defense, the GPS was initially designed to provide U.S. military forces worldwide precise geolocation and time information. It was opened to civilian use in the 1980s. In orbit today are nearly 7,000 operational satellites(P. 24), manyfor military applications. April1647 Zaporozhian commander Bohdan Khmelnytsky is evicted from hisland in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,setting in motion a namesake Cossack uprising (P. 32) that leaves the region equating to presentday central Ukraine under the protection of tsarist Russia. April 25,1917 Quentin Roosevelt volunteers for the nascent U.S. Army Air Service three weeks after the United States entered World War I. The youngest of former President Theodore Roosevelt’s four sons in military service (P. 42), Quentin was shot down over France on Bastille Day (July 14) 1918. May 5,1813 Amid the War of 1812, having failed to capture Fort Meigs and forestall U.S. ambitions in the Great Lakes, British-allied Indians begin to massacre American prisoners. Shawnee chief Tecumseh stops them, but the die is cast. That fall his confederacy is crushed and he is killed at the Battle of the Thames(P. 64). May 14,1264 At the Battle of Lewes(P. 50) young Prince Edward charges off the field in pursuit of hated Londoners allied with the rebelling barons. His hotheadedness spells defeat for father HenryIII’s forces. Adding insult to injury, “Longshanks”remains a hostage of the barons for a year. W A R R E C O R D Piecing Together a B-17 Crash R E E L W A R On Oct. 17, 2005, while patrolling near an enemy-held village in Salah Aid Din Province, Iraq, a Bradley fighting vehicle commanded by Sgt. 1st Class Alwyn Cashe of Company A, 1st Battalion, 15th Infantry Division, struck an improvised explosive device. Despite being wounded, Cashe pulled seven soldiers and a translator from the flames, which ignited his fuel-soaked uniform. Though suffering burns on 70 percent of his body, he had only one question for responding medics: “How are my guys?” All but the translator survived, while 35-year-old Cashe succumbed to his injuries that November 8 at Brooke Army Medical Center, Fort Sam Houston, Texas. For his actions he received a Silver Star, which in 2021 was posthumously upgraded to a Medal of Honor. Cashe is the subject the latest volume in the Association of the U.S. Army’s Medal of Honor series of free, downloadable graphic novels [ausa.org/ medal-honor-graphic-novels]. The SergeantWho Ran Into the Flames B O O K R E P O R T On May 29, 1944, the U.S. Army Air Forces Boeing B-17G Flying Fortress Miss Ponnie was on a bombing mission over Nazi-occupied Austria when it was damaged by enemy fire, the crew bailed out and the plane crashed. Some 75 years later elderly retiree Georg Reutter, whose mother had witnessed the crash, visited the site with a metal detector to see what he could find. His discoveries and subsequent search for both the fate of the crewmen and their descendants are the basis for the award-winning 27-minute PBS documentary The Metal Detector, viewable online at pbs.org/video/ the-metal-detector-muz7xn.

10 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024 TOP: OCEAN EXPLORATION TRUST; BOTTOM: NATIONAL WWII MUSEUM, NEW ORLEANS S H I P W R E C K P A C I F I C W A R Island-Hop in the Footsteps of Heroes In spring 2024 the National WWII Museum is offering a 10-day chartered flight tour package that will retrace the island-hopping campaign of the Pacific War. Embarking March 22 from Pearl Harbor, the Victory in the Pacific tour will visit landing beaches and battlefields in Saipan, Guam, Iwo Jima and Tinian, with available extensions to the Philippines and Peleliu. Featured is commentary from James M. Scott, the author of several bestselling books about the campaign, and Jonathan Parshall, a U.S. Naval War College lecturer and expert on the Imperial Japanese Navy. Participants will have access to the museum’s digital archives and select oral histories from Pacific War veterans. For more information visit nationalww2- museum.org/event-programs/educational-travel. On June 4, 1942, from his airborne vantage over the Pacific northwest of Midway Island, Lt.Cmdr.Richard Best spotted his target. Signaling his wingmen, Best led the trio of Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers down to attack the Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi. Only Best’s 1,000-pound bomb was on target, but it proved more than enough, exploding amid fully armed and fueled torpedo bombers in the carrier’s hangar deck. Swept by an uncontrollable fire, Akagi was scuttled the next day. It was one of four Japanese carriers sunk at Midway, all of which had participated in Dec. 7, 1941, the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Last fall an international team of maritime researchers pinpointed the lost shipwreck in 18,000 feet of water some 1,400 miles northwest of Pearl Harbor. Using a remote underwater vehicle fitted with a camera, the team spotted the imperial Japanese chrysanthemum emblem on the bow and made out the ship’s name in stenciled Japanese characters, which had been covered in white paint before going into battle. Akagi’s flight deck had buckled and folded over from the initial explosions and resulting fire, and the top half of its superstructure was missing. Akagi was one of three Midway shipwrecks investigated by the Ocean Exploration Trust. Also on the list were its sister ship Kaga and USS Yorktown (CV-5), the sole U.S. carrier lost at Midway. Vaunted maritime archaeologist Robert Ballard (see interview on HistoryNet.com) pinpointed the latter in 1998. The Ghost of Akagi Emerges off Midway

11 FROM TOP: RENAUD MORIEUX (NATIONAL ARCHIVES, U.K.), CC BY-SA 4.0; TUNISON FOUNDATION INC.; CHRISTOPHE ENA (ASSOCIATED PRESS) In early 1815, when Napoléon Bonaparte escaped from exile on Elba and returned to France to resume the throne, he had a new look: Pinned to the front of the emperor’s signature black bicorne was a tricolor cockade symbolizing the French Revolution. Napoléon’s renewed reign lasted only 100 days, but his headwear continues to rule. Last fall at the Osenat auction house in Fontainebleau, France, one of Napoléon’s original bicornes—complete with its blue, white and red cockade—hammered down for $2.1 million, a record for chapeaus owned by “Little Boney.” N A P O L É O N Bonaparte Bicorne Brings Big Bucks Taking Normandy and Berlin by Air D - D A Y OnApril 8, 1758, amid the 1756–63 Seven Years’ War, the 70-gun British third-rate ship of the line Essex captured the 24-gun French frigate Galatée as it left port in Bordeaux. French authorities duly forwarded a packet of 104 letters written by loved ones to Galatée’s imprisoned crewmen in England, but Admiralty officials deemed the unopened missives insignificant and stashed them away. Flash forward to last fall when Renaud Morieux—ironically, a French researcher at Cambridge University—stumbled across the letters at the National Archives in Kew and opened them for the first time. The precious time capsule prompted Morieux to track down every member of Galatée’s 181-man crew and publish excerpts of the letters, offering a glimpse into the timeless feelings and fears of service members’ families. L O S T & F O U N D Though it pales in comparison to either the 1944 invasion of Normandy or the 1948–49 Berlin Airlift, the logistics remain daunting. This spring the nonprofit D-Day Squadron of restored World War II–era Douglas DC-3 and C-47 transports will cross the North Atlantic to participate in commemorations of the 80th anniversary of D-Day and 75th anniversary of the airlift. Numbering at least 10 planes at press time, the squadron will depart May 18 from Waterbury-Oxford Airport in Connecticut. Following the original Blue Spruce Route used by U.S. military aircraft in World War II, the formation will fly over Canada, Greenland, Iceland, Scotland and Ireland to England before wrapping up its tour in France, Germany and Italy. Among scheduled events in the host nations are air shows and demonstration parachute drops. For more information visit ddaysquadron.org/ 2024-legacy-tour. Undelivered Letters FromHome,1758

12 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024 CLOCKWISE FROM TOP: BTB RANCH, LLC; EVERETT COLLECTION HISTORICAL (ALAMY STOCK PHOTO); DAVID GROSSMAN (ALAMY) Henry Kissinger, 100, national security adviser and secretary of state under Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford, died in Kent, Conn., on Nov. 29, 2023. Alternately loved or loathed, Kissinger fostered détente with the Soviet Union, opened relations with China and mediated the ArabIsraeli conflict in the Middle East. He also negotiated the Paris Peace Accords, ending direct U.S. military intervention in Vietnam and earning Kissinger the Nobel Peace Prize. Fighter pilots and NASA astronauts Frank Borman, 95, and Ken Mattingly, 87, died on Nov. 7 and Oct. 31, 2023, respectively, Borman in Billings, Mont., and Mattingly in Arlington, Va. An Air Force pilot who reached the rank of colonel, Borman commanded Gemini 7 and Apollo 8, the first mission to fly around the Moon. A Navy pilot who reached the rank of rear admiral, Mattingly flew on Apollo 16 and two Space Shuttle missions. Both are among the two dozen men who have flown to the Moon, an exclusive fraternity that includes Buzz Aldrin (see P. 14). Submarine commander, oceanographer and explorer Don Walsh, 92, died in Myrtle Point, Ore., on Nov. 12, 2023. On Jan. 23, 1960, in the North Pacific he and Jacques Piccard reached the floor of the Mariana Trench—at 35,797, more than a mile deeper than Mount Everest is tall. Retired U.S. Navy Captain Walsh continued to advocate ocean exploration. Elinor Otto, 104, known as the “last serving Rosie the Riveter,” died in Las Vegas, N.M., on Nov. 12, 2023. In 1942 Otto, one of thousands of women employed in factory work during World War II, started at the Rohr Aircraft Corp. in Chula Vista, Calif. After the war Otto continued working on airplanes until laid off by Boeing in 2014 at age 95. T A P S V E T E R A N S Since 1958 Veterans Affairs’ Allied Beneficiary Program has extended health care services to veterans of Allied nations living in the United States who fought alongside Americans in both world wars. Similar benefits will now apply to thousands of South Korean soldiers who fought alongside U.S. troops during the Vietnam War and now live in the United States. Signed into law on Nov. 13, 2023, the Korean American Vietnam Allies Long Overdue for Relief Act (VALOR) enables an estimated 3,000 South Korean veterans living in the United States to receive benefits. The program is reciprocal, thus the Republic of Korea has agreed to provide similar benefits to American veterans living in that country. W A R F O R S A L E Home, Sweet Silo Looking for a home that can withstand just about any disaster, natural or man-made, including nuclear explosions? You’re in luck. Rolling Hills Missile Silo in Westfall, Kan., is on the market. Decommissioned in 1965, the 9-acre complex once housed an Atlas F ballistic missile with a 4-megaton nuclear warhead. Touted as the “safest home on Earth,” the facility includes the 182-foot-deep silo, 2,500 square feet of space in the former launch control center and massive 7,000-pound blast doors. Asking price is a mere $1.3 million, ICBM not included. KoreansWho Foughtin VietnamGranted Benefits

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14 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024 RANDY GLASS STUDIO What made you select the Air Force after graduation from West Point? I wanted to fly and had always wanted to fly. I took my first flight at age 2 with my father and never looked back. Flying was exhilarating. We [graduates] knew the nation would need pilots, so we signed up. What was it like flying the cutting-edge F-86 Sabre? Fast in a dogfight—and Iwasin a couple of those—and gratifying, because the plane handled well, although my gun got jammed in one encounter, and on another occasion I had a frozen fuel line. But the plane was a jet, and we liked the idea of flying jets. They got you higher and faster, and we all liked that. How did the MiG-15 match up in your two recorded Korean War shootdowns? The MiG-15 was a fast plane, and they had good pilots. The pilot ejected in the first one, which was filmed by the nose camera [of my Sabre]. Your second kill entailed a difficult dogfight. Tell us about that. Not a lot to tell, but you can see photos of it. My gun jammed on my first lock, so I had to be steady, stay with him, get the lock again and then fire. He, too, ejected, which was good for him. Dogfights are all-consuming—they happen fast. Nothing about a shootdown is easy, but when you return alive you feel glad you returned, glad you could do what you were supposed to. What was it like flying the F-100 Super Sabre equipped with nuclear weapons? I will just say, those times—perhaps a bit like these times—were about being prepared. There was tension, but we were always well trained, ready for what might come. We signed up to protect the United States, and so we did. It was as simple as that. We all thought freedom mattered, and we flew to protect it. A fighter jock with a doctoral degree? Yes, before selection to NASA’s third group of astronauts, I earned my doctorate from MIT. I wrote a thesis called “Line-of-Sight Guidance Techniques for Manned Orbital Rendezvous.” An understanding of that topic and orbital mechanics proved fortuitous when Jim Lovell and I flew Gemini 12, the last Gemini mission, which required proving the efficacy of orbital rendezvous. Asfatewould have it,we actually needed to manage part of that process manually, due to computer problems, so the thesis came in handy after all. How excited were you to join the space program? Very. And looking back, I was just fortunate to be selected for Gemini 12 and Apollo 11. I was also blessed to have great crewmates—Lovell in Gemini 12, and Neil Armstrong and Mike Collins inApollo 11.What can you say?Wewere all blessed. Describe the sensation of your free-flight space walk for Gemini. My longest EVA [extravehicular activity], or space walk, of Gemini 12 was surprising for the beauty and sense of accomplishment that came with it— and because my heart rate apparently stayed low. Someone asked mewhy, and I really could not say, except that I was honestly having fun. InterviewBeyondtheMoon When Military History sought an interview with Buzz Aldrin, he initially demurred. The second human being ever to walk on the surface of the Moon—on July 21, 1969, as a crew member of Apollo 11—he finds that journalists seldom want to discuss anything else. But Aldrin’s career spans much further. A graduate of the U.S. Military Academy, he was commissioned into the Air Force at the outset of the Korean War. Flying the North American F-86 Sabre for the 16th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, Aldrin completed 66 combat missions and downed two MiG-15 jets. After the war he earned a doctorate in astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Aldrin walked in space as a Gemini astronaut before flying to the Moon with Apollo. Today, the 93-year-old Air Force brigadier general remains a strong advocate of the space program, particularly of planned missions to Mars. Buzz Aldrin By Dave Kindy

15 U.S. AIR FORCE (2) We must ask, what was it like to walk on the Moon? In many other venues I have discussed the answer to that question, but suffice to saywe had a job to do, andweworked very hard to do it.We did notwant to let others down,since so many hadworked to makeApollo 11, mankind’s firstMoon landing, a success. I called it “magnificent desolation” at the time, and that remains a good description. It was also an honor, and while we trained hard for it, the actual event was exhilarating in small and unexpectedways.We sawourshadowlanding,whichneverhappenedinsimulation. We had to test one-sixth gravity, since that could not be simulated. We had to get experiments out, and one required waiting for a small BB to settle in a cone, which took awhilewith one-sixth gravity. Neil and I worked together to get the American flag in, which was harder than you might think with only about an inch of Moon dust to plant it in. On May 5, 2023, you were promoted to brigadier general. What did that mean to you? Well, it was humbling, gratifying, and I was really honored. I stepped out of the normal advancement sequence flying for NASA. Afterward, I continued to serve, fly and believe in the U.S. Air Force. To be recognized for that—for what I did during and after that special Top: Second Lt. Aldrin poses in his F-86 Sabre jet fighter in 1953. That May 14 he shot down his first of two North Korean MiG-15s, forcing its pilot to eject, as captured in the above still frames by the nose camera in Aldrin’s Sabre.

16 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024 TOP AND LEFT: NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (2); RIGHT: ED KOLENOVSKY (ASSOCIATED PRESS) time—was gratifying. I thank all those involved. It meant a lot, and I am happy still when I think about that day. You continue to advocate for a manned mission to Mars. Why? Simple, really: The United States is the leaderin human space exploration, and we need to keep reaching outward, expanding and enriching the human experience. That means not resting on our laurels, but going out to Mars, exploring and swiftly creating permanence there— not a touch-and-go, butstaying onMars. How do you reflect on your achievements in the military and as an astronaut? We all have ourstories and ourjourney, and mine has been exciting. It was an honor to serve in Korea, with NASA and thereafter with the Air Force. This nation is one of a kind—both a great and good country. Those opportunities came from tens of thousands of other dedicated Americans, and I feel forever grateful for what they did to make my journey possible. So, how do you reflect on all that? You just remind yourself each dawn is precious, and you stay grateful. You keep trying to do whatever you can to keep the greatness and goodness going. MH Aldrin poses aboard the Apollo 11 lunar module Eagle on July 21, 1969, after having spent more than two hours walking on the Moon with fellow astronaut Neil Armstrong. Below left: Buzz stands by the American flag the two erected on the Moon. Below: Aldrin has been an advocate of the space program since its inception.

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18 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024 LEWIS WHYLD/PA IMAGES (GETTY IMAGES); INSET: AUCKLAND WAR MEMORIAL MUSEUM In the darkness, despite having lost the fingers of his right hand and suffered severe shrapnelwounds, Gurkha RiflemanLachhimanGurung keptworkinghisbolt-action riflewith hisleft hand asJapanese repeatedly attacked his position. When morning dawned, the area around his post was littered with the bodies of enemy combatants. Against all odds Gurung had held his ground and survived. “I had to fight,” the determinedGurkha latersaid.“IfeltIwas going to die anyway, so I might as well die standing on my feet.” Born on Dec. 30, 1917, in Dahakhani, Nepal, 4-foot-11-inch Gurung joined the British Indian army in December 1940.The 23-year-oldwas assigned as a rifleman to the 4th Battalion, 8th Gurkha Rifle Regiment. Dating from 1815, the vaunted Gurkha Rifleswasinitially part of Britain’s EastIndiaCo. and still existstoday, comprising young men from the hills of Nepal chosen after a grueling selection process. In May 1945 the British crossed the Irrawaddy River in Burma (present-day Myanmar) and hit a Japanese force north of the Prome-Taungup road. By May 9 the Japanese were withdrawing,so the British positioned companies of Gurung’s 4thBattalion to block the enemy retreat.When the combatants collided,the Japanese quickly surrounded two companies of the 4th Gurkhas.Among those cut offwere Gurung and two fellow Gurkhasin a trench 100 yards ahead ofthe mainBritish line. At 1:20 a.m. on May 13 more than 200 Japanese attacked their position. Within moments an enemy grenade fell on the edge ofthe trench.Without hesitationGurung hurled it back.When another grenade landed amid the trio,the diminutive Gurkha also tossed it back. He then reached for a third grenade just outside the trench.But before he could getrid ofit,the grenade exploded, blowing offhis fingers, shattering hisright arm and inflicting shrapnelwoundsto hisface,torso and rightleg. By then his trench mates were also badly wounded and lay helpless. Gurung was on his own. Screaming at top volume, the Japanese rushed the position inwaves. Loading and firing hisriflewith hisleft hand, the wounded Gurung held them off, shouting back in defiance, “Come and fight a Gurkha!” When the firing ceased, those sent to check on Gurung and his companions counted 87 enemy dead in the vicinity, 31 of whom lay directly in front of the lone Gurkha’s firing position. Had Gurung failed that night, his commanding officer noted, the battalion’s position “would have been completely dominated and turned.” Only when the 4th Gurkhas were relieved on May 15 was Gurung evacuated to a hospital. That December, at the historic Red Fort in Delhi, Field Marshal Archibald Wavell, the viceroy and governor-general ofIndia, personally awardedGurung the Victoria Cross. Nepalese villagers from the Gurkha’s hometown bore his elderly father aloftforthe 11-day journey to Delhi so he could attend the presentation ceremony. Gurung had lost hisright hand in the action as well asthe use of hisright eye. Regardless, he remained in the British Indian army and then the Indian army when that country gained independence in 1947. He eventually retired with the rank of havildar(sergeant) and returned to his village to work a small farm. In 2008, on appeal to the U.K. government as a veteran, he moved to England and settled in Hounslow,southwest of London.In November 2010,suffering from pneumonia, Gurung was admitted to London’sCharingCrossHospital,where he died that December 12 at the venerable age of 92. His actions a half century earlier had embodied the motto ofthe 4th Gurkhas: “Betterto die than live as a coward.” MH Lachhiman Gurung British Indian Army Victoria Cross May 12–13,1945 Burma ValorLastRiflemanStanding By Chuck Lyons

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20 MILITARY HISTORY WINTER 2024 CHRONICLE (ALAMY STOCK PHOTO) ritish naval historian and geostrategist Sir Julian Corbett (1854–1922) was a contemporary ofrenownedAmerican navalstrategist RearAdm. Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840–1914). Unlike Mahan, Corbett had no personal military or naval experience, which prompted many senior officersin the Admiralty to view him and histheories with skepticism. A misconception persists that the ideas of Mahan and Corbett are in opposition, that one must accept one orthe other. But that is an oversimplification. There is much to be learned by a comparison of the two. In developing a set of principles for naval warfare, Corbett drew from the theories of land warfare developed by Prussian military theorist Carl von Clausewitz. On the relationship between war and politics he echoed Clausewitz: “Military action must still be regarded only as a manifestation of policy. It must never supersede policy. The policy is always the object; war is only the means by which we obtain the object, and the means must always keep the end in view.” In defining essential differences between the respective physical operating environments of land and sea, however, Corbett departed from Clausewitz on key points, particularly the importance of concentration and the decisive battle. Control and security of communications, for example, isfar more difficult atsea.Communications on land are largely limited to known roads, rail lines and rivers and channelized by mountains, forests and other no-go terrain. Predicting communications and movement on a vast, flat ocean is an entirely different matter.“At sea the communications are, forthe most part, common to both belligerents,” Corbett noted,“whereas ashore each possess his own on his own territory.” Thus, he concluded, only relative command of the sea was possible at any given place and time. Corbett departed from both Mahan’s and Clausewitz’s argument for the primacy of destroying the enemy’s main force. Rather, the British strategist argued, controlling the lines of communications, both friendly and enemy, should be the main objective of naval warfare. Two waysto do that were through naval blockade or by capturing or sinking enemy warships and merchant ships. Corbett’s departure from the decisive battle principle prompted pushback from many of the Royal Navy’s more traditional admirals. Yet he enjoyed the backing of reformminded First Sea Lord and Admiral of the Fleet Sir John “Jacky” Fisher. In 1911Corbett published Some Principles of Maritime Strategy. He wrote during a period of sweeping technological changes. Steam had already replacedwindandsail asthefleet’s primary motive power; steel hulls had replaced wooden ones; and naval guns were acquiring greater range, accuracy and hitting power. While there was no way Corbett could have foreseen certain technologies, he knew change was imminent and ongoing.That’swhy he called his book Some Principles, rather than The Principles. His intent was to produce a living documentto orfrom which future generations of naval thinkers could add or subtract. Lessons: Determine themutualrelations of your army and navy in a plan ofwar. Only when this is done can one develop a plan for the fleet to best execute its assigned mission. Offenseanddefensearenotmutually exclusive. All war and every form of it must include contingencies for both. The object of navalwarfare is the control of communications. Naval operations in both world wars proved Corbett right. Themost pressing problemto solve is not howto increase the power of a fleetfor attack, but howto defend it. Though Corbett wrote long before the advent of naval aviation, this remains the central difficulty of the aircraft carrier. MH WhatWeLearnedFrom... SirJulianCorbett By David T. Zabecki Though British historian and strategist Corbett lacked personal military experience, his naval theories were borne out during both world wars.

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22 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024 HardwareMQ-1Predator By Jon Guttman Illustration by Ian Palmer ilitary use of remotely piloted aircraft, or drones, dates to World War I experiments with practice targets, and guided aerial weapons were operational by World War II. But it took advancesin electronics and satellite technology to realize unmanned aerial vehicles(UAVs) capable of being controlled from thousands of miles away.The first operationalreconnaissance drone, the Predator, went on to assume a more aggressive role. Its inventor, engineer Abraham Karem, is an Assyrian Jew born in Baghdad—ironic, considering how much his invention would serve in Iraq. Karem’s family moved to Israel in 1951, and he built his first UAV for the Israeli Air Force during the 1973 Yom Kippur War. Immigrating to the United States, he soon drew the attention of the CIA. Karem developed a series of prototypes, the Amber and Gnat 750, for General Atomics before test flying his ultimate design on July 3, 1994. A year later it entered service with the CIA and the U.S. Air Force as the RQ-1 (recon drone) Predator. Coinciding with the terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001, the U.S. Department of Defense was developing an operational drone capable of toting ordnance.The RQ-1 proved adaptable to carrying an AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-surface antitank missile under each wing. Accepted in 2002 and promptly deployed to Afghanistan and Iraq, the armed Predator was designated the MQ-1 (multirole drone). On Dec. 23, 2002,overtheno-fly zone inIraq, anIraqiMikoyanGurevich MiG-25 engaged an MQ-1 armed with AIM-92 Stinger air-to-air missiles and shotit down,winning the first encounter between a conventional warplane and a UAV. In 2011 the 268th and lastMQ-1 leftthe GeneralAtomics plant. By then it had accumulated more than 1 million flight hours and truly earned its Predator moniker. On March 9, 2018, theAir Force retired the MQ-1,which had been supplanted by GeneralAtomics’ improved MQ-9 Reaper. MH Opposite: A U.S. Air Force crew chief prepares his assigned General Atomics MQ-1 Predator drone for a live-fire training exercise at Creech Air Force Base, Nev., on May 13, 2013. 1 2 12 11

23 FROM NVG 144, UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES: ROBOTIC AIR WARFARE 1917–2007 BY STEVEN J. ZALOGA (OSPREY PUBLISHING, BLOOMSBURY PRESS PUBLISHING); INSET: SENIOR MASTER SGT. PAUL HOLCOMB, 432ND AIR EXPEDITIONARY WING (U.S. AIR FORCE) Specifications Crew (remote): Two(pilot,sensoroperator) Length: 27feet Height: 6 feet11inches Wingspan: 55 feet 2 inches Empty weight:1,130 pounds Maximumtakeoff weight: 2,250 pounds Power plant: Rotax 914F115 hp four-cylinder turbocharged engine driving a twin-blade constant-speed pusher propeller Fuelcapacity: 665 pounds Cruising speed: 80–100mph Maximumspeed:135mph Range:770miles Ceiling: 25,000 feet Armament: Two AGM-114 Hellfire air-tosurfacemissiles;or four AIM-92 Stinger air-to-airmissiles;orsix AGM-176 Griffin air-to-surfacemissiles 1. Twin-bladeconstant-speed pusher propeller 2. Enginecooling fan 3. Multimodecommunicationslink 4. C-band antenna 5. ARC-210 radio 6. Nosecamera 7. AOA sensor and alpha probe assembly 8. EO/IR–stabilizedMX-15 gimbal housing an AN/AAS-52multispectral targeting system 9. Primarysatellitelink 10. APX-100 IFF/SIFtransponder 11. AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-surfacemissile 12. Rotax 914F115 hp four-cylinder turbocharged engine 6 5 3 9 8 10 4 7

The General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper unmanned aerial vehicle (aka drone), capable of dealing death via remote control from the opposite side of the globe, is the military pinnacle of a half century of satellite-based innovations. 24 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024

A look at the first half century of militarysatellites and drones By Paul Xavier Rutz

26 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024 n Sunday, Nov. 3, 2002, six suspected al-Qaida members were traveling overland in the desert of eastern Yemen when they collided with a new form of warfare. The group included Qaed Salim Sinan al-Harithi, a close associate of Osama bin Laden, whom American intelligence had concluded was a mastermind of the attack on the destroyer USS Cole two years prior. The arrest and interrogation of Islamic militants had leapt to the top of the U.S. military’s priority list after the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, but for months Yemini forces on the ground, supported by U.S. special forces operators, had been thwarted in their attempts to corner al-Harithi. Frustrated, the Americans had obtained permission from the Yemeni government to try something else. Al-Harithi, his five companions and their SUV were consumed by fire from the sky triggered by signals beamed through outer space. The General Atomics MQ-1 Predator drone had taken off from a base in Djibouti, across the Gulf of Aden, and had loitered for some time, capturing video footage for remote operators on the ground in Tampa, Fla., where CENTCOM Deputy Commander Marine Corps Lt. Gen. Michael DeLong stood looking at a wall of real-time digital information. While watching al-Harithi’s small convoy make its way out of Sanaa, Yemen’s capital, DeLong got on the phone with CIA director George Tenet. As DeLong later recounted, Tenet asked him to make the call to fire. “OK, fine,” DeLong replied. “Shoot him.” Within seconds, halfway around the world, an AGM-114 Hellfire missile began its terminal flight toward the men below. The first Predator attack conducted in a country not at war with the United States was also the first to kill the individual of interest without physically harming civilians. Then White House Press Secretary Ari Fleischer called it “a different kind of war, with a different kind of battlefield.” PREVIOUS SPREAD: AIRMAN 1ST CLASS VICTORIA NUZZI/432ND WING PUBLIC AFFAIRS (U.S. AIR FORCE); THIS PAGE: STAHLKOCHER, CC BY-SA 3.0 Drones were just one link in this revolutionary chain. For more than a half century satellites have added incredible distance and speed to many aspects ofwarfare, profoundly changing the human experience of war and shaking up traditions, including how militaries communicate,spy on each other, navigate, trackweather, fireweapons and more. When the Soviet Union put Sputnik 1 into orbit on Oct. 4, 1957, few people anticipated the grip that event would have on psyches around the world. Word of the launch was initially limited to a few obscure paragraphs in Pravda, Russia’s Communist Party newspaper, and neglected to mention the satellite’s name. Two days later, though, after the party’s Politburo became aware of the awe and panic it caused in the West, its public relations machine went into overdrive to tout the achievement. In this way satellites’ first major military function was propaganda.Asit traced the sky above, Sputnik projected power. Nuclear missiles might soon follow. Within eight months the Soviet Union launched three Sputniks with payloads increasing from the first orbiter’s iconic 184-pound, nitrogen-pressurized polished sphere, to an ill-fated dog named Laika, to 1.5 tons of scientific equipment. To enhance its public relations advantage, The targeted killing of al-Harithi helped accelerate a radical change in the history of warfare. In the years that followed, throughout the Global War on Terrorism and beyond, the U.S. military routinely depended on a network of advanced technologies to find, track and kill suspected terrorists, usually via dronesremotely operated by American military personnel in places like Creech Air Force Base, Nev. For the first time in history combatants could track targets on the otherside of the world, fire missiles at them in real time and be home with their families for dinner. Such military service was not officially listed as combat, and the personnel involved did not earn combat awards or receive the psychological support routinely given to combatants, yet by 2009 the Air Force was training more drone pilots than fighter pilots. Forthefirsttimecombatants couldfiremissilesattargetsin realtimeand be homefor dinner The AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-surface missile is the primary ordnance of Predator and Reaper drones, launched by pilots seated thousands of miles away.

27 the Kremlin kept a tight lid on news ofrocket failures. Only successful Soviet launches made headlines,while American engineers appeared to be losing the initiative in test after spectacular failed test. However, declassified numbers showed a steady American lead.In 1958 the United States attempted 17 satellite launches,with seven reaching orbit.The Soviets attempted six,with Sputnik 3 theirsole success.Overthe next three yearstheAmericans achieved orbit with 28 satellites,dwarfing the eightsuccessfulRussianlaunches. As ever, the intensifying space race between the two superpowers brought about smaller rivalries among American military branches. After World War II the U.S. Army argued thatrockets, and the satellitesthat mightsoon be their payload,were an extension of artillery.It launched Explorer 1 on Jan. 31, 1958. (Sputnik 1 had deorbited and incinerated on reentry earlier that month.) A nominally peaceful mission, Explorer 1 provided the first scientific discovery in space. It weighed just 31 pounds but carried cosmic ray detection equipment developed attheUniversity of Iowa under James Van Allen who used it to discover radiation bands aroundEarth known today as VanAllen belts. A group of Navy officers had studied the feasibility of launching satellites in 1946, and by August 1955 that branch was given permission to develop a rocket program. Its Vanguard 1 achieved orbit on March 17, 1958. Thanksto itsrelatively high path, Vanguard 1 isthe oldest man-made object in space and is expected to remain in T orbit for more than two centuries. OP: NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION; INSET: GRANGER From theAir Force point of viewouterspace is a natural extension of the air, and in 1961, after a Kennedy Administration study condemning America’s“fractionated military space program,” that branchwas given de facto control of space assets. Through the 1960s and ’70s the Air Force poured resources into research and development, though responsibility for day-to-day activities in orbit remained distributed among the services. The establishment of a dedicated Air Force Space Command in 1982 did nothing to end the debate about which branch should operate satellites in the future. In 2001 a congressional commission designated the Air Force as the main branch operating in outer space and suggested the creation of a Space Corps. From the start the CIA helped direct America’s spy satellite program, in part because then President Dwight D. Eisenhowertrusted the agency to keep itsecret. BeginWhen launched by the Soviet Union on Oct. 4, 1957, Sputnik 1, the world’s first satellite, threw the West into headline-grabbing panic, though the orbiting metal sphere did nothing but send out a radio blip.

28 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024 ning in February 1959 the Air Force and CIA launched several satellites dubbed Discoverer, a coverforthe testing and deployment of the nation’s first major spy satellite program, which ran through the spring of 1972. While the public watched test launches by the NationalAeronautics and SpaceAdministration (NASA), the government’s fledgling civilian space agency, at Cape Canaveral, Fla., the CIA and Air Force launched many military satellites from California’s Vandenberg Air Force Base, on the otherside of the continent and out of the public eye. Launched due south into polar orbit,these early spy satellites, codenamed Corona, flew in an elliptical trajectory. Altitude varied from roughly 120 miles at closest approach to 250 miles at the peak of the orbit. Engineers typically set theirlowest altitude overthe northern hemisphere, bringing their high-resolution cameras close in for the best possible pictures of Soviet territory. Astandard Corona flightwould cross over the Soviet Union every 90 minutes, covering new ground like a lawn mower, taking pictures every two seconds across a 118-mile-wide swath.Just one such mission would photograph more of Russia than the combined total of all previous U-2 spy plane flights. Designated KH-1 (for “Keyhole”), the first version of Corona would remain aloft forthree to four days.Latermissionslastedup to threeweeks. Mapping instantly became more accurate, a corollary to this new bonanza of imagery. Before reconnaissance satellites, the Soviet Union—with itsstate-controlled media —could keep the locations of whole cities, bases, railway hubs and missile launch facilities hidden in away theUnited TOP LEFT: BETTMANN (GETTY IMAGES); TOP RIGHT: U.S. AIR FORCE; LEFT: U.S. SPACE FORCE States could not, due to its more open media and maps of every state available at gasstationsfor anyone, including spies, to purchase. Corona took wide-angle views of the ground on Kodak film strips more than a mile long. From space, the analogue black-and-white film offered an image resolution of 26 feet, which within a decade improved to 6 feet.In 1963 theCIAbegan pairing these views with imagery from KH-7 Gambitsatellites providing higher resolution (18 inches or better)for narrower areas of interest. In the early 1970s both capabilities finally became available on one platform, the KH-9 Hexagon. By 2007 high-resolution spy satellites could manage about 4 inches, tight enough resolution to identify a car’s make and model but not enough to read its license plate. Along theway engineersworked outsolutionsto myriad problems. They made cameras able to perform in the vacuum and extreme cold of space. To avoid blurry images, they stabilized the orbiters against vibration and swings in orientation, and introduced a little backward shift for clarity each time the camera took itssplit-second exposure. They developed stereo cameras, called Mural, angled to photograph the same area a fewseconds apart,then blended the two views—thus, a nondescript line became identifiable as a road, powerline or fence. Cloud cover and the dark of night often rendered visual photography satellites blind, a problem explored in late 1964 through the Quill program, adapting existing airborne radar systems for use via satellites, but the resolution was weak. Eventually, in the late 1980s radar imaging became a standard tool in the Lacrosse satellites, each weighing 15 tons. Engineers also added infrared imagery to aid in nighttime spying, help discern the chemical composition of objects and even observe certain activities underground. The United States initially split responsibilityfor the military aspects of its space program between the CIA, the Air Force and rival agencies in the other service branches. In 2019 President Donald Trump finallysigned the Space Force into being as an independent service. SpaceForce Left: Beginning in 1959 the CIA and Air Force launched the first American spy satellites, dubbed Discoverer. They and follow-on satellites carried cameras that would eject film capsules back into the atmosphere suspended by parachute for midair retrieval.

29 To get exposed film to Earth in the age of predigital photography, Corona would eject a reentry capsule over the ocean. Slowed by parachute, it was plucked midair by aircraft such as the Air Force’s Fairchild C-119J Flying Boxcar, modifiedwith a type of arrestingwire.The Department of Defense performed this routine more than 120 times until the program’s end in May 1972. If a capsule did fall into the water, a radio homing device and lighted beacon would aid recovery. If it remained unclaimed for more than two days, a salt plug in the capsule’s outer shell would dissolve, sinking the package. Throughout the Cold War, both sides worried more than anything about the other’s nuclear arsenal.Theywent through a period of reckless experimentation, building and testing ever bigger hydrogen bombs. An American test in July 1962, detonated 250 miles above the Pacific Ocean, caused an electromagnetic pulse that knocked out power and telephone communications within 1,000 miles and wreaked havoc with satellites. After that test and the Cuban MissileCrisislaterthat year, both sides pumped the nuclear brakes. Corona’s photographs in the early 1960s helped calm American fears of a missile gap by showing that the numbers of Russian missiles and bombers were lowerthan previously thought.In July 1963 President John F. Kennedy and Premier Nikita Khrushchev signed the first Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Asthe Cold War continued, they used spy satellites to verify claims of missile reductions, thereby strengthening further treaties. The CIA employed armies of analysts to pore over data from reconnaissance satellites, focusing on differences in “before” and “after” images to develop intelligence estimates about everything from troop movements to submarine construction. However, mostsatellite images were never produced—as in seen by human eyes and sorted— just collected and stored. Competing interests vied for space-based resources, and the Pentagon found ways to balance strategic and more operational needs asthey arose. Problems persisted, however. During the 1990–91 GulfWar frontline coalition troops were given reams of satellite images but inadequate training on how to interpret them. By the 2003 invasion of Iraq the process forrouting information from eyes in the sky through trained analysts to the battlefield had been markedly improved. By the early 1990s reconnaissance satellites had grown intomassive, long-lasting tools.TheKH-11Kennenweighed 17.5 tons and was designed to remain in low Earth orbit for three years. Some orbiters lasted as long as 10. The celebrated Hubble Space Telescope, launched in 1990, shared many qualities with these satellites, with several modifications, the most obvious being that instead of aiming at Earth, Hubble looked away. Weathersatellites also dramatically changed the outlook of military planners. TIROS-1, the firstsuccessfulweather satellite, was launched from Cape Canaveral in 1960 and Top: The KH-4B camera system was the most advanced of those launched between 1959 and ’72 as part of the Corona photoreconnaissance satellite program, mainly used to keep an eye on Cold War military developments in the Soviet Union and China. Under ideal conditions it captured images with a ground resolution of 6 feet. Middle: This map depicts swaths of interest photographed by a single Corona mission in the mid-1960s. Above: This zoomed-in section of film captured by a KH-4B in 1967 reveals a Soviet F intercontinental ballistic missile launch site—a reminder to trust but verify. ROM TOP: NATIONAL AIR AND SPACE MUSEUM, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION; CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (2) SAUDI ARABIA INDIA CHINA KAZAKHSTAN RUSSIA INDIAN OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN

U.S. SPECIAL OPERATIONS FORCES stayed aloft for 75 days, offering the first pictures of continent-sizedweather patterns.The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program began operations soon after, in 1962, and is still going strong. Previously, as recently as World WarII,simply being located upwind could confer a major advantage for one side over the other. One famous example took place in early June 1944 when Royal Air Force Group Captain James Stagg of the British Meteorological Office persuaded Eisenhower(then Supreme Allied Commander Europe) to delay the D-Day invasion by 24 hours based on information about storm systems in the North Atlantic that German commanders did not have. Evenmore critical than weather tracking, satellite navigation brought science fiction level accuracy to transportation and munitions delivery. The first such system, Transit, went operational in the 1960s and wasreplaced in the 1980s by Navstar, known today as the Global Positioning System. GPS satellites orbit Earth at an altitude of 12,000 miles, arrayed in six planes, with at least four satellites per plane. At any time at least four are accessible from anywhere on the planet, enabling anyone with a GPS receiver to find his position on Earth, as well as altitude, precise time and velocity. By the late 1990s GPS had almost wholly taken over blue-water navigation in the U.S. Navy. In 1998 this authorwas a member of the last class at the U.S. Naval Academy, in Annapolis, Md., to study celestial navigation—that is, until 2015, when the academy reinstated the curriculum due to the growing threat of cyberattacks. Thanks to GPS, targeting from the air went through its own small revolution between the 1990–91 Gulf War and the 2003 invasion of Iraq, reducing the number of munitions needed to destroy a target, as well as the collateral damage, by a factor of 10. During the invasion ofIraq more than two-thirds of munitions dropped by NATO aircraft (including drones) were electronically guided, often by GPS. Navy cruise missiles, such as the Tomahawk (introduced in the 1970s), used it to find waypoints.The MGM140 Army Tactical Missile System, created in the 1980s, was soon modernized to accommodate it. Essentially an orbiting arrangement of highly accurate atomic clocks, GPS has never been shut off and can accommodate an unlimited number of users. Over the decades its reliability and widespread availability have allowed civilian and military usersto synchronize complex information structures around the world, including navigation and communication systems, power grids and banking networks. That in turn hints at the most fundamental contribution satellites have made towarfighting overtheir first half century—providing reliable real-time communication around the globe. To that end geostationary satellites have become essential. Operating at 22,236 miles above Earth (100 times higher than most reconnaissance satellites), where the continuousfall of their orbit keepsthem in synch with the Earth’s rotation, geosynchronous equatorial orbit (GEO) Little remains of Iranian Maj. Gen. Qasem Soleimani’s sedan, struck on Jan. 3, 2020, by a Hellfire R9X with a bladed “Ninja” kinetic warhead (see on opposite page). Major General Qasem Soleimani, commander of the Quds Force, an elite unit of Iran’s Revolutionary Guard, was killed by a drone strike in the early morning of Jan. 3, 2020. The CIA, working with Joint Special Operations Command, had been gathering intelligence on Soleimani for years, tracking his movements through aerial and satellite surveillance, electronic intercepts —including cell phone data—and on-the-ground informants. In the hours before the drone strike a combination of these assets watched Soleimani and his entourage board a private jet in Damascus, Syria. The flight to Baghdad International Airport was expected to take 90 minutes. Taking all known factors into account, including weather and the possibility of collateral damage, commanders gave the mission a green light. Given the importance of the mission and its narrow time window, planners launched three General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper drones from Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar: one for observation, one to fire and the third for backup. After takeoff control of each drone was handed over via satellite link to a remote pilot and a sensor operator at Creech Air Force Base, Nev. Controllers saw real-time video feeds from the Reapers’ multispectral targeting systems, including infrared images, as they guided the drones toward Baghdad and then loitered near the airport. Delta Force snipers, disguised as maintenance workers, hid in vehicles and old buildings along an airport service road. One used a spotting scope streaming live video for a Delta Force ground commander monitoring a few miles away at the U.S. Embassy. After landing at 12:32 a.m. local time, Soleimani and cohorts stepped off the plane and climbed into a sedan and a trailing van, which sped away. Kurdish counterterrorism operators posing as ground crew positively identified Soleimani. As the convoy approached the airport exit, the order was given, and at 12:47 a.m. the controllers in Nevada loosed two Hellfire missiles. A military officer in Florida gave updates to U.S. President Donald Trump in real time, counting down the seconds before impact. To reduce the chances of potential civilian casualties, planners used two Hellfire R9X “Ninja” kinetic warheads, which moments before impact deployed six hardened blades that punched through the roof of Soleimani’s sedan and sliced through its occupants like butter. The first salvo killed five people, including Soleimani. Seeing this attack, the driver of the trailing van hit the gas. Moments later a sniper fired at him just before another Hellfire struck, obliterating the vehicle. Ten passengers were killed in all. Finally, those on scene conducted the battle damage assessment. Posing as an Iraqi police officer, a Kurdish agent snapped photos and took a DNA sample from the general’s body before vanishing into the night. The drones continued to observe the site, recording information for later analysis. —P.X.R. Anatomyofa Drone Strike 30 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024

31 satellites relay all sorts of programming—from live TV newsto dronewarfare. Since the satellitesremain in a fixed position relative to Earth, ground antennas can be aimed back at them in a fixed position, while their high altitude allows for unobstructed lines of sight from a wide area. Syncom2,the firstsuccessfulsuch satellite,waslaunched from Cape Canaveral in 1963 to test the feasibility of GEO as a relay between ground stations and ships at sea. The Defense Department took over operation of the satellites from NASAin 1965. Overthe decadesthe DoD haslearned to use its growing network of communication satellites to track and coordinate its own units in every theater: land, sea and air. By the mid-1990s the Pentagon was planning operations—such as peacekeeping in Bosnia—under a concept called “information dominance,” focused on protecting its interoperating system while attacking an opponent’s information systems. Of course, dependence on such networks made military satellites tempting targets for jamming, hacking or destruction, so defenses such as frequency hopping,radiation hardening, missile tracking and sophisticated cryptology became key. As they persistin their quiet, consistent orbits, satellites will continue reshaping how the world plansfor and conducts military operations. China is emerging as a rival, a distantsecond only to the United Statesin the number of satellites it has in orbit. In 2019 the United States founded the Space Force, years after Russia and China had started their own separate space forces. The latter nations are working to minimize their own reliance on Western satellite systems, including GPS, at the same time as they test directed energy and kinetic anti-satellite weapons, encryption, jamming and offensive cyber capabilities. Space debris, which can remain aloft indefinitely, will probably remain the most persistent threat to existing satellites, and space is only getting more crowded. Due to the risk to America’s own orbiters, plans to defeat hostile satellites by blowing them up may fall out of fashion. Commercial satellites such as SpaceX’s low-orbit Starlink constellation (already providing vital internet links in the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War) and Orbital Sidekick’s FR GHOSt network will increase the already large overlap OM TOP: AIRMAN 1ST CLASS VICTORIA NUZZI/432ND WING PUBLIC AFFAIRS (U.S. AIR FORCE); BLACKJACK3D (ISTOCKPHOTO); ACCURATEINFOOMG, CC BY-SA 4.0 between military and civilian applications. This trend toward constellations of small, lower-cost satellites (already a major irritation for astronomers) will require robust international cooperation to avoid collisions. New legal frameworks are being discussed to solidify those agreements. Asthe Space Force matures, itsrole may look more like air traffic control than Star Wars. MH A graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy, Paul Xavier Rutz served aboard the aircraft carrier USS Kennedy (CV-67) and at the Pentagon during the Afghanistan and Iraq wars. For further reading he recommends Spies in the Sky, by Pat Norris, and A History of Satellite Reconnaissance, by Robert L. Perry. A Reaper unleashes one of its Hellfire missiles on a target at the Nevada Test and Training Range. Among the weapons in its arsenal is the R9X kinetic warhead (bottom), which before impact deploys six hardened blades, designed to kill with minimal collateral damage. The Global Positioning System (see illustration below) has guided U.S. munitions and drones since the 1990s.

In 1648 Zaporozhian hetman Bohdan Khmelnytskystarted a regional uprising whose reverberations are still being felt By David T. Zabecki 32 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024

On June 28–30, 1651, Cossacks and their allies, led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky (depicted above on the white charger), suffered a rare defeat in their uprising against Polish-led forces (including the vaunted winged hussars, also depicted) at Berestechko, north of Lviv. Fought in the region equating to present-day central Ukraine, it was one of the largest European land battles of the 17th century. 33

34 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024 hen Russia invaded Ukraine in February 2022, Poland stepped forward as one of its eastern neighbor’s staunchest supporters. But the ongoing eruption involving Russia, Ukraine and Poland is just the latest tragic chapter in a three-way strategic power struggle that has been running hot and cold for nearly 500 years. Relative if temporary peace descended over Western Europe with the end of the Thirty Years’ War in 1648. But that same year the flames of war raged throughout Eastern Europe. The citizens of present-day Ukraine, Poland and Russia have long historical memories. Among the most searing episodes in their collective past is the Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648–57, also known as the Cossack–Polish War. During that conflict Ukraine, supported by tsarist Russia, broke free from nearly a century of domination by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Crimean Tatars initially supported the Cossacks, only to switch sides twice during the conflict. Before the uprising concluded, Poland found itself engulfed in two additional wars: The Russo-Polish War of 1654–67 and the Swedish invasion that triggered the Second Northern War of 1655–60. The combination of the three wars led to the emergence of the Ukrainian Cossack hetmanate under Russian protection, the territorial and political expansion of tsarist Russia, and the beginning of the long decline of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. PREVIOUS SPREAD: ARTUR ORLYONOV, CC BY-SA 4.0; THIS PAGE, TOP: PANTHER MEDIA GMBH (ALAMY STOCK PHOTO); LEFT: HÅKAN HENRIKSSON , CC BY-SA 3.0 Zaporozhian leadersto a council in Warsaw.As a company commander in the Registered Cossack Chyhyryn Regiment, Khmelnytsky was present at the meeting. Enlisting theirsupportforthe planned campaignagainstthe “infidels,” the king reconfirmed the Cossacks’ ancient privileges operating as an autonomous state known as the Zaporozhian Sich within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Though the Polish Sejm (parliament)refused to support the Turkish expedition, Prince Wisniowiecki, the voivode (governor) of Ruthenia, resolved to lead a force against the Ottomans in direct defiance of the king and the Sejm. Raising a force of several thousand troops from his own estates, Wisniowiecki marched toward the Crimea, intending first to eliminate the Crimean Tatars, before turning on Turkey.The expedition’sroute of march ran straight through Zaporozhian lands. Outraged by the loss of his own estates and Wisniowiecki’s violation of the Cossacks’ royal privileges, Khmelnytsky refused to support the expedition. Instead, he decided to attack it. Khmelnytsky garnered wide support as he raised the banner of rebellion in the Zaporozhian Sich. In January 1648 the Cossack Rada (general military council) elected Khmelnytsky its hetman, or commander in chief. WhileCossacks today are thought of as primarily cavalrymen, in the 17th century only the wealthiest Zaporozhians could afford horses. They were, however, superb infantrymen. The Poles, on the other hand, were widely In the 16th century most of what today is Ukraine lay within a region known asRuthenia.Much ofRuthenia atthe timewas underthe control of eithertheKingdom of Poland orthe Grand Duchy of Lithuania.The 1569 Union of Lublin linked Poland and Lithuania as a commonwealth, which consolidated control over Ruthenia. In 1572 Eastern Slavs known as Registered Cossacks became a standing formation of the commonwealth’s army, eventually totaling 40,000 troopsin 16 regiments.While many ofthe eliteRuthenian noblemen, among them Prince Jeremi Wisniowiecki, readily assimilated into Polish culture and traditions, the lower classes, and especially the large Cossack population, became increasingly disillusioned. Among other differences, the Poles were predominantly Roman Catholic, while the Ruthenians were Eastern Orthodox. The roots oftheKhmelnytskyUprising ran deep. The namesake proximate trigger was a property disputewith rootsin 1645when the Polish nobleman Aleksander Koniecpolski tried to seize the estates of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, a prominent Zaporozhian Cossack landowner. Khmelnytsky was ultimately forced off his lands in 1647. The prior year PolishKingWladyslawIVVasa had proposed war against Ottoman Turkey and invited the Readily identifiable by their signature caps, Cossacks were a component of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth army before rising against it in 1648. Captured by Polish-Lithuanian forces at the 1651 Battle of Berestechko, Khmelnytsky’s personal banner centers on a cross reflecting the Cossacks’ Eastern Orthodoxfaith, while their Polish foes were predominantly Catholic. Class distinctions also sparked the uprising. Rebel Banner

35 regarded as having the best cavalry in Europe.Khmelnytsky knew that unsupported infantry had little chance against heavy cavalry; but if he could acquire allies with cavalry, it would level the playing field. Khmelnytsky turned to the Cossacks’ traditional enemies, the Crimean Tatars, also among the world’s most noted cavalrymen.That March he sent emissariesto theCrimeankhanate. Since theTatarswere already a target ofPrinceWisniowiecki’s expedition,Khmelnytsky had little difficulty brokering an anti-Polish alliance with Khan Islam III Giray. Commanding the Tatar cavalry force assigned to support the Cossacks was Tughai Bey. Initially the Poles greatly underestimated the size of the uprising.InApril 1648,withoutwaiting forreinforcements from Prince Wisniowiecki, they sent against Khmelnytsky a hastily assembled force of 3,000 troops, half ofwhom were Registered Cossacks. Commanding the force was Stefan Potocki, a son of GrandHetman of the PolishCrown Mikolaj Potocki.Commanding 5,000Cossacks and 4,000 Tatars, Khmelnytsky contacted thePoles onApril 29 atZhovtiVody, some 70 miles west of the great bend in the Dnieper River. Soon surrounded, the Poles entrenched and awaited reinforcements.Khmelnytsky also started receiving reinforcements. Over the following days some 4,700 Registered Cossacks defected from the commonwealth army and reinforcing columns and rallied to Khmelnytsky. The siege ended on May 16. Almost the entire Polish garrison was either killed or later died in captivity, including Potocki. When Zhovti Vody fell, a 5,000-man Polish relief force under the command of Stefan’s father, Grand Hetman Mikolaj Potocki, was only 15 miles away. Recognizing he was heavily outnumbered, Potocki ordered a retreat north C along the west bank of the Dnieper. He only got as far as LOCKWISE FROM LEFT: MUZEUM HISTORI POLSKI, WARSAW; ALBUM (ALAMY STOCK PHOTO); HERITAGE IMAGES (ALAMY); POLONA, NATIONAL LIBRARY OF POLAND Korsun, where he decided to dig in and await reinforcements from Prince Wisniowiecki’s 6,000-man army. But when Khmelnytsky’s Tatar scouts made initial contact, a spooked Potocki torched Korsun and ordered a resumption of hisretreat. On May 26 Khmelnytsky’s main force of 15,000 Cossacks and 4,000 Tatars caught the withdrawing Poles in a swampy valley. Occupying the high ground on both sides, they sprang the trap. Only about 1,000 Poles managed to escape, and Potocki himself was captured. Khmelnytsky then turned his army west and marched toward the heart of Poland. Potocki’scapture had left Polandwithout a commander in chief. (The position of grand hetman of the Crown remained vacant until Potockiwasreleased from captivity in April 1650.)Adding to the leadership crisis, WladyslawIV died six days before the Battle of Korsun. Poland remained without a king until November 1648,when the Sejm finally electedWladyslawIV’s brotherJan IIKazimierz Vasa to the throne.In the meantime, any politicalstability remaining in Poland rested in the hands of Prince Jerzy Ossolinski, grand chancellor of the crown since 1643. On June 9 Ossolinski convened a congress of notables in Warsaw, which designated Crown Commissioners Wladyslaw Dominik ZaKhmelnytskygarneredwide supportas heraised the bannerof rebellion in theZaporozhianSich Jan II Kazimierz Bohdan Khmelnytsky Mikolaj Potocki Jeremi Wisniowiecki

36 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024 slawski, Mikolaj Ostrorog, and Aleksander Koniecpolski as a triumvirate of provisional commanders. Compounding the internal chaos, the long-suffering Polish peasantry started a series of countrywide uprisings against the abusive szlachta, the Polish nobility. Although a nobleman himself,Khmelnytsky made common causewith the peasants and leveraged their numbers against the commonwealth. By early September the Polish force moving against Khmelnytsky under its triumvirate merged with Prince Wisniowiecki’s 6,000 troops, giving the Poles a total force of 32,000, plus 8,000German mercenaries.Meanwhile, Khmelnytsky’s force of 30,000 Cossacks and 4,000 Tatars was joined by some 70,000 peasantsrevolting at Pyliavtsi, TOP AND RIGHT: MUZEUM NARODOWE W WARSZAWIE (2); LEFT: MUZEUM POLSKIE, RAPPERSWIL Above: A period helmet mirrors the signature wooden “wings” bedecked with raptor feathers (see opening spread) that gave winged hussars, the Polish-Lithuanian heavy cavalrymen, their name. Above right: Cossack lancers charge into Tatars, who played both sides during the uprising. between Lviv andKiev.Again underestimating the size oftheir enemy,the Polish commanders assumedKhmelnytskywould fight a defensive battle, Instead, on the morning of September 13 he attacked straightinto his enemy’s center,splitting the Polish army and thendefeating its elementsindetailwithmusket fire.ThePoles broke and fled in panic, leaving behind huge quantities of artillery, ammunition,supplies and other booty. Though victorious at Pyliavtsi, Khmelnytsky was unable to pursue because his own uncontrollable troopsspent days plundering. Finally resuming its westward march, Khmelnytsky’s army besieged Lviv through mid-October.The town fathers ultimately presented the hetman a substantial ransom for not destroying the city.Khmelnytsky then marched his army to the northwest and besieged Zamosc, where he collected more ransom. On his election as king that November, Jan II Kazimierz sent messengerstoKhmelnytskywith a promise to reconfirm

37 traditional Cossack privileges. The king asked Khmelnytsky to suspend his campaign and wait forthe arrival of a royal delegation that would negotiate a peace settlement. Khmelnytsky agreed. He turned his army back to the east, and on Christmas Day they made a triumphal entry into Kiev, where Khmelnytsky was hailed as the Ruthenians’ deliverer from Polish captivity. By the time the peace delegation met in February 1649, itwas clearto the Polish negotiatorsKhmelnytsky no longer considered himself merely the chief of the Zaporozhian Cossacks underthe commonwealth, butinstead the head of an independentstate between Poland andRussia.The negotiations broke down and fighting resumed. The Cossack army left Kiev and returned west in the direction of Lviv. While Jan II Kazimierz organized a major army back in Poland proper, a small force of three regiments moved east and on June 30 occupied Zbarazh Castle, 80 miles east of Lviv, as a strongpoint to block Khmelnytsky’s advance. On July 7 theywere joined byPrinceWisniowiecki’s army, giving the Poles a total force of 15,000.Three dayslater 70,000Cossacks and 40,000 Tatarssurrounded the castle and brought it undersiege. Commanding the Tatarswas Khan Islam III Giray himself.ThoughWisniowieckilacked any official position in the chain of command, everyone deferred to his orders, making him de facto commander of the defenders. The protracted siege of Zbarazh dragged on intoAugust. Early that month a messenger named Mikolaj Skrzetuski exfiltrated from the castle and eventually reached Jan II Kazimierz, who immediately started moving east with a relief force of 25,000 Poles. Meanwhile, the defenders of Zbarazh repelled repeated attacks. On August 6 the Cossacks and Tatars launched one final massive combined assault, but failed to overwhelm the defenders. Three days laterKhmelnytsky detached a force of 40,000Cossacks and 25,000 Tatars and, with the khan, personally led them against the Polish king’s relief column. On August 15 the two armies clashedatZboriv,some 30mileswest ofZbarazh. The Battle of Zboriv soon bogged down into a stalemate, prompting the combatantsto negotiate. Brokered by Grand Chancellor Ossolinski, the Treaty of Zboriv, signed on August 18, did notrecognize a sovereign Ruthenian state, but did grant Ruthenians extensive additional privileges within the commonwealth.It also recognized theCossacks’ rightto practice their EasternOrthodox religion.TheTatars were given a large sum of money to go away. Despite the treaty, when Khmelnytsky and his main force returned to Zbarazh, he made one last effort onAugust 21 to overwhelm the beleaguered garrison. Again the Poles held out, and four days later the besieging armies withdrew. The Polish defenders had lost some 6,000 men during the siege. Thepeacedidnotlastlong.The Treaty of Zboriv broke down in 1651when Poland’s Roman Catholic bishops prevented the Orthodox metropolitan of Kiev from assuming his rightful seat in the Sejm. Supported by his Crimean Tatar allies, Khmelnytsky resumed hostilities. Fought that June 28–30 some 60 miles northeast of Lviv, the Battle of Berestechkowas one of the largest European land battles of the 17th century.The combined armies ofKhmelnytsky and P the khan numbered upward of 150,000, more than half of RISMA ARCHIVO (ALAMY STOCK PHOTO) Opposite top: After a series of initial victories Khmelnytsky laid siege to Lviv in late September 1648, breaking it off when town fathers presented him a ransom. By Christmas the Cossacks had taken Kiev and agreed to peace. After resumed hostilities and an indecisive clash at Zboriv (below) in August 1649, the combatants again signed a treaty, but Catholic bishops refused to abide by it. Khmelnytskyconsidered himself the head ofan independentstate betweenPoland andRussia

Lviv & Zamosc payransoms to lift sieges June 28–30, 1651 Khmelnytskyloses largest battle July–Aug. 1649 War bogs down at Zbarazh & Zboriv December 1653 Tatars defect, Khmelnytsky abandons siege I n the 16th century, at the heart of what today is Ukraine, lived an Eastern Slavic Orthodox Christian people known as the Cossacks. Granted a measure of autonomy under the nominal suzerainty of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Cossacks even served in the commonwealth army. But after a Polish nobleman seized the lands of Zaporozhian Cossack leader Bohdan Khmelnytsky, and a Polish army sought to bull its way through Zaporozhian lands en route to attack the Muslim Tatars of the Crimean Khanate, Khmelnytsky fomented a revolt to throw off Polish domination. Making common cause with disaffected Polish peasants, as well as their traditional enemies the Tatars, Khmelnytsky’s Cossacks claimed victory across the region, from Zhovti Vody and Korsun in the east through Pyliavtsi to the western towns of Lviv and Zamosc, which paid them a ransom in tribute. On Christmas Day they marched into Kiev in triumph. But the commonwealth’s Catholic bishops refused to abide by a treaty. After the collapse of successive treaties and a rare defeat at Berestechko, the Cossacks resumed fighting. Despite further victories, Khmelnytsky knew his Cossacks weren’t strong enough to consolidate their gains, so in 1654 he signed the Treaty of Pereiaslav, accepting the overlordship of tsarist Russia and thus sowing the seeds of a conflict over borders that continues to this day. MH 38 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024 Cossack Rise

39 Sept. 13, 1648 Tens of thousands of peasants aid Cossack victory Christmas 1648 Khmelnytsky hailed as liberator September 1651 Indecisive battle, then broken treaty January 1654 Khmelnytsky signs pact with tsarist Russia June 1, 1652 Khmelnytsky orders massacre of Polish POWs April 29, 1648 Khmelnytsky wins decisive first battle MAP BY JOE LEMONNIER, MAPARTIST.COM

40 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024 ALBUM (ALAMY STOCK PHOTO) whom were Ruthenian peasants armed with flails and scythes.The Poles underKing Jan IIKazimierz, PrinceWisniowiecki and the recently freed Grand Hetman Mikolaj Potocki fielded 80,000 troops, including severalregiments of Poland’s famed winged hussars. The first two days of battle primarily involved the combatant armies’ cavalries. The Poles prevailed on the first day; the Tatars on the second. On June 30 the Polish artillery played a major role in defeating the Tatars and driving them from the field. In the process the retreating Tatars took Khmelnytsky hostage. The isolated and surrounded Cossacks eventually managed to break out and withdraw east toward the Dnieper, but Jan II Kazimierz committed the error of failing to pursue.In his first major defeat Khmelnytsky suffered upward of 10,000 casualties. A small Polish force of 12,000 under Potocki andWisniowieckistarted a slack pursuit eastward after the retreating Cossacks, but Wisniowiecki fell ill and he died onAugust 20 under mysterious circumstances. Hewas only 39. Released by the Tatars, Khmelnytsky reconstituted his army andwith 50,000Cossacks and Tatars met the Poles on September 24 at Bila Tserkva, 50 miles south of Kiev. The following day,with the arrival oftorrentialrains and both sides running short ofrations, the battle ended inclusively. Four dayslaterthe combatantssigned the Treaty of Bila Tserkva. When the Sejm failed to ratify the treaty, Khmelnytsky went back on the offensive. On June 1, 1652, his force of more than 20,000Cossacks and Tatars caught and crushed a Polish column half its size at Batih, 140 miles southwest of Kiev. Three thousand Poles were slain, 8,500 captured. Even after the fighting stopped, however, Khmelnytsky personally ordered the massacre of as many as 3,000 of the Polish prisoners,supposedly in revenge for his crushing defeat at Berestechko. The episode was a sad precursor to the Katyn massacre of 1940, when Soviet secret police murdered nearly 22,000 Polish prisoners of war. Many Polish senior military officers died at Batih, either during the battle or in the follow-on massacre. Their loss would handicap the Polish army for years to come. In the summer of1653 Khmelnytsky encircled a small force under Jan II Kazimierz at Zhvanets, on the Dniester River some 140 miles southeast of Lviv. Both sides were relatively weak, and the standoff dragged on into December. Khmelnytsky finally abandoned the siege after his Tatar allies abandoned him.Khan Islam III Giray had been playing a double game all along. It was in the interests of the Crimean Tatarsto prevent either Ruthenia (Ukraine) or Poland from growing too strong and becoming the dominant power in the region. The khan changed sides. Though Khmelnytsky was the de facto autocrat of Ruthenia, he knew he was not strong enough to consolidate and secure his gains. Forsome time he’d been appealing to Moscowforsupport in the name of their common Eastern Orthodox faith.TsarAlexei Mikhailovich prevaricated until finally forced to act when the Tatars switched to support the Poles. Underthe terms of the 1654 Treaty of Pereiaslav theZaporozhianCossacks agreed to acceptthe overlordship of the tsar, a position previously held by the Polish king. Tactical Takeaways In calling for an uprising against Polish overlords, Khmelnytsky galvanized tens of thousands of willing peasants, fellow Cossacks and even their traditional Tatar foes. Never give in or give up. Khmelnytsky persisted in his claims for Cossack self-rule through several broken treaties, refusing to disband his army until achieving independence. Don’t just trade rulers. Though the Zaporozhian treaty with tsarist Russia enabled the Cossacks to consolidate and secure their gains, they were left beholden to Russia. In January 1654 Khmelnytsky informs a clearly pleased crowd of Cossacks in Pereiaslav of a recentlysigned treaty placing the Zaporozhian hetmanate under the protection of tsarist Russia, an agreement with echoes to today.

41 The treaty also legitimized Russian claimsto the Ruthenian capital of Kiev—the repercussions of which have echoed down through history to the present day. In July 1654 Russian troops attacked from the east into northern and central Ruthenia, driving toward Poland proper. Khmelnytsky commanded the Cossack contingent.They quickly tookKiev. But theCrimean Tatarswere fighting on the side of the Poles, and the Russo-PolishWar draggedoutuntil 1667.Atwar’s endtheTreatyofAndrusovo forced the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth to cede Ukraine east oftheDnieperRiver, includingKiev,toRussia. Sweden, meanwhile, grew increasingly anxious about potential Russian encroachment on its interests along the south Baltic coast, hard won during the Thirty Years’ War. Thus, Sweden invaded Poland from the northwest, triggering the Second Northern War of 1655–60. The Swedes penetrated deep into southern Poland, taking both Warsaw and Krakow. The war is known in Polish history to this day as “The Deluge.” In 1656 the Tatars switched loyalties back to the Cossacks. Historians to this day are undecided about when exactly the Khmelnytsky Uprising ended, as in its final phases it merged with the Russian invasion. Probably the best date is Aug. 6, 1657, when Khmelnytsky died of a cerebral hemorrhage at age 62. His revolt had managed to break the Zaporozhian Cossack hetmanate free of Polish-Lithuanian domination, only to place it under the dominion of the tsars. The uprising and the subsequent simultaneous wars with Russia and Sweden produced an orgy of destruction in Poland equivalent to that in Germany during the Thirty Years’ War. Polish Protestants and Jews were especially hard hit. According to estimates, as many as 100,000 Jews died. The PolishLithuanian Commonwealth went into a century-long decline, ending with the 1795 Third (and final) Partition of Poland. Nonetheless, the Polish army, especially the winged hussars, gave a good account of itself when it broke the Ottoman Siege of Vienna in 1683. The long-running hostilities between the Poles and the Zaporozhian Cossacksloom large in both Russian and Polish literature. Nikolai Gogol’s 1835 historical novella Taras Bulba is set in the area around Kiev about 20 years before the start of the Khmelnytsky Uprising. It is a Shakespearean-style tragedy about the son of aCossack chieftain who falls in love with the daughter of a Polish nobleman. It was made into a popular film in 1962, with Yul Brynner perfectly cast as the Cossack chieftain. To this day Polish schoolchildren learn abouttheKhmelnytsky Uprising by reading Henryk Sienkiewicz’s 1884 historical novel With Fire and Sword, Poland’s answer to War and Peace. Sienkiewicz was the first Pole to win the Nobel Prize in Literature.Though fictional, his main characters are based on historical figures. The book’s major T secondary figures include Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Prince OP: WITOLD RACZUNAS, PINAKOTEKA ZASCIANEK; RIGHT: SILVER SCREEN (ALAMY STOCK PHOTO) JeremiWisniowiecki,King Jan IIKazimierz,Khan Islam III Giray,Tughai Bey and Prince Jerzy Ossolinski. Sienkiewicz’s narrative culminateswith the Poles holding out during the ferocious siege of Zbarazh. MH Major General David T. Zabecki (U.S. Army, Ret.) is HistoryNet’s chief military historian. For further reading he recommends God’s Playground: A History of Poland: Vol. I, The Origins to 1795, by Norman Davies, and A History of Poland, by Oskar Halec. Song of the Cossack Victors epitomizes the triumphal Russian view of the uprising. Below: Nikolai Gogol’s 1835 novella Taras Bulba, about a Cossack chieftain’s son who falls in love with a Polish nobleman’s daughter, was adapted into a 1962 film.

Theodore Roosevelt’s charge up Cuba’s San Juan Heights remains the stuff of legend, but each of his four sons demonstrated conspicuous courage in his own right ByJohn Miles

The Roosevelt family patriarch set the bar high with his July 1, 1898, assault of San Juan Heights during the Spanish-American War. The future president’s sons rose to the occasion in later wars. 43

44 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024 ust after dawn on July 14, 1918—Bastille Day in France—four American fliers of the 95th Aero Squadron, piloting French-built Nieuport 28 biplane fighters, set out on patrol looking for German observation aircraft. Shortly after crossing no-man’s-land, the flight encountered not lightly armed observation planes but seven Fokker D.VII biplane fighters. While the Nieuport 28 was a capable airframe, the Fokker D.VII proved one of the most formidable fighters of the war. In this encounter the Germans had not only more and better aircraft, but also the advantages of altitude and the sun at their backs on this partly cloudy day. Recognizing the predicament, the American flight leader tried to get his formation back across no-man’sland. Before the Nieuports could reach friendly airspace, however, the faster Fokkers caught up. Within moments the Germans broke up the American formation, and the encounter devolved into a free-for-all dogfight. After the war 1st Lt. Edward Buford Jr., a pilot of the 95th, recalled having spotted one of his flight’s Nieuports with three Fokkers in pursuit. Buford turned to intervene, only to watch helplessly as moments later the fleeing Nieuport turtled and plunged toward the ground. Realizing there was little hope for his downed fellow American, the lieutenant turned back for base, dodging from cloud to cloud for fear of running into another German formation. At the time Buford had no idea who’d been piloting the downed plane. However, he was certain whoever it was had chosen to die fighting, as the American could have easily gotten away by flying into any of the patchy but numerous clouds. PREVIOUS SPREAD: CORBIS (GETTY IMAGES); THIS PAGE: BETTMANN (GETTY) ofwhichwasrenamedRoosevelt Field in the monthsfollowing Quentin’s death). That summer young Roosevelt and fellowairmen shipped outfor France,where they completed theirtraining. Finally assigned to the 95thAero Squadron as replacement pilotsin late June 1918, theywere issued Nieuport 28s and went into combat almost immediately. On July 10, four days before he wasshot down, Quentin logged his first (and only) confirmed kill of a German aircraft. Though a combat novice, he’d already developed a The American shot down and killed over France that morning in 1918 was Quentin Roosevelt, youngest son of former President Theodore Roosevelt. When killed, Quentin was just 20 years old and serving as a first lieutenant with the U.S. Army Air Service. On April 25, 1917, within weeks of the U.S. entry into WorldWarI, Quentin had dropped out of college to join the newly formed1stReserveAeroSquadron.He initially trained on Long Island,N.Y., atHazelhurstAviation Field (a portion Hardly a snapshot of an imposing family in the warrior tradition is this 1901 portrait of (left to right) Ted, Kermit, Theodore, Quentin and Archie. But father and sons proved themselves in battle.

45 reputation for recklessness. Roosevelt’s commanding officerrepeatedly cautioned him about taking chances, while his fellow pilots agreed Quentin would either achieve ace status and glory or be killed in the attempt. They begged him to practice restraint andwaitforreasonable opportunitiesfor victory. But the young, cocksure pilot laughed away any such advice. Such foolhardy courage appears to have been a family trait. Quentin had been reared reading and hearing about father Theodore’s devil-may-care exploits in the SpanishAmericanWar.Asthe son of the commander of the 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry who’d famously led his“Rough Riders” to victory atop Cuba’s San Juan Heights, Quentin could be expected to comport himself in a way that would reflect credit on the family’s martial history. That he did. The Germans who recovered Quentin’s body noted he’d been struck in the head by two rounds from the pursuing Fokker D.VIIs’ machine guns. Germany, which still held Theodore Roosevelt in high respect, was impressed that the former president’s son had been on active duty when killed. The Germans buried him with great ceremony and highest honors. Reportedly, more than 1,000 German soldiers attended the funeral, a rare and likely unique honor for any American airman downed during the war.The French government waslikewise appreciative of Quentin’s heroism and posthumously awarded him the Croix de guerre with bronze palm. Quentinwas notthe only son of Theodore Roosevelt to have servedwith distinction in World WarI. Roosevelt’s eldestson,Theodore “Ted”RooseveltIII,was a notedArmy officer. As befitting a president’s son, Ted Jr., as he was known, was educated at private academies and attended Harvard University. After graduation from the latter Ted launched a career in business, though he set aside time for prewar military training at a Citizens’ Military Training Camp. Soon after the United States declared war, he accepted a reserve commission as a major. Serving primarily with the 1st Division, Roosevelt took part in early clashes, earned promotion to lieutenant colonel and was appointed a battalion commanderin the 26th Infantry Regiment.According to his division commander, Ted alwaysled from the front and gained a reputation asthe best battalion commanderin the division.He cared so much about his men’s welfare that he personally purchased combat boots, several hundred pairs, for the entire battalion. Roosevelt eventually commanded the 26th Regiment, a billet usually reserved for a full colonel. He led his men into several battles, including the first majorAmerican clash of the war, at Cantigny on May 28, 1918. That summer at the Battle of Soissons he was gassed and wounded. Unlike brother Quentin, however, Ted survived the war. TheArmy awardedColonelRoosevelt the Distinguished Service Crossfor hiswartime actions, and the Frenchwere N so grateful for Ted’s part in stopping the Germansthat they EW YORK NATIONAL GUARD (2) Quentin Roosevelt left Harvard to volunteer when the United States declared war in 1917. Shipping out for France that summer, he was assigned to the 95th Aero Squadron in June 1918. At top he posesin his Nieuport 27 trainer, painted with the comic strip character Old Doc Yak. On July 14, child’s play behind him, the 20-year-old lieutenant was shot down behind German lines.

46 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024 made him a chevalier of the Légion d’honneur, one of their nation’s highest honors. ButRoosevelt’sservice to histroops didn’t end with the November Armistice. On returning Stateside, he helped found the veterans organization that developed into the American Legion. Choosing to follow in his father’s footsteps and launch a political career, Ted wasinitially elected a member of the NewYork StateAssembly for NassauCounty.In 1921 PresidentWarren G. Harding appointed him assistantsecretary of the Navy, the same office to which his father had been appointed more than two decades earlier.In 1929 President Herbert Hoover appointed Roosevelt governor of Puerto Rico, then three yearslatertapped him as governor-general of the Philippines.After Hooverlostre-election to Franklin Delano Roosevelt, a distant cousin of Ted’s, the governorgeneral returned home and resumed his business career. During the interwar years Roosevelt maintained his Army commission, participated in annualsummertraining, completed advanced infantry officer courses and attended TOP: NEW YORK NATIONAL GUARD; LEFT: NATIONAL PARK SERVICE the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. In 1940, as World War II raged in Europe, he was promoted to full colonel. In April1941, as it looked increasingly likely the United States would enter the war, Roosevelt returned to active duty and was given command of his old regiment, the 26th Infantry.Afterthe U.S. declaration ofwarin late 1941, Tedwas promoted to the rank of brigadier general. Having been wounded and gassed in World War I, he could have easily procured a series of Stateside staff billets for the duration of the war. But that wasn’t the way a son of Theodore Roosevelt conducted himself. Indeed, Ted actively sought combat billets. His first overseas assignment in his second war was to NorthAfrica,whereRoosevelt earned a reputation for commanding from the front, just as he had during World WarI. On Nov. 8, 1942, during the Allied landings in Algeria, Roosevelt led the 26th Infantry in an attack on the VichyAs the slain son of a U.S. president, Quentin Roosevelt merited honors from both Allied and enemy forces. More than 1,000 Germans attended a funeral held immediately after his downing. Once the site reverted back to French control after the war, the Allies erected this more permanent marker.

47 administered port of Oran. A year later he was named assistant commander of the 1st Infantry Division. At the end of that operation General Alphonse Juin, the military commander of French Africa,recognized Roosevelt’s distinguished performance with the Croix de guerre, Ted’s second French award in two wars. Rooseveltremained assistant commander ofthe “BigRed One” during the invasion of Sicily. No sooner had theAllies secured a beachhead on the Italian mainland, however, than Ted objected he was too far from the front. Accordingly, he repeatedly pestered GeneralDwightD. Eisenhower for a combat command. Roosevelt’s persistence finally paid off in February 1944 when he was appointed deputy commander of the 4th Infantry Division and sent to Britain to prepare for the forthcoming invasion of Normandy. Brigadier General Roosevelt desperately wanted to participate in the landings, but the division’s commander, Maj. Gen. Raymond Barton, repeatedly denied Ted’s verbal requests for permission to accompany the troops. Finally, Rooseveltsent awritten petition to his boss,stating that by sending ina generalofficerwiththefirstwave,the commanding generalwould have greatersituational awareness of the battle. While true, the fact was Ted simply wanted to be in the fight. Barton reluctantly approved Roosevelt’s written request,resignedly stating he didnot expectTed to returnalive. Thus, on D-Day Brig. Gen. Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was the only general officerto landwith the firstwave of troops. At 56, hewas also the oldest participant in the invasion and the only one whose son also went ashore that day. Captain QuentinRooseveltII, named afterthe uncle shot down over France inWorldWarI,was anartillery officerinthe 1stDivision and in the firstwave ofsoldiersto land atOmahaBeach. Within moments ofstriding ashore at Utah Beach General Roosevelt learned that the landing craft carrying lead elements of the 4th Division had drifted south, placing the first wave a mile off course. Walking with the aid of a cane, the arthritic Roosevelt gamely carried a pistol in his other hand as he personally reconnoitered the bluffs behind the landing beach to locate causeways necessary forthe landing troops to advance inland. He then returned to the point of landing, rallied the commanders of the two battalions already ashore and coordinated an attack. Opting to fight from where they had landed, Roosevelt’s barked the celebrated order,“We’llstartthewarfrom right here!”Hisspontaneous plan broughtsuccesswith a modicum of confusion. Though under constant barrage from Wehrmacht artilLI lery, it was a calm and collected General Roosevelt who BRARY OF CONGRESS (2) Also serving in World War I was the eldest Roosevelt brother, Ted, who saw combat in France with the U.S. 1st Division and rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel. He survived being wounded and gassed and returned home to pursue politics. He maintained his commission. Wastheirconspicuouscourage underfireagenetictraitor learned behavior?Perhaps both

48 MILITARY HISTORY SPRING 2024 CLOCKWISE FROM TOP: BETTMANN (GETTY IMAGES); LIBRARY OF CONGRESS; NATIONAL ARCHIVES greeted each successivewave of landing troops. He inspired the mostly young G.I.swith his coolness under fire,reciting poetry and relating wartime anecdotes of his father. Roosevelt personally pointed almost every regimental commanderto his newobjective.At othertimes he functioned as a military policeman, clearing traffic jams and directing columns of vehicles allseeking to get off the shell-pounded beach.ThankstoRoosevelt’sinitiative, his division managed to drive inland and then attack north to achieve its primary objectives.There islittle doubt his presence on Utah Beach did much to expediteAllied success onD-Day.Afterthewar Archibald Roosevelt Kermit Roosevelt General Omar Bradley was asked to name the single most heroic action he had witnessed in combat. His immediate reply was, “Ted Roosevelt on Utah Beach.” His performance is all the more remarkable when one considers Roosevelt’s age and that he suffered from arthritis hastened by his World War I injuries. He also had heart trouble, which he somehow kept under wraps from his superiors. But his frailty did ultimately catch up to him. On July 12, little more than a month after D-Day, Roosevelt wasin Méautis, France, a dozen milesinland. Operating out of a converted sleeping truck liberated from the Germans a few days before, he spent part of the day in conversation with son Quentin. That night around 10 p.m. Ted suffered a heart attack, and two hourslater hewas dead. Earlierthat day Bradley had recommended Roosevelt to Eisenhower for promotion to the two-star rank of major general and command of the 90th Infantry Division. Ted died before the promotion came through. Barton had recommended Roosevelt for the Distinguished ServiceCrossfor his heroism onD-Day.In thewake ofTed’s death, Eisenhower upgraded thatrecommendation, and on Sept. 21, 1944, Theodore Roosevelt III was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor. His wife, Eleanor, accepted the award from Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson as U.S. Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall, U.S.ArmyAir Forces commander GeneralHenry.H.“Hap” Arnold and British Field Marshal Sir John Dill looked on. BrothersQuentinRoosevelt and Ted Roosevelt Jr. had each displayed conspicuous courage under fire,which begs the question, Was it a genetic trait or learned behavior? Perhaps both. Their famous father, Theodore Roosevelt, wasserving as assistantsecretary oftheNavywhenSpainand theUnited States declaredwar on one anotherinApril 1898. Roosevelt had prior military experiencewith the NewYork National Guard, so at the outset of the Spanish-American War he resigned his office and signed on asColonel Leonard Wood’s second-in-command over the 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry.Roosevelt’sfamily andfriends beggedhimto remain at his postinWashington, but hewas determined to getinto the fight. When newspapersreported the formation of the newregiment, eager young horsemen culled from Arizona, NewMexico,Oklahoma andTexas floodedWood andRooseveltwithapplications.Referredtoby thepress asthe “Rough Riders,” theirregimentwas one of many volunteer unitsthat sprang into and out of being over the course of the war. Placed under a volunteer cavalry division led by Maj. Gen. Joseph “Fighting Joe” Wheeler, the notoriousformer Confederate cavalry commander, the Rough Riders were part of theAmerican invasion force sent toCuba. On July 1, 1898, Lt. Col. Roosevelt’s men were among those tasked with assaulting Spanish positions atop San Juan Heights outside Santiago. While their adversaries were primarily recently arrived Spanish conscripts,the enemy officerswere combat veteransskilled at fighting Cuban insurgents. The After the U.S. declared war in late 1941, Ted was promoted to the rank of brigadier general. He fought in North Africa and landed with the troops at Normandy on D-Day. On July 12, 1944, he died in France of a heart attack. That September he was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor.