Pra-U STPM Biology Term 3 2018 CB039148c

STPM Text

PREFACE ii Pre-U STPM Text Biology Term 3 is written based on the new syllabus prepared by the Malaysian Examinations Council (MEC) that will be enforced in 2013. The book is well designed and organised with the following features to help students understand the concepts taught. Concept Map Provides an overall view of the concepts learnt in the chapter Summary Summarises key concepts learnt in the chapter. Bilingual Keywords A list of bilingual terms is provided Info Bio Provides extra information that relates to the subtopics learnt STPM Scheme of Assessment Latest STPM scheme of Assessment starting 2013

iii Quick Check Provides short questions for students to test their understanding of the concepts learnt in the subtopics Exam Tips Provides helpful tips for students in answering exam questions Past-year Questions tagging Enables students to know the topics of frequently tested in the exam Learning Outcomes A list of subtopics that students will learn in each chapter

iv STPM Practice A variety of examinationtype questions to check students’ understanding of the chapters learnt STPM Model Paper (964/3) A model paper that follows the latest STPM exam format is provided for practice Answers Complete answers are provided

v Analysis of STPM Papers (2015 – 2017) Chapter 2015 2016 2017 A B C A B C A B C 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 2 – – 2 1 – 2 – 1 15 Ecology 3 1 – 3 1 – 3 – 1 16 Selection and Speciation 2 – – 4 – 1 1 – – 17 Inheritance and Genetic Control 5 1 1 2 – 1 5 1 – 18 Gene Technology 1 – 1.5 2 – – 3 1 – 19 Biotechnology 2 – 0.5 2 – 1 1 – 1 Total 15 2 3 15 2 3 15 2 3

Pengajian Perniagaan Penggal 1 STPM vi STPM Scheme of Assessment Term of Study Paper Code and Name Theme / Title Type of Test Mark (Weighting) Duration Administration First Term 964/1 Biology Paper 1 Biological Molecules and Metabolism Written test Section A 15 compulsory multiple-choice questions to be answered. Section B 2 compulsory short structured questions to be answered. Section C 2 out of 3 essay questions to be answered. All questions are based on topics 1 to 6. 60 (26.67%) 15 15 30 1—1 2 hours Central assessment Second Term 964/2 Biology Paper 2 Physiology Written test Section A 15 compulsory multiple-choice questions to be answered. Section B 2 compulsory short structured questions to be answered. Section C 2 out of 3 essay questions to be answered. All questions are based on topics 7 to 13. 60 (26.67%) 15 15 30 1—1 2 hours Central assessment

Pengajian Perniagaan Penggal 1 STPM vii Term of Study Paper Code and Name Theme / Title Type of Test Mark (Weighting) Duration Administration Third Term 964/3 Biology Paper 3 Ecology and Genetics Written test Section A 15 compulsory multiple-choice questions to be answered. Section B 2 compulsory short structured questions to be answered. Section C 2 out of 3 essay questions to be answered. All questions are based on topics 14 to 19. 60 (26.67%) 15 15 30 1—1 2 hours Central assessment 964/5 Biology Paper 5 Written Practical Test 3 structured questions with diagram/graph/ table to be answered. 45 (20%) 1—1 2 hours Central assessment First, Second and Third Terms 964/4 Biology Paper 4 Biology Practical School-based Assessment of Practical 15 compulsory experiments to be carried out. 25 (20%) Throughout the three terms School-based assessment

CONTENTS viii Chapter • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 1 14.1 Taxonomy 2 14.2 Diversity of Organisms 5 14.3 Biodiversity in Malaysia 24 14.4 Threats to Biodiversity 27 14.5 Conservation of Biodiversity 33 STPM Practice 14 35 QQ 39 Answers 39 Chapter • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 15 ECOLOGY 41 15.1 Levels of Ecological Organisation 42 15.2 Biogeochemical Cycles 48 15.3 Energy Flow 54 15.4 Population Ecology 56 15.5 Carrying Capacity 61 15.6 Quantitative Ecology 72 STPM Practice 15 80 QQ 87 Answers 87 Chapter • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 16 Selection and Speciation 90 16.1 Natural and Artificial Selection 91 16.2 Speciation 107 STPM Practice 16 115 QQ 118 Answers 119 Chapter • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Inheritance and Genetic 17 Control 121 17.1 Types of Genetic Crosses and Breeding System 122 17.2 Modifications to Mendelian and Non-Mendelian Inheritance 131 17.3 Genetic Mapping 149 17.4 Population Genetics 151 17.5 DNA Replication 155 17.6 Gene Expression 164 17.7 Regulation of Gene Expression 172 17.8 Mutation 178 STPM Practice 17 192 QQ 204 Answers 204 Chapter • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 18 Gene Technology 212 18.1 Recombinant DNA Technology 213 STPM Practice 18 224 QQ 227 Answers 228 Chapter • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 19 Biotechnology 229 19.1 Roles of Biotechnology 230 19.2 Applications of Biotechnology 235 STPM Practice 19 253 QQ 257 Answers 258 STPM Model Paper (964/3) 259 Answers 263

1 14 CHAPTER Importance Taxonomy and Biodiversity Hierarchy Cnidaria Concept of species Kingdom Protoctista Kingdom Animalia Kingdom Plantae Porifera Platyhelminthes Arthropoda Mollusca Chordata Taxonomy Diversity of Organisms Biodiversity Threats to biodiversity Levels in Malaysia Step & efforts to address the threats Natural & manmade factors Conservation Ecosystem Species In situ Ex situ Genetic Chlorophyta Zoomastigina Bryophyta Filicinophyta Coniferophyta Angiospermophyta Zygomycota Kingdom Fungi TAXONOMY AND BIODIVERSITY Concept Map Bilingual Keywords Taxonomy: Pengelasan Hierarchy: Pangkat Taxon: Nama pangkat Dichotomous keys: Kekunci bercabang dua Nomenclature: Penamaan Binomial: Bernama dua Biodiversity: Kepelbagaian Kingdom: Alam Capsid: Kulit protein virus Capsomere: Unit protein kulit virus Fucoid: Berparenkima Pseudopodium: Kaki palsu Fungi: Kulat Alternation of generation: Selangan generasi Thallus: Tiada akar, batang, daun Gametophyte: Generasi hasil gamet Sporophyte: Generasi hasil spora Sorus: Kumpulan sporangium Ramenta: Bulu batang paku Sanctuary: Simpanan Strobilus: Struktur pembiakan pinus Ex situ: Simpan di luar tempat asal In situ: Simpan di tempat asal Morphological: Morfologi Conservation: Pemuliharaan Characteristic: Ciri-ciri Fern: Paku pakis Phylum: Filum Botanical gardens: Taman tumbuhan Unicellular: Satu sel Chitin: Kitin Filamentous: Berfilamen/bebenang Capsule: Kapsul Extinction: Kepupusan Swamp: Paya Illegal logging: Pembalakan haram Coastal: Tepi pantai Exploitation: Eksploitasi Mangrove : Bakau 14

2 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 14.1 Taxonomy 1. Taxonomy (Greek, “arranging rules”) is the science of classifying living things, a study in the principles of naming and classification of organisms. These principles are based on different branches of Biology. 2. The principles involved are based on comparative studies from morphology, physiology, anatomy, cytology, genetics, serology, palaeontology, ecology and geography. From these branches, there are basic similarities among related group of organisms. 3. Organisms were first classified more than 2,000 years ago by the Greek philosopher, Aristotle who categorised living things as either plants or animals. Later, the Greeks and the Romans called the organisms by their generic name (genus). 4. The binomial system, a more scientific approach was then used after the publication of Linnaeus’s book titled ‘System of Nature’ in the 18th century. Every type of organism was given both genus and species name written in Latin. 5. However, the non-scientific classification of organisms has long been practised by man for the convenience of categorising organisms especially plants. 6. The present system of classification is based on five kingdoms as proposed by Margulis and Schwartz in 1998. Importance of Taxonomy 1. The importance of taxonomy is to avoid uncertainty when a name of an organism is mentioned in any country by using a common scientific name. This has already been formulated and is universally accepted based on nomenclature (naming) agreed to name all the known organisms and newly discovered ones. 2. Taxonomy enables the easy identification of characteristics of an individual or groups of organisms. Since all organisms are systematically classified, a generalisation can be made about a certain group of organisms. For example, an insect with two wings can be classified as Diptera, a true fly which possess two wings unlike typical four-winged insects. 3. It ensures easy distinction of the advanced from the primitive organisms and the closely related from the distantly related ones. This is possible as classification is based on evolutionary relationships. Therefore, an organism can be easily distinguished from a more complicated one based on their so-called homologous feature. Learning Outcomes Students should be able to: (a) explain the importance of taxonomy in biological sciences; (b) explain the concept of species, and relate how a species is classified into higher categories in a taxonomic hierarchy. Summary 1. Taxonomy is a study in the principles of naming and classification of organisms. 2. Principles involve different branches of biology. 3. Based on 5 kingdom system. 4. Naming is based on binomial system: each species with two names, genus and species. 2014

3 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 4. Another purpose is to avoid overlap of nomenclature by giving two different names for the same species or two distinct subspecies of organisms. Some biological characteristics of a group can be predicted especially if their ecology and evolutionary relationship with another group is compared. 5. Taxonomy enables us to harness the benefits of related species in applied science. When a certain beneficial chemical is found in one species in a country, a quick investigation on the same chemical in a related species in another country is possible. For example, the discovery of a species of plant with anti-cancer properties would prompt us to research on the same category of plant in our country to see if it has the same or even better properties. 6. Taxonomy provides evolutionary perspective to substantiate other biological information. It gives meaning to all subcategories in biological studies like anatomy, physiology, genetics, and ecology providing further information on how natural selection acts on all organisms as well as how certain characters are adapted. Quick Check 1 1. Do you know of animals which are named differently in different countries? Concept of Species 1. Species is the basic unit of taxon. It is the lowest rank in the hierarchy of classification. 2. There are four ways in defining species depending on the field of biology. (a) Structural. Species is a group of organisms that are the same morphologically, anatomically, biochemically and behaviourally. However, this definition can no longer be used as species constantly change as a result of mutation. (b) Reproduction. Species is a group of organisms that can freely interbreed among themselves to produce fertile offspring. This is most commonly used to define species nowadays. Humans are one species where despite obvious difference in looks between races and ethnic groups, intermarriages can produce fertile offspring. (c) Genetics. Species is a group of organisms that have identical genome (the type and number of genes) or karyotype (the structure and number of chromosomes). There are exceptions due to mutations such as people with one or more chromosomes. Exam Tips Remember the importances of taxonomy. Summary Importances of taxonomy: 1. To avoid uncertainty. 2. To easily identify organisms. 3. To easily distinguish between organisms. 4. To avoid overlap of nomenclature. 5. To harness benefits of related species in applied science. 6. To provide evolutionary perspective.

4 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 (d) Ecology. Species is a group of organisms that occupy the same niche. Niche is all the activities carried out by the group of organism in a habitat. No two species occupy the same niche. 3. Species is not uniform in nature. There are variations in appearance and even genetic make-up. 4. Species can be divided into several groups such as cline, deme, variety, race and subspecies. (a) Cline. Cline is a distinct group in the species that has a specific phenotype such as hair colour, feather or flower. (b) Deme. Deme is a group within the species that has its own gene pool, undergoes long isolation and always mixes and interbreed among themselves. (c) Variety. Variety is a group with unique features that can be easily recognisable and used to refer to farm animals or crops. (d) Race. Race is a group of human that resides in a certain geographical region and has distinctive features. (e) Subspecies. Subspecies is a very distinct group within the species but are still able to interbreed to produce fertile offspring, though not always so. Taxonomic Hierarchy 1. Taxonomic hierarchy is also known as taxon. It is the different ranks in the classification, from the most basic to the most general. 2. The ranks from the most general to the most basic are kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. 3. The ranks and how a species is classified into higher categories are as follows; (a) The basic rank or unit of taxon is species. A species is a group of individuals of the same genome which can freely reproduce with one another to produce fertile offspring. (b) Genus. A group of similar or closely related species. Two species within a genus can be very similar. (c) Family. A group of apparently related genera. Species within a family onwards can be increasingly different. (d) Order. A group of apparently related families. (e) Class. A group of orders within a phylum. (f) Phylum. Organisms with structures of similar plan. Species within a phylum can be very diverse. (g) Kingdom. This is the largest and most inclusive grouping i.e. Prokaryotae, Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. 4. Some taxa are too large, so large that as to be fairly meaningless. This problem is overcome by subdivision into groups such as subphylum and subclasses. Summary 1. Species is the basic unit and the lowest rank. 2. Definition can be based on structure, reproduction, genetics and ecology. 3. Species is not uniform, vary in appearance and alleles. 4. Subdivided into cline, deme, variety, race and subspecies. Exam Tips Remember the meaning of taxonomic rank and examples as found in common plants and animals. (STPM 2014 structured question)

5 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 5. Examples of the hierarchy are as follows: Table 14.1 Example of hierarchy Examples Maize Man Kingdom Plantae Animalia Phylum Angiospermophyta Chordata Classs Monocotyledonae Mammalia Order Glumiflorae Primate Family Maydeae Hominidae Genus Zea Homo Species mays sapiens Quick Check 2 1. How are the taxa of Helianthus different from maize and orang utan different from humans? 14.2 Diversity of Organisms Kingdom Protoctista Protoctista or Protista consists of algae and protozoa. The protists have the following morphological (form) characteristics. 1. The protists are all eukaryotic organisms. All their cells have a nucleus each and in parameciums, each cell has two nuclei, the meganucleus that controls vegetative functions and micronucleus that controls reproductive functions. 2. They may be in different forms. Some are unicellular while, others are filamentous or parenchymatous organisms. Examples of unicellular forms are protozoa and algae whereas filamentous form is Spirogyra and parenchymatous forms are large sea algae. 3. Their cell surface may be plasma membrane, cell wall or shell of silica. Protozoa like Amoeba, Paramecium and Euglena have thick plasma membranes called pellicles. Marine protozoa usually have a shell of silica whereas algae have cellulose cell wall. 4. They may have locomotory organelles like flagella, cilia and pseudopodia. Euglenas have flagella, Parameciums have cilia and Amoebas have pseudopodia for locomotion. 5. They can form cysts to withstand desiccated conditions. When their aquatic habitat is drying up, they can form a layer of external wall as in unicellular protozoa and algae. The cysts formed may be blown by the wind and dispersed to other aquatic environments. Learning Outcomes Students should be able to: (a) describe the morphological characteristics of the following phyla in the respective kingdoms: Protoctista (Chlorophyta and Zoomastigina), Fungi (Zygomycota), Plantae (Bryophyta, Filicinophyta, Coniferophyta and Angiospermophyta) and Animalia (Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Mollusca, Arthropoda and Chordata).

6 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 6. They may be photoautotrophs or heterotrophs. The photoautotrophs have photosynthetic pigments which make them green, yellow, orange, brown or red as in algae. The heterotrophs are protozoa and marine zooplanktons that feed on bacteria or other protists. 7. They mainly reproduce asexually but most can reproduce sexually. All protozoa can divide by mitosis but only Paramecium can have sexual reproduction by conjugation. Algae may produce special structures both for asexual and sexual reproduction. Chlorophyta 1. Chlorophyta are green algae. They are green in colour containing chlorophyll a and b for photosynthesis. 2. They are mostly aquatic, living in freshwater and a few in marine, while some are terrestrial. Chlorella, Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra are freshwater whereas Ulva is marine. 3. They are present in various forms. An example of unicellular form is Chlamydomonas, filamentous form is Spirogyra and parenchymatous form is Ulva. 4. Their cell walls are composed of cellulose, pectins and hemicellulose typical of plants. 5. The chloroplasts are of various shapes with pyrenoids. Chlamydomonas has cup-shaped chloroplasts whereas Spirogyra has spiral-shaped chloroplasts. Pyrenoids are proteins likely to be enzymes associated with the photosynthetic pigments. 6. Chlorophyta store starch inside the chloroplasts in the form of starch grains which act as the food reserve. 7. Flagella of two or four are common. Chlamydomonas have two anterior whiplash flagella that help them to swim forward. 8. Most species are haploid and by mitosis producing gametes that are isogamous. The male and female gametes are almost identical in structure. 9. Asexual reproduction always produces zoospores. Chlamydomonas and Ulva can produce swimming haploid zoospores. 10. Ulva shows isomorphic alternation of generations. The haploid or diploid generation are identical. The haploid generation produces haploid gametes by mitosis then fertilises to form zygote which settles on rock to produce diploid generation. The diploid generation produces haploid zoospores by meiosis. The zoospores settle on rock to produce the haploid generation. Summary Protists 1. Eukaryotic 2. Have different forms 3. Cells may have cell wall 4. May be mobile 5. Autotrophs or heterotrophs 6. Reproduce asexually and sexually

7 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 Phylum Zoomastigina 1. Zoomastigina are protozoa that possess one or more flagella to move about. 2. Zoomastigina are heterotrophic and do not have any chloroplast. Zoomastigina excludes Phytomastigina like Euglena. 3. Zoomastigina have pellicle, a thickened form of plasma membrane which may form pseudopodia and absorb food directly. 4. Zoomastigina are free living saprotrophic, mutualistic or parasitic organisms. The free living can be found in the freshwater, soil or marine. The mutualistic zoomastigina live inside the guts of herbivores and termites. 5. The free living and mutualistic ones can digest cellulose because they have cellulases. The parasitic ones can secrete proteases to digest cellular proteins. 6. Parasitic zoomastigina can produce sickness. Such example is the African sleeping sickness which is caused by Trypanosoma sp. The sickness is transmitted by the Tsetse fly and often leads to death. 7. Zoomastigina reproduce asexually, by binary fission. Some have a sexual cycle as well, producing gametes by meiosis. Kingdom Fungi 1. Fungi are eukaryotic heterotrophs. They are saprotrophs, parasites or mutualists. Some are found to be predatory, trapping small worms. 2. They do not have chlorophyll and are usually grey or white in colour. Some may be orange or yellow. 3. They are not motile. They do not possess any locomotory structure. Only the zoospores possess flagella. 4. They may be unicellular but usually they are mycelia consisting of fine strands of hyphae. Yeast is an example of unicellular fungus. 5. Their hyphae may be septate or non-septate, also known as coenocytic. i.e. they have no cross walls so they are multinucleated. 6. They have polysaccharide and chitin cell wall but without cellulose. 7. They store carbohydrate in the form of glycogen, not starch. 8. Asexual reproduction is formation of spores called conidia. Some form spores in sporangia. Language Check Language Check • Mycelium (singular) Mycelia (plural) • Hypha (singular) Hyphae (plural) • Gametangium (singular) Gametangia (plural) • Conidium (singular) Conid (plural) • Sporangium (singular) Sporangia (plural) • Septum (singular) Septa (plural) Figure 14.1 Trypanosoma Attached flagellum Kinetoplast Blephoblast or basal granule Reserved food granules Nucleus Ectoplasm Nucleolus Endoplasm Undulating membrane Pellicle Free flagelllum

8 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 9. Sexual reproduction is by fusion of nuclei from two different strains. 10. Sexual reproduction produces a dikaryotic stage where cytoplasmic fusion occurs without nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion occurs but it may be delayed and the two nuclei undergo divisions. Phylum Zygomycota 1. They have multinucleate hyphae that are non-septate (lack septa), except for reproductive structures i.e. when they form sporangia and gametangia. 2. They undergo asexual reproduction, producing sporangia that disperse spores or bigger type of spores called conidia. Before sporangia are produced, special erect hyphae called sporangiophores are formed. The tips of the sporangiophores form sporangia, which are separated by septa. The spores are formed by mitosis and are dispersed by wind. 3. Sexual reproduction is by conjugation of opposite strains. Fusion of hyphae leads directly to formation of a zygote in the zygosporium. The zygosporium, which may contain one or more diploid nuclei, acquire a thick coat that helps the fungus survive conditions unfavourable for growth. 4. The zygosporium may be dispersed as zygospore to other favourable places. The nuclei inside the zygospore then divide by meiosis before it germinates in suitable environments. A special sporangophore is produced with sporangium forming haploid spores within. Later, the haploid spores are released. 5. Examples are Mucor and Rhizopus which are common bread molds. Kingdom Plantae Phylum Bryophyta 1. Bryophytes are simplest thallus land plants. A thallus (USA: thalloid plant) is not divided into roots, stems and leaves. 2. Their habitats are shady, cool, and damp mostly in highland areas. 3. They exhibit an alternation of generations in their life-cycle where a gametophyte generation alternates with a sporophyte generation. 4. The gametophyte generation is haploid and dominant meaning they are larger and easily seen. Summary Fungi 1. Eukaryotic heterotrophs 2. Usually grey or white 3. Non-motile 4. Usually mycelia with fine strands of hyphae (septate or non-septate) 5. Cell wall with chitin 6. Store glycogen 7. Form spores (asexual) 8. Fusion of nuclei (sexual)

9 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 5. The gametophyte generation is thallus, with unicellular rhizoids for attachment to the soil. They may show simple stem or leaf-like structures. 6. The gametophyte is non-vascular and has no xylem and phloem. It is composed of thin-walled parenchymatous cells. 7. The gametophyte produces sex organs and gametes without meiosis. The female sex organs are flask-like called archegonia and form female gametes called oospheres. The male sex organs are spherical with stalk called antheridia and form gametes called antherozoids. 8. Fertilisation is zoidogamous i.e. requires water. The antherozoids can swim into the archegonia to fuse with the oospheres. 9. The zygote formed is diploid which grows into a structure called sporogonium. The sporogonium consists of three parts: the foot, seta and capsule. The foot attaches it to the gametophyte generation. The seta is a stalk while the capsule is a spherical structure. 10. The sporogonium is the sporophyte generation that produces spores. The spores are haploids produced in the capsule after meiosis. The sporophyte generation is attached to the gametophyte generation and depends on it for support and food. Some can photosynthesise. 11. The spores are dispersed by wind. They germinate to form the next gametophyte generation. 12. There are two common classes of Bryophytes: Hepaticae (the liverworts) and Musci (the moss). A common example of liverwort is Marchantia found in Cameron Highlands. Phylum Filicinophyta 1. Filicinophytes are ferns that produce spores on the lower epidermis of the leaves. Ferns are true plants with roots, stems and leaves. 2. They grow in shady and damp habitats. Only few can grow in full sunlight. 3. Some are epiphytes growing on branches of other trees forming part of the canopy communities. 4. The tree ferns are common in Cameron Highlands and Genting Highlands. 5. They exhibit heteromorphic alternation of generations with sporophyte generation being dominant. The gametophyte generation is inconspicuous less than 1.00 cm in diameter. Zoidogamous = requires water for fertilisation Info Bio Exam Tips Remember the alternation of generation in bryophytes. This is used to compare with those of the other three higher plants.

10 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 6. The sporophyte is large with true roots, stem and leaves. The largest is the tree fern than can grow up to several meters tall. 7. The sporophyte is vascular with xylem and phloem. The xylem and phloem are the most primitive type with no vessel element in the xylem and companion cell in the phloem. 8. The roots are adventitious, many, fine and fibrous type. They are produced from the rhizome. 9. The stem is usually a rhizome, an underground type that is horizontally oriented. Some ferns have vertical stems like normal plants. 10. Young leaves are coiled in a circinate fashion with fine hairs called ramenta covering their stalks. The ramenta also covers the rhizome. 11. The leaves are large, compound and produce spores beneath. The leaves are pinnated, divided into pinnae and pinnules. 12. The spores are of one type i.e. homosporous spores. 13. The spores are produced by sporangia. They grow in groups called sori. 14. The spores are haploid. They are formed after meiosis. This is asexual reproduction. 15. The spores germinate to form a prothallus. The prothallus is only about 5 mm in diameter and a cell thick. 16. The prothallus is the gametophyte generation. It is usually protandrous, with the development of male gametes first. 17. The male gametes are multiflagellated called antherozoids formed in the antheridia. 18. The female organs are the flask-shaped archegonia. They produce the oospheres. 19. Fertilisation is zoidogamous. Like the antherozoids of the bryophytes, the antherozoids swim into the archegonia to fertilise the oosphere attracted by chemicals produced there. 20. The zygote formed will straight away develop into the diploid sporophyte generation. The zygote may depend on the gametophyte for food supply but soon the young plant emerges with leaves and photosynthesises. 21. An example is Dryopteris whose structure and life cycle are shown in Figures 14.2 and 14.3. Info Bio • Protandrous = male sex organs mature earlier Language Check Language Check • Sporangium (singular) Sporangia (plural) • Sorus (singular) Sori (plural) • Archegonium (singular) Archegonia (plural) • Antheridium (singular) Antherida (plural) 2012

11 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 2 mm Compound leaf, frond Rhizome Sori under leaf Coiled young leaf Figure 14.2 Structure of Dryopteris Mature sporophyte (2n) Sorus & spore cases Spores (n) Germinating spore (n) Egg (n) Egg cell (n) Antherozoid (n) Sperm cell (n) Young sporophyte (2n) Sporangium Archegonium Prothallus Rhizoid Antheridium Syngamy Zygote or spore (2n) Figure 14.3 Life cycle of Dryopteris Phylum Coniferophyta Exam Tips Remember the similarities and differences between bryophytes and filicinophytes. 1. Conifers are pine plants with cones as reproductive organs. Most of them are giant trees. 2. The plants are the sporophyte generation but the gametophyte generation is not obvious. 3. The alternation of generation is not clear cut. The male gametophyte generation is the pollens which germinate at the megasporangia. The female gametophyte is the megaspores. Both are dependent on the sporophyte for nutrition.

12 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 4. The conifers have complex vascular tissues but their xylem has no vessels and phloem has no companion cells. The xylem consists of only tracheids and phloem consists of only sieve tubes. Their vascular tissues are much more advanced than those of the ferns’. 5. They are heterosporous producing two types of spores in different types of cones. The female cones are bigger than the male cones. The male cones are more numerous and occupy the higher branches. 6. The megaspores are homologous to the embryo sacs found in the ovule-like megasporangia. Each scale in the cone has two microsporangia at the upper surface of the scale. 7. The microspores are the pollen grains produced by the microsporangia. Each scale has also two microsporangia at the lower surface of each scale in the male cone. 8. Pollination is by wind. Each pollen grain is small but with two air sacs to propel itself in the wind. 9. Fertilisation is syphonogamous. Pollen tubes grown from the pollens to fertilise the female gametes. The seeds take three years to mature. 10. There is no ovary to protect the ovules. Each ovule is covered with a layer of integument, the epidermis. The ovule has a pore called micropyle for the pollen tube to enter. The inside of the ovule is homologous to a female prothallus with two archegonia, each with an egg. 11. The seeds are naked, as there is no fruit to protect the seeds. Only one of the possible two zygotes formed will develop into an embryo. The embryo is matured with plumule, cotyledon and radicle inside the seed covered with testa. 12. An example is Pinus as shown in Figure 14.4. Phylum Angiospermatophyta 1. Angiospermatophytes, also known as angiosperms are flowering plants that produce seeds within the fruits. 2. The big trees or plants are diploid sporophytes and the haploid gametophytes are small and not free living. 3. They are the most advanced vascular plants with xylem that has vessel elements and tracheids. The phloem that has companion cells and sieve tubes. 4. The reproductive structure is the flower which is usually bisexual. Each flower has four whorls with the lowest called calyx consisting of sepals that protect the flower buds. The corolla consists of petals that are colourful in insect-pollinated flowers. Figure 14.4 Pinus INFO Life Cycle of Pinus

13 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 5. The male portion is called androecium consisting of stamen units. Each stamen is made up of the filament, stalk and anther where pollen grains develop. 6. The female portion is called gynaecium consisting of pistil or carpel units. The pistil is made up of ovary, style and stigma. The stigma is for the pollen to land, the style is for the pollen tube to grow within, and the ovary is homologous to the sporangium containing ovules. Each ovule has an embryo sac and an egg cell. 7. Angiosperms are heterosporous producing two types of spores, the embryo sacs and pollen grains. The pollen germinates to produce pollen tube homologous to male prothallus. The embryo sac is the female prothallus. 8. Pollination is done by the wind or animals, mainly the insects. Wind-pollinated flowers are usually smaller, colourless and, scentless, producing a lot of small light pollens. The stigmas are biramous and feathery, adapted to catch the pollens in the air. 9. Fertilisation is syphonogamous. The pollen tube grows down the style to fertilise the ovum. Two male nuclei are produced in each pollen tube 10. Double fertilisation occurs. One male nucleus fuses with the ovum to form the zygote and another male nucleus fuses with the two polar cells to form the primary endosperm cell. 11. The seed formed is protected in the fruit. Each seed is covered by the testa with one or two cotyledons, with or without endosperm. There are many types of fruits formed. Kingdom Animalia Phylum Porifera 1. Porifera are sponges, aquatic sessile animals with many pores in the body wall. 2. They are mostly marine with few freshwater species. They are usually found in seashore areas. 3. The adults are sessile with various body forms. Each with their lower parts attached to the substratum with narrow vessel-like or cup-like structures with a large opening called osculum at the top. 4. The body has no symmetry. Most of them look like vessels or cups with radial symmetry. 5. There is no tissue organisation and differentiation of cells. 6. The outer body wall consists of pinacoderm and the inner wall is lined with flagellated collar cells called choanoderm. There is a gelatinous matrix in between together with some undifferentiated amoebocytes.

14 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 7. The pores of the wall are special cells called porocytes where water current created by the beating flagella draws water into the inner spongocoel, up and out the osculum as shown in Figure 14.5. Osculum Water out Water in Osculum Spongocoel Epidermis Porocytes Choanocyte Spicule Amoebocyte A sponge Anatomy of a sponge Figure 14.5 The structure of a sponge 8. There is an inner skeleton within the wall. It is made up of calcareous or siliceous spicules or fibrous spongin protein fibres depending on the class of sponges. 9. There is no differentiated nervous system. So, there is very little response to external stimuli. 10. They can reproduce asexually by budding or branching at the base. 11. They can also sexually reproduce. They are hermaphrodites where the amoebocytes divide into sperm cells and are liberated first (protandrous). Similarly, eggs are produced forming zygotes after being fertilised by sperm cells from another sponge. 12. Zygotes develop into flagellated swimming larvae. When they come across a suitable environment, they attach to the substratum where they start their sessile life. 13. They have very strong regenerative abilities. Broken portions can be replaced and fragments can regenerate to become new individuals. 14. They can be grouped into three classes;. (a) Class Calcarea: with calcareous spicules e.g. Sycon. (b) Class Hexactinellida: with six-rayed siliceous spicules e.g. Euplectella also called Venus flower basket. (c) Class Desmospongiae: with non-six-rayed siliceous spicules, spongin fibres or no spicules e.g. Halichondria, a bath sponge. Exam Tips The original bath sponge is actually cut from the wall of a sponge. It is the most primitive multicellular animal. It is, marine, sessile, has spicules, feeds on organic debris and easily regenerates.

15 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 Phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata) 1. Cnidarians or coelenterates are aquatic animals with polyps including hydra, anemones, jellyfishes and corals. An example is Obelia that lives in shallow coastal areas (Figures 14.6 and 14.7). Gonotheca Medusa Tentacle Coenosarc Hydrocaulus Hydranth (feeding) Blastostyle (reproducing) Hydrorhiza Hydrotheca Figure 14.6 The structure of Obelia Reproductive polyp Medusa bud Asexual Reproduction (Budding) Diploid (2n) Developing polyp Medusa Mature polyp Planula (larva) Sperm Egg Sexual Reproduction Haploid (n) Meiosis Fertilization Feeding polyp Gonad Figure 14.7 The life cycle of Obelia

16 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 2. Each polyp is usually the feeding unit occupied with a mouth and tentacles. They may exist as a single polyp, colonial with many polyps or medusoid and free swimming like jellyfishes. 3. They may exhibit polymorphism. An individual can produce another form as shown in Obelia in Figure 14.7. 4. Most of them are present either in hydroid or medusoid forms. Anemones and corals exist in hydroid forms while jellyfishes in medusoid or free swimming forms. 5. Most of them have radial symmetry. Some sea anemones are like regular flowers. 6. Tissue organisation is exhibited. They have epithelial cells which also act as muscle cells, nerve cells and undifferentiated amoebocytes. 7. They are diploblastic. Their body walls consists of two layers; an outer ectoderm and an inner endoderm with a jelly layer called mesoglea in between. The ectoderm in the tentacles has stinging nematocysts. The endoderm can produce digestive enzymes and has flagellated cells that can carry out phagocytosis. Mesoglea has undifferentiated amoebocytes. 8. There is a single body cavity called enteron. It is also called the gastrovascular cavity where digestion and aeration occur. 9. The mouth is a single body opening. It functions to ingest and egest like an anus. 10. The nervous system consists of a network of sensory cells. This is found within the mesoglea. 11. Asexual reproduction is by budding or strobilisation. Budding occurs at the side of the body wall. Meanwhile, strobilisation happens when the mouth and tentacles comes off forming a new individual, allowing the bottom portion to regenerate the mouth and tentacles. 12. Most of them are hermaphrodites that can produce both sperm and eggs. During sexual reproduction, a planula larvae develops from an externally fertilised egg (zygote). The planula larvae are free swimming and later become sessile adults attached to substratum. Phylum Platyhelminthes 1. Platyhelminthes are flatworms that are mostly parasites with some being free-living. 2. They are dorso-ventrally flattened, bilaterally symmetrical and are non-segmented. 3. They are triploblastic. Their bodies consist of three layers, namely ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. Exam Tips Remember Hydra, it will help you to remember Obelia and Cnidaria as a whole.

17 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 4. They have mouths, which also function as anus. 5. They are acoelomates. They do not have cavities surrounding their guts. 6. They have a ring-shaped cerebro-ganglia at the anterior end and a network of sensory cells. 7. Their excretory system consists of network of tubules ending with ‘flame cells’. The flame cells function for dialysis. 8. They are hermaphrodites. Which possess numerous testes and ovaries with many connecting tubes. 9. They usually have larval forms. 10. Platyhelminthes are divided into three classes as shown in Table 14.2. Table 14.2 The different classes in Platyhelminthes Characteristics Class Turbellaria Class Trematoda Class Cestoda 1. Parasite or free-living Aquatic, free-living Endoparasites Endoparasites 2. Morphology Soft and leaf-like Leaf-like Tape-like with proglottide segments 3. Suckers Usually absent Ventrally placed Four on the scolex 4. Cuticle and cilia No cuticle, with cilia Thick cuticle, no cilia Thick cuticle, no cilia 5. Enteron Present Present Absent 6. Sensory organs Present Usually absent Usually absent 7. Life history Simple Complex Complex 8. Examples Planaria Liver fluke Fasciola Tapeworm Taenia Exam Tips Remember plate is flat so are Platyhelminthes, flat worms. 11. An example of a flatworm is Taenia: (a) Taenia is an endoparasite in the intestine of domesticated animals and humans. (b) The head is known as scolex that has a ring of hooks and four suckers for deep attachment in the intestinal. (c) The body is divided into segments called proglottids. (d) Proglottids posterior to the scolex are youngest becoming more matured toward the posterior. The most posterior is the most matured, ready to break off. (e) Each proglottid can absorb food and live independently. It does not have a mouth and food is absorbed through the skin. (f) Each matured proglottid is also a hermaphrodite unit, with ovaries and testes and capable of self-fertilisation. (g) After fertilisation, each egg becomes a cyst and the whole proglottid becomes a bag full of cyst. (h) The proglottid detaches itself and is dispersed together with the faeces on the grass, waiting to be picked up by the next victim.

18 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 12. The structure of tapeworm Taenia is as shown in Figure 14.8. Proglottids The whole worm Scolex (head) Rostellum Hook Suckers Young proglottids Transverse excretory canal Longitudinal excretory canal Longitudinal nerve Testis Vas deferens Vasa efferentia Ovary Shell Oviduct gland Vitelline duct Seminal receptacle Vitelline gland Uterus Figure 14.8 The structure of Taenia

19 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 Phylum Mollusca Shell Intestine Heart Kidney Mantle cavity Visceral sac Mantle Tentacles Eye Genital pore Mouth Cerebral ganglion Penis Mucous gland Stomach Salivary gland Respiratory hole (Pneumostome) Foot Main digestion gland (Hepatopancreas) Vagina Dart sac Figure 14.9 General structure of Mollusca as shown in snail 1. Molluscs are shelled animals with a soft muscular foot each including snails, shellfish and squids. 2. They are divided into three classes namely Gastropoda, Pelecyopoda and Cephalopoda as shown in Table 14.3. Table 14.3 The different classes of molluscs. Characteristics Class Gastropoda Class Peleycyopoda Class Cephalopoda 1. Habitat Terrestrial, aquatic Aquatic Aquatic 2. Body symmetry Asymmetrical Bilaterally symmetrical Bilaterally symmetrical 3. Body shape Twisted with anus anterior No torsion of body No torsion of body 4. Shell One piece, usually coiled Two pieces / bivalve Internal or absent 5. Head, tentacles With head and 2 tentacles Reduced head, no tentacle With head and 2 tentacles 6. Breathing organ Terrestrial: with lung Gills Gills 7. Feeding mouth Radula Filter feeder Radula with beak 8. Fertilisation Internal External Internal 9. Examples Snail Helix, slug Mussel, oyster Squid, octopus 3. They are triploblastic, not segmented and are bilaterally symmetrical. However, snails do not have bilateral symmetry as their bodies are twisted. 4. The body is divided into a head, ventral muscular foot and dorsal visceral hump.

20 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 5. Their skin is soft. Over the hump, it forms a mantle that secretes a calcareous shell. 6. Their circulatory system consists of a heart and an open haemocoelic system without blood vessels and red blood cells. 7. Their respiratory pigment is haemocyanin. The pigment is soluble in the haemolymph similar to body fluid. 8. Their nervous system consists of circum-oesophageal ring with cerebral and pleural ganglia, pedal cords and visceral loops. 9. They are oviparous and produce free-swimming trochophore larvae. Phylum Arthropoda 1. Arthropods are animals with jointed legs and exoskeleton. 2. They are bilaterally symmetrical, segmented and triploblastic animals. 3. Each segment may bear a pair of jointed appendages used for sensory, feeding or locomotory purposes. 4. Their exoskeleton is formed from layers of protein and chitin. It may contain calcium carbonate. It protects the body and provides attachment for muscles that move the appendages. 5. They do not have external cilium. 6. Their coelom is much reduced and becomes a perivisceral cavity called haemocoel. 7. Their circulatory system is an open system and the heart is a dorsal tube. 8. Their nervous system consists of paired pre-oral ganglia connected by commissures to a ventral nerve cord. The nerve cord is a double solid cord with segmental ganglia and nerves. They have well-developed sensory organs. 9. Their excretory systems are variable but with no nephridium. 10. They have many different forms of larvae. 11. They are divided into six classes namely Insecta (e.g. cockroach Periplaneta), Arachnida (e.g. spider Lycosa), Crustacea (e.g. prawn Penaus), Chilopoda (e.g. centipede Lithiobius), Diplopoda (e.g. millipede Lulus) and Merostomata (e.g. kingcrab Limulus). Merostomata and Arachnida have many common features; so do Chilopoda and Diplopoda. 12. Their major differences are shown in Table 14.4 and Figure 14.10.

21 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 Table 14.4 The differences between the classes in arthropods Characteristics Insecta Arachnida/ Merostomata Chilopoda/ Diplopoda Crustacea 1. Habitat Mainly terrestial Terrestial / aquatic Terrestial Mainly aquatic 2. Body divisions Head, thorax and abdomen Prosoma, opisthosoma or two main divisions Head and long abdomen Cephalothorax and abdomen 3. Antenna One pair No antenna One pair Two pairs 4. Compound or simple eyes One pair of compound eyes and simple eyes Only have simple eyes Only have simple eyes One pair of stalked compound eyes 5. Mouthparts Three pairs No true mouthparts One pair At least three pairs 6. Walking legs Three pairs Four pairs Many pairs Five pairs 7. Abdomens 11segments 13 segments (fused) Many segments 11 segments 8. Sex pores End of abdomen Beginning of abdomen Middle of body In thorax 9. Gut May be coiled Highly specialised Straight Straight 10. Larval form May have No larval form No larval form Nauplius / other form 11. Breathing by Trachea Lung, ‘gill’ or trachea Trachea Gills Mosquito Subphylum Uniramia Subphylum Crustacea Subphylum Trilobita Subphylum Chelicerata Class Chilopoda Class Arachnida Class Merostomata Class Copepoda Water flea Shrimp Barnacle Class Malacostraca Class Cirripeda Trilobite Horseshoe Crab Centipede Tick Spider Beetle Millipede Class Insectica Class Chilopoda Class Insectica Figure 14.10 Different classes of arthropods

22 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 13. The common orders of insects are as shown in Table 14.5. Table 14.5 The various examples in insect orders Orders Examples Main characteristics Species number 1. Anoplura Lice Wingless ectoparasites with flattened bodies 2,400 2. Coleoptera Beetles A pair each of hard and membranous wings 500,000 3. Dermapetera Earwigs Winged or wingless, a pair of posterior pincers 1,000 4. Diptera Flies, mosquitoes 2 wings plus 2 halteres 120,000 5. Hemiptera Bugs 2 long hard and 2 membranous wings 55,000 6. Hymenoptera Bees, wasps 2 pairs of membranous wings, with sting 100,000 7. Isoptera Termites, ants 2 pairs of membranous wings or wingless 2,000 8. Lepidoptera Butterflies, moths 2 pairs of scaly large wings, sucking mouthparts 140,000 9. Odonata Dragonflies 2 pairs of long spread out membranous wings 5,000 10. Orthoptera Roaches, hoppers 2 pairs of long wings, 1 leathery and 1 soft 30,000 11. Siphonaptera Fleas Wingless, laterally compressed, blood sucking 2,000 12. Trichoptera Caddis flies 2 pairs of hairy wings, larvae aquatic 7,000 Phylum Chordata Urochordata (tunicates) Cophalochordata (lancelets) Cophaspidomorphi (lamproys) Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) Chondrichtyes (sharks, rays) Amphibia Testudines (turtles) Lepidosauria (lizards, snakes) Crocodilia Aves (birds) Osteichthyes Reptilia (bony fishes) Protochordata Agnatha Chordata Mammalia (mammals) Hair, mammary glands Egg with extra embryonic membranes Paired limbs used for terrestrial locomotion Unique supportive elements in skeleton or girdles of fins or legs Lung or swimbladder derived from gut, bony skeleton Jaws, 3 points semicircular canals, paired appendages, gill filaments lateral to gift support 2 or 3 pairs semicircular canals, mesonephric kidney Distinct head and brain, specialised sense organs, 1 or more pairs semicirculor canals, pronephric kidney, neural crest, neurogenic epidermal placodes Axial skeleton retained throughout life, muscle somites present Notochord; dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, postanal tail Myxini (hagfishes) Nakod skin suckerlike oral disc, long arval stage, 7 pairs of gills Naked skin with slime glands, degenerate eyes, notochord persistent Notochord and nerve cord in free-swimming larvae only Body fusiform, hoterococal caudal fin, placoid scales, certilaginous skeleton Euchordata Vertebrata Gnathostomata Teleostomi Tetrapoda Amniota Sarcoptorygii (lungfishes, lobe -finned fishes) Figure 14.11 Evolution of chordates 1. Chordates are animals with notochords and almost all are vertebrates, except a few which are invertebrates. The notochord is a flexible rod with closely packed, vacuolated cells surrounded by a firm sheath. It exists in a certain stage of its life history. 2014

23 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 2. They are triploblastic coelomates with segments and bilateral symmetry. 3. They have pharyngeal (visceral) clefts. Some are present in the early stages of embryonic development. 4. They have dorsal hollow nerve cords. The nerve cords are filled with fluid. 5. They have segmented muscle blocks (myotomes) on both sides of the body. The segmentation is more obvious in the young. 6. Their limbs are formed from more than one body segment. 7. They have post anal tail. The tail is located posterior to the anus. 8. They have closed blood circulatory system. The blood is a liquid tissue. 9. The blood flows forward ventrally and backwards dorsally. This is modified in advanced chordates like mammals. 10. The ventral blood vessel is connected to the dorsal blood vessel by commissure vessels in the visceral arches. The commissure vessels may not be obvious in the adults of mammals and birds. 11. The sexes are separated. Sexual reproduction is highly variable with external and internal fertilisation as well and oviparous, viviparous or ovoviviparous. 12. They are divided into six common classes as shown in Table 14.6. Exam Tips Chordates have notochords and all vertebrates belong to this phylum. Table 14.6 The different classes of Chordates Class Chondrichthyes Class Osteichthyes Class Amphibia Class Reptilia Class Aves Class Mammalia Cartilaginous skeleton Bony skeleton Bony skeleton Bony skeleton Bony skeleton Bony skeleton with diaphragm Skin with placoid scales Skin with cycloid scales Skin is soft Dry skin with scales or plates Skin has feathers Legs have scales Skin has hair and 2 types of glands Paired fleshy pectoral and pelvic fins Paired pectoral and pelvic fins with rays 2 pairs pentadactyl limbs Usually have pentadactyl limbs Forelimbs form wings; Hindlimbs pentadactyl 2 pairs pentadactyl limbs Visceral clefts as gill openings with no gill cover Visceral clefts as gill openings with gill cover Visceral clefts only present in tadpole, not adult Visceral clefts present in embryo, no gill Visceral clefts present in embryo, no gill Visceral clefts present in embryo, no gill Lateral line well developed Lateral line well developed Lateral line only in tadpole stage No lateral line No lateral line No lateral line With inner ear only With inner ear only Inner and middle, no external ear Inner and middle, no external ear Inner and middle, no external ear All 3 present with 3 ossicles No larval stage With larval stage With larval stage No larval stage No larval stage No larval stage Eggs externally fertilised Eggs externally fertilised Eggs externally fertilised Oviparous or ovoviviparous Oviparous Viviparous e.g. shark Carcharodon e.g. bony fish Tilapia e.g. frog Rana e.g. lizard Naja e.g. pigeon Columba e.g. rat Rattus 2014

24 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 Quick Check 3 1. State four differences each between the following pairs of organisms. (a) Conifers and Angiosperms. (b) Porifera and Cnidaria. Learning Outcomes Students should be able to: (a) describe the different levels and examples of biodiversity in Malaysia, namely ecosystem or community diversity, spesies or taxonomic diversity and genetic diversity; (b) explain the importance of biodiversity in Malaysia. 14.3 Biodiversity in Malaysia 1. Biodiversity or biological diversity has three different levels namely ecosystem diversity, species diversity and genetic diversity. 2017 2. Biodiversity combines the concept of plants and animals as genetic resource, the diversity of species and the habitats in which they live in. 3. Biodiversity can be referred to all living organisms on earth. This includes all the species in the five kingdoms. Ecosystem Diversity 1. Ecosystem diversity or community diversity is the various ecosystems that exist in a country and the whole earth in general. It refers to the variety of habitats, biotic communities and ecological processes in terrestrial, marine and other aquatic environments in a particular area together with the processes and interactions that take place within and between these systems. 2. Malaysia is in the tropical rainforest biome. It lies in the tropics with a warm climate throughout the year. It also has a high annual rainfall (more than 2,000 mm) with heaviest rainfall especially during monsoon seasons. 3. The main ecosystem in Malaysia is tropical rainforest. However, it has many other ecosystems namely coral reef, lake, river, cave and marshland ecosystems. 4. The rainforest is also divided into lowland, hill dipterocarp, lower montane, upper montane dipterocarp, montane oak and montane tricaceous forests which are formed due to climate change. On the other hand, soil differences make up mangrove, beach, peat swamp, heath and limestone hill forests. 5. Lowland rainforest is the main type in Malaysia. It has a thick undergrowth of palms and saplings; and a canopy zone supports another ecosystem with epiphytes as producers. INFO Biodiversity in Malaysia

25 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 6. The hill dipterocarp forest occurs in 300 m to 800 m above sea level. Lower montane occurs in 800 m to 1,000 m and the one above 1,500 m is called upper montane forest. They are relatively similar but each has its own characteristics. Because of the lower temperature in higher elevation, the upper montane forest e.g. in Mount Kinabalu has abundant of mosses, ferns and orchids on the trees and pitcher plants. 7. The peat swamp forest has thick layer of decaying matter which easily catch fire during the drought seasons. Examples are the Paya Indah Wetlands Sanctuary and the Loagan Bunut National Park in Sarawak. 8. The mangrove swamp is an important ecosystem in most of our coastal areas. It is the breeding ground for marine and inland animals. An example is the Kuala Selangor Nature Park. 9. Besides that, the aquatic ecosystems in coral reefs, lakes, rivers and marshlands are also unique in supporting endemic species of flora and fauna. 10. Our tropical limestone caves also provide valuable ecosystems for many animals. There are also special plants that are adapted to survive by clinging on the sides of many such hills. 11. Each of these ecosystems has a community and a network of interactions among their populations of different species. An imbalance ecosystem, especially one effected by humans may not only affect one region but ultimately the whole earth. Species Diversity 1. Species diversity or taxonomic diversity is the variety of living organisms which exists in an ecosystem or the entire biosphere. Malaysia is estimated to have more than 170,000 species and is one of the countries with the most number of endemic species. Species diversity can be referred as the number of living organisms on earth. 2. One of the species diversity is the rainforest plant species especially Diptocarpacae (e.g. seraya, Shorea curtisi), Euphorbiaceae and Leguminosae families. These include the hard wood trees, undergrowth species, palms and epiphytic orchids of more than 1,550 species. We have 1,159 species of ferns. One of the examples is Rafflesia. 3. There are more than 286 species of mammals including elephants, Malayan tigers, tapirs, gaurs, squirrels, orang utans, monkeys, bats and deer. There are many endemic birds such as the longtailed robins, different types of pheasants and the Great Hornbills. Summary Biodiversity in Malaysia Ecosystem Species Genetic diversity diversity diversity Tropical Forest Indigenous rainforest plants people Lowland Mammals Fruits forest Birds Rubber Hill montane Reptiles Oil palms dipterocarp forest Fishes Rice Freshwater Invertebrates Vegetables & mangrove swamp Fungi Wild animals Freshwater Bacteria aquatic Forest plants Marine Limestone hill & cave

26 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 There are also 80 species of lizards, 140 species of snakes and other reptiles. Many arthropods including insects such as the stick insects and Raja Brooke butterflies are also found. However, many invertebrates are yet to be identified. 4. There are many fishes such as the red Arowana, Sclerophagus formosus, and other freshwater and marine species in Malaysian water. Some of the Arowana species are now bred commercially and sold as pets while other fish species are already extinct or in the endangered list. Efforts are taken to prevent further extinction of these species. 5. The large number of species in Malaysia is due to the favourable wet tropical climate for growth and evolution of plants and animals. There is a great diversity of habitats in the forests, mountains, caves, freshwater and marine environments. The forests have existed more than 130 million years thus allowing evolutionary diversification. Genetic Diversity 1. It is the variation of genes within and between populations of the same species. The difference in genes and alleles is due to isolations and adaptations of the members in different environments. 2. Malaysia has different indigenous people both in Peninsular and East Malaysia. Besides cultural diversity, this offers genetic variation that benefits the human gene pool. Extra genes and different alleles do not only contribute to the differences in body features but also the extra biochemicals that make the body resistant to certain diseases like cancer or even AIDS. 3. Malaysian fruits have many genetic varieties. Such variations can be seen in durian, rambutan, langsat, jackfruits and cempedak. There are 28 species of durian and 49 species of mangosteen. Within the durian species alone, there are many types that produce different sizes, colours, textures and tastes. 4. We have good varieties of crop plants like rubbers and oil palms. These are produced from artificial selection through breeding in research institutions such as RRI, PORIM and MARDI. 5. Genetic diversity is also present in the wild flora and fauna. Their gene are beneficial to both agriculture and humans directly in the form of medications. Some of the genes or alleles may be resistant to certain diseases or insect attacks. 6. The improvement of agricultural crops by selection over the centuries has resulted in a large number of varieties. For example, there are about 140,000 varieties of rice grown in the world. However, with the introduction of modern high yielding varieties in the last few decades, the number of local varieties has declined Exam Tips Remember the definitions of ecosystem, species and genetic diversities. All combined to give biological diversity. Info Bio • RRI = Rubber Research Institute • PORIM = Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia • MARDI = Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute

27 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 sharply in most countries. In Malaysia, three varieties of rice in MARDI now form the bulk of rice grown. As a result, some of the traditional varieties are no longer grown and are lost unless they had been collected and stored in seed banks. This loss of genetic diversity is the trend in most crops and domesticated animals all over the world. Quick Check 4 1. Name the most common type of plant in Malaysian rainforest and mangrove. 2. Name two endemic ferns and insects in the Malaysian rainforest. 14.4 Threats to Biodiversity Natural Factors (Climate Change) 1. Climate change has occurred in millions of years in the course of evolution of the Earth. Forests have gone and new ones have sprouted in other places. Major changes in the animal population have occurred leading to the disappearance of major groups of plants and animals and the emergence of other groups. 2. We are now facing global warming brought about by emissions of greenhouse gases when fossil fuels are burnt thus making life uncomfortably hot for some species and uncomfortably cold for others. This can lead to a change in the abundance and distribution of species around the globe and will affect crops, sea levels and coastal ecosystem problems. In addition, the climate is becoming more unpredictable and extreme devastating events like flood are occurring more frequently, directly destroying organisms. 3. Global warming is also considered to be a major threat to global biodiversity. For example, coral reefs which are biodiversity hot spots will be lost in 20 to 40 years time if global warming continues at its current rate. 4. Increased temperatures may allow herbivores to expand further into alpine regions, significantly impacting the composition of alpine. 5. Increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration affect how plants  photosynthesise, resulting in the increase in plant water use efficiency, enhanced photosynthetic capacity and increased growth.  Increased carbon dioxide can also lead to increased carbon: nitrogen ratios in the leaves of plants or in other aspects of leaf chemistry, possibly changing herbivore nutrition. Learning Outcomes Students should be able to: (a) explain the natural and man-made factors that threaten biodiversity in Malaysia; (b) explain the steps and efforts taken by various agencies and organisations to address the threats. VIDEO Maintaining Biodiversity

28 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 6. Precipitation in some areas has increased in the last century, while some areas have dried up. As water supply is critical for plant growth, it plays a key role in determining the distribution of plants. Changes in precipitation are predicted to be less consistent than for temperature and more variable between regions, with predictions for some areas to become much wetter, and some much drier. A pathogen or parasite may change its interactions with a plant, such as a pathogenic fungus becoming more common in an area where rainfall increases. 7. Environmental variables will not act in isolation, but in combination with one another to increase the pressure on species survival. All species are likely to be directly impacted by the changes in environmental conditions, and also indirectly through their interactions with other species. A species whose distribution changes as a direct result of climate change may ‘invade’ the range of another species for example, introducing a new competitive relationship. 8. A changing global climate threatens species and ecosystems. The distribution of species (biogeography) is largely determined by climate, as is the distribution of ecosystems and plant vegetation zones (biomes). Climate change may simply shift these distributions where, plants and animals may not be able to adjust.  9. Species respond in very different ways to climate change. Variation in the distribution, phenology and abundance of species will lead to inevitable changes in the relative abundance of species and their interactions. These changes will flow on to affect the structure and function of ecosystems. A new grass may spread into a region, altering the fire regime and greatly changing the species composition. The range of symbiotic fungi associated with plant roots may directly change as a result of altered climate, resulting in a change in the plants distribution. Man-made Factors 1. Habitat loss/degradation/fragmentation  is the primary cause of biodiversity loss. Clearance of native vegetation destroy these habitats and all the organisms in them causing remaining habitats to become fragmented and so too small for some organisms to persist, or too far apart for organisms to move between. Examples of habitat loss are deforestation, farming, flooding, damming and choral reef destruction. Since all species have specific food and habitat needs, the more specific these needs are and the more localised the habitat is, the greater the vulnerability of species to habitat loss. Many species have become endangered due to habitat loss e.g. orang utan and proboscis monkey in Sabah. 2013

29 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 2. Invasive alien species are the second greatest threat to biodiversity worldwide. Whether introduced on purpose or accidentally, non-native species can cause severe problems in the ecosystems they invade, from affecting individuals to causing huge changes in ecosystem functioning and the extinction of many species. As well as the risks to human health, alien species inflict massive economic costs to agriculture, forestry, fisheries and other human activities. An introduced species may unintentionally injure a species that depends on the species it replaces. Introducing new species often leaves endemic and other local species unable to compete and survive e.g. bullfrogs that are introduced in Australia which causes ecological upsets. Other examples include migration caused by global warming, foreign plant invasion causes habitat change and gene modification in the future. 3. Over-hunting or  over-exploitation  by humans causes massive destruction of natural ecosystems. Over-hunting has caused the extinction of hundreds of species e.g. dodo. Over-exploitation occurs when a resource is consumed at an unsustainable rate. Exploitation of biodiversity occurs for food (e.g. fish), construction (e.g. trees), industrial products (e.g. animal blubber, skins), the pet trade (e.g. reptiles, fish, orchids), fashion (e.g. fur, ivory) and traditional medicines (e.g. rhino horn). Fish bombing is an illegal form of fishing which not only kills fish randomly but also destroys the marine habitat. This results in the massive destruction of coral reefs and mass extinction of marine life. 4. Pollution is currently poisoning all forms of life, both on land and in the water and contributing to climate change. Any chemical in the wrong place or at the wrong concentration can be considered a pollutant. Transport, industry, construction, extraction, power generation and agro-forestry all contribute pollutants to the air, land and water directly affecting biodiversity or lead to chemical imbalances in the environment that ultimately kill individuals, species and habitats. Pollution  from chemical contaminants certainly poses a further threat to species and ecosystems. While not commonly a cause of extinction, it can likely be for species whose range is extremely small, and threatened by contamination. Several species of desert pupfish, occurring in small isolated pools in the US southwest, are examples. Other examples include acid rain, pesticides and plastics that killed many seabirds. 5. The massive growth in the human population through the 20th century has had more impact on biodiversity than any other single factor. Barriers such as large rivers, seas, oceans, mountains that encourage diversity by enabling independent evolution on either side of the barrier, via the process of allopatric speciation have been breached by human activities. Human activities have frequently been the cause of all other factors described above including climate change. Info Bio The African Great Lakes namely - Victoria, Malawi and Tanganyika - are famous for their great diversity of endemic species, termed “species flocks”, of cichlid fishes. In Lake Victoria, a single, exotic species, the Nile Perch which were purposely introduced for subsistence and sport fishing has become established and may cause the extinction of most of the native species, by simply eating them all.

30 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 Habitat Loss Climate Change War and Conflict Introduced Species Infectious Diseases Ultraviolet Radiation Overexploitation Pollution Wetland drainage Species migrate as temperatures change Damage to ecosystems Overharvesting for food, medicine Overfishing Thinning of ozone layer has damaged species Change in food supply for species changes Resource mismanagement Change of predator: prey balance in systems Mating and reproductive cycles change Coral reefs are bleached Global warming migration of species Species weakened by habitat change Pathogens migrate, strengthen with warming Acid precipitation changes soil health, threatening plants Some species very sensitive to toxic environments Other species thrive as predators die off Drugs for one species may kill others Plastics kill many seabirds Local introduction of species Accidental introduction Alteration of habitat Genetic modification Farming and aquaculture Human population growth Deforestation, flooding, droughts Trawling and other fishing techniques Dead zones from nutrient run off into oceans Water projects, dams, change entire ecosystem Human Threats to Biodiversity Figure 14.11 Summary of human threats to biodiversity Steps and Efforts Taken by Various Agencies and Organisations to Address Threats to Biodiversity (Adapted from the web site of the Malaysian Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment) 1. Local Agenda 21 is the most powerful tool for biodiversity conservation by local governments. It is based on Agenda 21 of the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, 1992. The aim of this initiative is to involve communities to work towards sustainable development at a local level. It commits to maintain green areas within urban districts. Green areas help educate the public on the importance of conservation, provide resting and watering places for migrating birds, help maintain urban air quality and temperature and provide important rest and recreation areas to relieve the stress of urban life. A successful example of this is the Kota Kinabalu City Bird Sanctuary. 2. Universities and research institutions play an important role in acquiring more scientific knowledge about Malaysian rainforests, the marine environment and the interactions between different species. Universities have been crucial in helping build up the capacity of the country in the training of biologists and other professionals. Forestry Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM) has an active programme in the study of plant species in Malaysia. MARDI is the leading research institute in agriculture involved in research, conservation, and utilisation genetic resources of our crops and fruits. It maintains a seed bank for rice varieties to help preserve the many varieties of the traditional rice grown.

31 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 3. Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) play an increasingly important role in providing alternative viewpoints to development plans. They also help monitor the implementation of environmental legislations, push for high standards in environmental management and conduct vital public awareness and research work. Examples of organisations are the Malaysian Nature Society (MNS) and the World Wide Fund for NatureMalaysia (WWF-Malaysia). In Sabah and Sarawak, the efforts of the environmental NGOs are geared towards the preservation of the environment and the natural forests where the needs of the indigenous people as well as the preservation of their culture and way of life are given top priority. The Malaysian Environmental NGOs (MENGO) is a federation of 18 environmental NGOs. They undertake a variety of activities from policy analysis and field research to education, and campaigning on a broad spectrum of issues and initiatives. 4. Regional initiatives. Biodiversity knows no boundaries, and important ecosystems often ignore the niceties of international territory. This means Malaysia has to work bilaterally or multilaterally with its neighbours in the region to protect ecosystems and wildlife regardless of political boundaries. Malaysia has cooperated with Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines in ensuring a more comprehensive approach towards conservation. A number of Transboundary Conservation Areas (TBCA) has been undertaken by ASEAN member countries. 5. Private sector. Many large corporations have started to support environmental projects. Pushed both by increasing public awareness and increasing cost of environmental responsibility, they often work hand-in-hand with Government and NGOs to meet environmental requirements and standards. A number of corporations have undertaken the challenge to prepare annual reports on their environmental performance besides their financial performance. Following the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992, a Malaysian Business Council for Sustainable Development was formed. 6. Indonesia and Malaysia Transboundary Conservation Area (TBCA). The Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (187,000 ha) in Sarawak and Betung Kerihun National Park (800,000 ha) in West Kalimantan was proposed as a transboundary conservation area as they shared many landscape features as well as a common ethnographic history. Later, the Batang Ai National Park of Sarawak was added, making the 1.1 million ha TBCA one of the biggest conservation areas in Southeast Asia. The first phase was implemented in 1995. In 2004, another conservation area between Sarawak and Kalimantan was proposed and this was the Info Bio Transboundary Conservation Areas (TBCA) refers to an area that straddles international boundaries and is managed cooperatively for conservation purposes and may include adjacent national parks and other protected areas.

32 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 Pulong Tau National Park in Sarawak and the Kayan Mentarang National Park in East Kalimantan. The 165,000 ha in Sarawak and 1.4 million ha in Indonesia would also make this conservation one of the largest in the region. 7. Heart of Borneo Conservation Area of Indonesia, Brunei and Malaysia. One of the most ambitious proposals for conservation in the tropics, the proposed area for this project is 22 million ha in size. It involves the more hilly terrain of Brunei, East Malaysia and Indonesia. The island of Borneo is home to some of the world’s most diverse ecosystems with about 15,000 species of plants. Borneo is also home to rare, large mammals, such as orang utan, elephants and the Sumatran rhinoceros. The Indonesian and Brunei governments, the Sabah Wildlife Department and the WWF have a team of researchers working on this project. In the last decade, over 350 new species have been found, including 30 freshwater fishes. 8. The Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area between the Philippines and Malaysia. While concentrating on turtle conservation, this bilateral agreement signed in May 1996 recognises that turtle populations are dependent on the marine environment. It looks at preserving coral reefs and other marine flora and fauna as well as important nesting sites for the Green and Hawksbill turtles in the Philippines and Malaysia. 9. ASEAN Heritage Parks. All ten ASEAN Member Countries are signatories to the ASEAN Declaration on Heritage Parks, a revised version of the ASEAN Agreement on Heritage Parks and Reserves signed by six ASEAN Member Countries on 29th November 1984. The new Declaration, signed on 18th December 2003, listed 27 sites as ASEAN Heritage Parks. It provides a framework for concerted action toward protected areas in the ASEAN region based on the uniqueness of each member state. Active collaboration is also being undertaken to promote cluster and cross-border sites under the World Heritage Convention. ASEAN has adopted the Guidelines on Competence Standards for Protected Area Jobs with a view to assist protected area management authorities, training and educational organisations and conservation projects to improve human resource development, staff performance and training in protected areas. 10. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants do not threaten their survival. Because the trade in wild animals and plants crosses borders between countries, the effort to regulate it requires international cooperation to safeguard certain species from Info Bio Why do some places have more endemic species than others? Some areas have evolved almost as islands, separated from similar conditions by the landscape. An example is peat swamp forests. Plants and animals have evolved to the specialized conditions there and they may have had little or no contact over millions of years with related species in similar conditions. They tend to evolve independently, leading to a vast diversity of life, each occupying its own niche. These would be endemic to the area, which means they are found there and nowhere else. Endemic species also tend to be high in islands. Info Bio ASEAN Heritage Parks Located in Malaysia: • Mt. Kinabalu National Park, Sabah (also a World Heritage site) • Mulu National Park, Sarawak (also a World Heritage site)

33 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 over-exploitation. Today, it accords varying degrees of protection to more than 30,000 species of animals and plants, whether they are traded as live specimens, fur coats or dried herbs. For many years, CITES has been among the conservation agreements with the largest membership, with now 1779 Parties. 11. Ramsar Convention. The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat or better known as Ramsar Convention, reflects its original emphasis on the conservation and wise use of wetlands primarily to provide habitat for water birds. Over the years, however, the Convention has broadened its scope to cover all aspects of wetland conservation and wise use, recognising wetlands as ecosystems that are extremely important for biodiversity conservation in general and for the well-being of human communities. More than 1,590 wetlands have been designated for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of International Importance, covering some 134 million ha. This Convention aims to protect wetlands under a broad definition that includes swamps, rivers, lakes, marine environments (to a depth of six meters) and artificial fish ponds, reservoirs or lakes. To become a party to the Convention, states must designate at least one area as a Ramsar site. The first site in Malaysia was Tasek Bera, followed by four others namely Tanjung Piai State Park, Pulai Kukup State Park, Sungai Pulai Wetland and Kuching Wetlands National Park. Quick Check 5 1. List the factors that threaten the extinction of biodiversity. 14.5 Conservation of Biodiversity In situ Conservation 2017 1. In situ conservation is a way to conserve the flora and fauna in their original habitats by setting up natural parks, sanctuary and reserves in which they are managed to prevent the deterioration of the environment. 2. Malaysia has established a network of protected areas for conservation of biological diversity. Some of these are permanent reserved forests, national parks, wildlife reserves and sanctuaries, nature reserves, bird sanctuaries, and marine parks. These have been established as early as the 1930s. Info Bio Tasek Bera It is the largest freshwater swamp in Peninsular Malaysia. It has at least 94 species of fish, icluding the endangered Asian Arowana (Scleropages formonsus). In 1994, in recognition of its biodiversity significance and importance as a wetland of international significance, it was declared a Ramsar site. The area covers 31,120 ha. Besides fish species, the area includes 300 plant species, as well as 50 species of mammals, including tigers and tapirs. Exam Tips Remember the factors that threaten the extinction of biodiversity and its implications. Learning Outcomes Students should be able to: (a) describe the various measures taken to conserve the different levels of biodiversity including in situ and ex situ conservation in Malaysia. 2013

34 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 3. Taman Negara is one of the largest national parks with unique arrays of endangered species such as the Malayan tigers, Sumatran rhinoceros, Malayan sun bear, tapirs, gibbons and others still manage to thrive though in small numbers. Similarly, we have Royal Belum State Park. 4. There are also other smaller mammals, birds, insects and invertebrates that are well conserved there. 5. Both park are also a store for many plant species such as the giant hard wood trees, climbers, epiphytes, palms, ferns and mosses. They survive there for thousands if not millions of years. 6. There are many national and state parks, wildlife sanctuaries, turtle sanctuaries, and wildlife reserves in Malaysia, each with some unique species of flora and fauna. They are Endau- Rompin Park, Mount Kinabalu Park, Mulu National Park and, Teluk Paya Park. Malaysia has also established a system of marine protected areas. These include marine parks of Peninsular Malaysia, fishery prohibited areas, marine reserves as well as marine national parks in Sabah and Sarawak. There are a total of 136 of such marine protected areas. Examples of marine parks are Pulau Tioman, Pulau Redang, Pulau Payar, Turtle Island Park, Tunku Abdul Rahman Park and Talang Satang National Park. Ex situ Conservation 1. It is a way to maintain the species outside their original habitats i.e to collect and transfer the flora and fauna to smaller areas so that they can be better conserved. These are in the forms of zoos, sanctuaries, aquaria, botanical gardens, research institutions, gene and germplasm banks. 2. The present day zoos are set up with animals put as close to their natural habitat as possible. They are set up not only to conserve the endangered species but also to breed them. Similarly, we have aquaria for that purpose. 3. We have sanctuaries for successfully rescued animals from illegal keepers or traders. One of them is the orangutan sanctuary in Sabah which at the same time carries the effort of conserving these animals. 4. Botanical gardens, arboreta and research institutions are helping to conserve plants especially FRIM. MARDI and agriculture department are conserving some of the wild species of fruit trees. 5. Besides that, we have gene and germplasm banks such as seed, egg and sperm banks to keep the species protected. Seed genebanks are considered safe and cost-effective for seed-producing crop species, field and in vitro genebanks are particularly useful for species with seeds that are difficult to store, such as orchids. INFO Protected Areas in Malaysia

35 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 6. Ex situ conservations make it easier for scientists to access, study, distribute and use plant genetic resources. Quick Check 6 1. State two examples of in situ conservation. 2. State two examples of ex situ conservation. Exam Tips Remember the definitions of in situ and ex situ. 1. Which is the characteristic of phylum Porifera? A Posses gastrovascular cavity B Body wall comprises ostia C Some of them are sessile D Triploblastic 2. Which characteristic is not shared by the Kingdoms Fungi and Animalia? A Both are eukaryotic organisms B Both are heterotrophic organisms C Both store carbohydrate in the form of glycogen D Both are either unicellular or multicellular organisms 3. Which is correct about taxonomic hierarchy? A Different organisms within an order may belong to different classes B Different organisms within a class are from the same family C Order is a taxon within a class and it consists of several families D The broadest taxon is phylum or division 4. Which activity is the greatest threat to the extinction of biodiversity in Malaysia? A Excessive and illegal logging B Pollution of river and beaches STPM PRACTICE 14 Objective Questions C Fish bombing D Over-exploitation of mangrove 5. The table below show the phyla of four animals and their characteristics. Phylum Characteristics I Mollusca II Platyhelminthes III Cnidaria IV Porifera w Gastrovascular cavity with a single opening that functions as the mouth and the anus x Has intracellular digestion but no organ or true tissues y Radula usually present in buccal cavity z Has an incomplete digestive system Which combination is correct? I II III IV A w x y x B x y z w C y z w x D z w x y

36 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 6. The diagram shows a phylogenetic tree of some carnivores. A B1 B2 B2 C1 C3 C2 C4 Tiger Badger Otter Fox Dog What inference are true of the phylogenetic tree? I The dog and tiger are in different classes. II The badger and otter belong to the same order. III The tiger and otter do not share a common ancestor. IV The fox and dog share the first part of the scientific name. A I and II C II and IV B I and III D III and IV 7. Which combination is homologous? Filicinophyta Angiospermophyta (a) Microspore (b) Megasporangium (c) Megagametophyte (d) Megasporophyll (e) Strobilus i Ovary ii Pollen grain iii Carpel iv Flower v Embryo sac (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) A ii i v iii iv B iii ii i v iv C iv i ii v iii D v i ii iii iv 8. The Order of insects and their example are shown in the table below. Order Example I Diptera II Odonata III Orthoptera IV Lepidoptera w Housefly x Grasshopper y Butterfly z Dragonfly Which combination is correct? I II III IV A x z w y B z y x w C y x w z D w z x y 9. Which plant has all of the following characteristics? • Spores germinate to form haploid gametophytes. • Rhizoids are unicellular. • The gametophyte generation is dominant. • Spores are formed in sporangia. • They are the ancestors of terrestrial plants. A Angiospermatophyta B Coniferophyta C Bryophyta D Algae 10. What is the function of coelomic fluid in earthworm? A Medium for oxygenation B Medium for transport of gametes C Medium for nervous transmission D Hydrostatic skeleton for locomotion 11. Which characteristics of angiosperms are more advanced than filicinophytes? I Syphonogamy II Clear alternation of generation III Megaspores and microspores IV Ovary V Double fertilisation A I, II and III B I, IV and V C II, III and IV D II, III, IV and V 12. Which of the following statements describes the effects of the very dense canopy of tropical rainforest? I Detritus always exist, as decomposing activities are high

37 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 II Very little sunlight can pass through the forest III The forest cannot support too many different species of primitive plants IV The ground zone of the forest is dry, as light intensity is low A I and II C I and IV B II and III D I, II and IV 13. Which combination is correct? Conservations Examples (a) Ex situ (b) In situ i Botanical garden ii Marine park iii Taman Negara iv Zoo (a) (b) A i, ii iii, iv B i, iv ii, iii C ii, iii i, iv D iii, iv i, ii 14. Which feature distinguishes a spider from a housefly? A Triploblastic coelomate B Haemocoel perivisceral cavity C Open circulatory system with a dorsal heart D The fourth to seventh segments have a pair of appendages each 15. Which combination is correct? Phyla Organisms (a) Zoomastigina (b) Cnidaria (c) Platyhelminthes (d) Mollusca (e) Arthropoda i Obelia ii Tania iii Trypanosoma iv Periplaneta v Helix (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) A i ii iii iv v B ii iii i v iv C iii i ii v iv D iv v ii i iii 16. Which combination is correct? Phyla Characteristics (a) Cnidaria (b) Annelida (c) Arthropoda (d) Chordata i With true coelom ii Bilateral symmetry iii With nervous system iv With nematocysts v Trachea breathing system vi With internal skeleton vii With circulatory system viiiWith gills ix Metameric segmentation (a) (b) (c) (d) A viii ix iii iv B iv vii iii vi C vii iv ii i D ix iii ii vii 17. Which combination is correct? Organisms Structural features (a) Clamydomonas (b) Obelia (c) Helix (d) Penaeus i With chloroplast ii With nematoblasts iii With telson iv With radula (a) (b) (c) (d) A i ii iv iii B ii iii iv i C iii iv i ii D iv ii i iii 18. Which organisms from the Kingdom Protoctista are protozoa? I Fucus sp. II Amoeba sp. III Spirogyra sp. IV Paramecium sp. A I and III C II and III B I and IV D II and IV

38 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 19. Pisces, Amphibia and Aves belong to the same A Class C Family B Order D Phylum 20. Which combination is correct? Phyla Examples (a) Angiospermophyta (b) Coniferophyta (c) Filicinophyta (d) Bryophyta i Dryopteris ii Pinus iii Helianthus iv Marchantia (a) (b) (c) (d) A i iii ii iv B ii i iii iv C iii ii i iv D iv i iii ii 21. Which structure is used to classify Angiospermophyta into class monocotyledonae and class dicotyledonae? I Roots III Leaves II Stems IV Flowers A I and II C II, III and IV B III and IV D I, II, III and IV 22. Which phylum has all these characteristics? • It is a triploblastic coelomate. • It is not metamerically segmented. • The sexes are separated. • Its mantle produces shell and forms cavities for gaseous exchange. • Its small coelom surrounds the heart, excretory and reproductive organs. A Porifera C Arthropoda B Cnidaria D Mollusca 23. Which combination correctly matches the taxons P, Q and R in the table of taxonomy below? Hierarchy Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Animalia Annelida P Terricolae Lumbrididae Lumbricus Animalia Q Mammalia Primates Homonidae Homo Plantae R Dicotyledonaeae Ranales Ranunculaceae Ranunculus P Q R A Anthozoa Echinodermata Angiospermatophyta B Oligochaeta Chordata Angiospermatophyta C Nematoda Mollusca Bryophyta D Cestoda Cnidaria Coniferophyta Structured Questions 1. Kingdom Protoctista comprises of diverse groups of protozoa and algae. (a) State two phyla of protozoa with an example each. [2] (b) What are the distinguishing features in each of the phylum that you have stated in (a)? [2] (c) Algae have three forms. State the forms with reference to an example each. [3] (d) State a major similarity between Porifera and Cnidaria. [1] 2. The taxonomic hierachy of a cat is shown in the table below. Taxon Home cat Kingdom Animalia Phylum Class Mammalia Order Carnivore Family Felidae Genus Felis Species Felis catus

39 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity Quick Check 1 Bears in different countries are of different species yet they are all called bears. Similarly, robins are different in America and Europe. Quick Check 2 1. Maize differs from Helianthus from class down to species. 2. Orang utan differs from man in genus and species. Quick Check 3 1. (a) • Conifers have cones for sporangium and spore development whereas angiosperms have flowers for the same purpose. • Conifers have no ovary to develop into fruit whereas angiosperms do. • Conifers have naked seeds whereas angiosperms have seeds protected in the fruits. • The xylem of conifers has no vessel and phloem has no companion cell whereas both xylem and companion cell are found in angiosperms. (b) • Most Porifera have no definite shapes whereas Cnidaria do. • Porifera are asymmetrical whereas Cnidaria have radial symmetry. • Porifera have internal skeleton of spicules whereas some Cnidaria like coral have internal skeleton but no spicules. • Porifera’s bodywall has a lot of poreswhereas Cnidaria have no pores. • Porifera has no tentacles and nematocysts whereas Cnidaria does. Quick Check 4 1. Dipterocarp and Rhizophora. 2. Rafflesia and maidenhair fern. Stick insects and Raja Brooke butterflies. Quick Check 5 1. Climate change, habitat loss, infections diseases, excessive and illegal logging, pollution, overexploitation, introduction of foreign species, and growing human population. Quick Check 6 1. Natural park (Taman Negara) and marine park (Pulau Paya). 2. Zoo and botanical garden. STPM Practice 14 Objective Questions 1. B 2. D 3. C 4. A 5. C 6. C 7. A 8. D 9. C 10. D 11. B 12. A 13. B 14. D 15. C 16. B 17. A 18. D 19. D 20. C 21. D 22. D 23. B (a) What is the phylum? [1] (b) State two characteristics of the Phylum. [2] (c) Describe briefly the Binomial system of nomenclature propose by Carolus Linnaeus. [3] (d) State the importance of taxonomy in biology. [1] Essay Questions 1. (a) Compare morphological characteristics of Bryophyta and Filicinophyta. [9] (b) Compare morphological characteristics of Coniferophyta and Angiospermatophyta. [6] 2. (a) Explain the three levels of biodiversity in Malaysia. [6] (b) The National Park including marine parks are examples of in situ biodiversity conservation in Malaysia. Explain the importance of both areas in sustaining biodiversity in Malaysia. [9] ANSWERS

40 Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14 Structured Questions 1. (a) The two phyla are Chlorophyta e.g. Spirogyra, and Zoomastigina e.g. Tpypanosoma. (b) Rhizopoda has pseudopodia for locomotion; Ciliophora has cilia for locomotion and Zoomatigina has flagellum for locomotion. (c) The three forms are unicellular form e.g. Chlamydomonas, filamentous form e.g. Spirogyra and fucoid form e.g. Ulva. (d) Both sre sessile and have one mouth. 2. (a) Chordates (b) • Chordates have notochord at certain stage of their life • They have postanal tail (c) The system names every organism with two names. The first is called the genus name and the second is called the species name. Both must be in italic with capital for the former and small letter for the latter. (d) So that each species has a common universal name. Essay Questions 1. (a) • Both have heteromorphic alternation of generations i.e. both have gametophyte generation different from sporophyte generation. • Both have sexual organs that almost look alike. Their male sex organs are antheridia while their female sex organs are archegonia. • Both are zoidogamous i.e. their antherozoids require water to swim to fertilise the female gamete. • Both have gametophyte generation that is thallus. • Bryophyta have gametophyte as the dominant generation whereas Filicinophyta have sporophyte as the dominant generation. • Bryophyta are not vascular plants whereas Filicinophyta are vascular plants. • Bryophyta do not have sori whereas Filicinophyta have sori to produce spores. • Sporophyte generation of Bryophyta is very small and consists of the foot, seta and capsule whereas that of Filicinophyta is very big and consists of true roots, stems and leaves. • Bryophyta have antherozoids that are biflagellated whereas those of Filicinophyta are multiflagellated. (b) • Both have diploid sporophyte as dominant generation. • Both sporophytes are of various sizes with roots, stems and leaves. • Both sporophytes are vascular with xylem and phloem. • Conifers produce cones, angiospermatophytes produce flowers as reproductive structures. • The cones from conifers are unisexual, flowers from angiospermatophytes are usually bisexual. • Pollens form conifers are small and light, pollens from angiospermatophytes are bigger and sticky. • Conifers produce no ovary whereas angiospermatophytes have ovary protecting ovules. • Conifers produce no fruits whereas angiospermatophytes produce fruits to protect seeds. 2. (a) • Ecosystem diversity: isthe various ecosystem that exist in a country and the whole earth in general. • Species diversity: is the variety of living organisms which exists in an ecosystem or the entire biosphere. • Genetic diversity: is the variation of genes within and between populations of the same spesies. (b) • The importance of both areas is to prevent the deterioration of our pristine tropical rainforest for in situ conservation. • With these parks under protection, the areas will be free of human interference such as poaching. • Thus, these parks would continue to serve as breeding grounds for our endangered species such as Malayan tigers. • Since these two parks are the house for our most endangered species of animals, their health in these natural environments can be monitored. • Human intervention may be required if their reproductive rates are below expectation so there is no deterioration in their numbers. • Freshwater ecosystem has been created due to dam construction in the areas. Hence, the development of the freshwater aquatic species can be monitored. • Diseased animals or abandoned babies of endangered species can be saved. • Excess number of endangered animals can be culled for ex situ conservation or released into other areas. • Similarly, both parks still have the largest and oldest giant tropical trees which are already wiped out in other areas so seeds can be collected for replanting.

Biology Term 3 STPM Chapter 15 Ecology 15 CHAPTER Bilingual Keywords ECOLOGY Concept Map 15 Community: Kumpulan populasi Biome: Kawasan geografi Biosphere: Alam Niche: Cerut/nic Producer: Pengeluar/tumbuhan Consumers: Pengguna/haiwan Decomposer: Pengurai Predation: Pemangsaan Predator: Pemangsa Prey: Mangsa Biotic : Faktor hidupan Abiotic: Faktor bukan hidupan Biotic potential: Keupayaan biosis Natality: Kadar kelahiran Mortality: Kadar kematian Survivorship: Kemandirian Strategy: Cara hidup Carrying capacity: Populasi maksimum Sustainable: Mapan Cover: Litupan Interaction between biotic abiotic components Meaning of substainable development Factors limiting the population size & distribution Concept of hierarchy Ecology Level of Ecological Organisation Biogeochemical Cycles Energy Flow Population Ecology Carrying Capacity Quantitative Ecology Effeciency of energy transfer in tropical rainforest & lake Energy flow in tropical rainforest & lake Carbon cycle & its importance Phosphorus cycle & its importance Sulphur cycle & its importance Use of quadrat & line transect sampling methods (advantages & disadvatages) Population growth (S & J growth curves) Characteristics of population (Type 1, II, & III survivorship curves) K-strategies & r-strategies Calculate sampling parameters (frequency, density, cover & their absolute & relative estimations) & population size of organisms Pattern of distribution of organisms in an ecosystem