Psychology of Competition and Peak Performance

Harvard University - PSY 1519 Fall 2019

PSYCHOLOGY OF COMPETITION
AND PEAK PERFORMANCE

Course Basics

Time: MW 12:00-1:15pm

Location: Sever Hall 103

Course website: https://
canvas.harvard.edu/courses/60372

Instructor Photo by Markus Spiske on Unsplash

Emily J. Hangen, PhD Course Overview

Email*: [email protected] Competition is ubiquitous: athletes compete on the
sports field, dancers and actors audition for coveted
*I regularly check and do my best to roles, candidates vie for employment or political
reply to emails within 24 hours on positions, businesses compete for profit, and students
weekdays. compete for scholarships and program admission. Why
do some individuals choke under the pressure of
Office: WJH 1018 competition, while others thrive? How does having an
audience or competitor watching you affect how well you
Office hours: Wed 2:00-3:00pm and perform?
by appointment
In this course we will elucidate the relation between
Using office hours competition and performance in discussions of social
comparison theory, social facilitation, goal adoption, the
Considering coming to my office opposing process model of competition, performance
hours? Do it! I readily invite you to under stress, deliberate practice, how individuals react to
take advantage of this time to ask failure, and more. You will develop a scientifically-
questions about course concepts, grounded understanding of how competition affects
discuss ideas in greater depth, learn motivation and performance and learn practical,
more about pursuing a graduate evidence-based tips for how to reach your own peak
degree in psychology, etc. performance.

I look forward to getting to know and 1
chatting with each of you throughout
the semester.

Harvard University - PSY 1519 Fall 2019

Teaching Philosophy What you can gain
from this course
As a motivation researcher, I
recognize that deep, long-lasting By choosing to fully engage in this course, you will eventually
learning comes when students are be equipped to:
intrinsically motivated and
approach-oriented. • Discuss contemporary theories of the psychology of
competition
For these reasons, I deliberately
designed this class with you, my • Skillfully digest and evaluate peer-reviewed research
students in mind, and by using articles
empirically-based strategies to
foster your interest and learning • Identify psychological concepts operating in life outside
motivation, such as: the classroom

• Ensuring every assignment has a • Enhance your own performance under competition
meaningful purpose (absolutely using research-validated strategies
no “busy work”) and sharing this
purpose with you How to Succeed

• Allowing you multiple Deep Engagement Responses (40%)
opportunities to demonstrate
mastery of material by using What: Starting in Week 2, you will receive reading prompts
grading schemes that favor to guide your study of the subsequent week’s readings. You
correction over immediate will articulate your reactions to the upcoming weeks'
perfection readings by writing brief responses (a paragraph or two) to
these prompts. These “deep engagement responses” are due
• Capitalizing on the testing effect before class on Monday in response to all the readings in
by using frequent pass/fail that week (including readings for that Monday and
quizzes to help you retain what Wednesday).
you learn
Why: Mastery of content requires deep and consistent
Ultimately, I have designed this engagement with the readings. This is where the real
course to help you master the learning happens. To make sure grades do not interfere with
course material and to encourage your learning, a substantial portion of your grade will be
you to enjoy the learning process allocated to the effort and thoughtfulness you put into
rather than fret over points and studying the assigned readings.
grades.
Despite the course schedule, reading responses are
packaged by week instead of by class, because this gives you
greater flexibility of choosing what day(s) you study the
readings and facilitates integration of ideas across readings.

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Harvard University - PSY 1519 Fall 2019

Participation (10%) Classroom Culture
Speaking in class: Nothing makes
What: Self-initiated speaking in class is encouraged but me more excited as an educator
not required. Instead, your participation grade is based on than having lively discussions in
your participation in all structured class activities (such as class. I encourage you to share your
contributing in partner/group discussions), completing all thoughts, pose questions, and
in-class quizzes, and providing feedback for the explore ideas with your classmates.
instructor. Importantly, opposing viewpoints
are wonderful opportunities for
Why: Learning to organize and articulate your thoughts intellectual growth IF we actively
is an invaluable skill. Furthermore, active participation strive for mutual respect and base
can lead to greater enjoyment and less boredom in class. arguments in evidence and
Lastly, in-class quizzes are graded on a pass/fail basis and analysis. If you unintentionally
are included for the purpose of helping you remember offend a classmate apologizing is
newly learned concepts for longer periods of time (see an appropriate response.
research on the testing effect). Food and drink: You are welcome
to bring food and drinks to class. All
Concept Mastery Exam (15%) I ask is that you please be mindful
that eating/drinking is not
What: Traditional exam containing both multiple-choice disruptive to you or your classmates
and short-response questions. and the space is kept clean. *If you
have airborne food allergies, please
Why: To ensure you have a solid fluency in foundational let me know.
theories and concepts taught in the first half of the Laptops/phones: You are welcome
semester. to use your laptop in class, however
if you choose to do so please sit in
In class on Wednesday, Oct. 16th the designated laptop area so as
not to distract your classmates (see
Observation Paper (15%) also research on laptop use in the
classroom here and here). Please
What: Observe a competition (e.g. sporting event, reality avoid using your phone in class
tv competition, audition, debate, etc.). Identify at least one unless stated otherwise (e.g. for a
theory or concept from class and explain how it applied to class quiz/activity).
the event in a concise 2-3 page paper in APA style. Please
refine your paper so that it demonstrates deep thinking Photo by Arthur Osipyan on Unsplash 3
and is written in a clear, concise, and well-organized
manner.

Why: To reinforce your learning and demonstrate your
ability to analyze psychological principles in real-world
settings.

Due by midnight on Wednesday, Nov. 6th via the course
website

Harvard University - PSY 1519 Fall 2019

Fine print reminders Final Paper (20%)

Academic Integrity & Plagiarism: Due dates: On November 11th, a paragraph is due stating
your final paper selection (Self Application paper or Research
To get the most out of this class and Proposal paper) and briefly describing your paper topic.
to avoid adverse consequences,
you will need to submit your own The completed 6-9 page paper is due by 9:00am on December
work and give appropriate credit 13th.
when you borrow and build upon
ideas from others. Choose 1 of the following*:

Plagiarism is when you explicitly or Self-Application Paper:
implicitly take credit for someone’s
idea/work. You will want to educate What: Choose at least 2 theories/concepts from class and
yourself about how to avoid apply them to your own life. For at least 1 week, document
plagiarism so you do not commit it how you implemented those chosen theories/concepts, your
unintentionally, especially because I experience, and associated outcomes. In a concise 6-9 page
will not hesitate to enforce the paper written in APA style, describe the research behind
consequences for plagiarism or any those selected principles, explain why you choose those
other form of academic dishonesty principles, how you implemented them, the outcomes, and
in my class. reflect on whether or not they were effective for you.

My advice? Cite, cite, cite! Why: To develop the skill of translating scientific findings
into real-world application and to enhance your own personal
• Even when you put ideas into performance.
your own words or summarize
findings, you need to cite the Research Proposal:
authors who conducted the
original work. What: Design an original research study that explores/
extends one of the topics discussed in class. Explain the value
• When in doubt, cite! There is no of the conducting the proposed study, report the planned
drawback to over-citing, but methods (including participant characteristics and study
severe consequences to under- procedures), and describe expected findings. This 6-9 page
citing. paper should be written in APA style and should include an
introduction, methods, expected results, and conclusion
Resources section.

• See this tutorial on APA style for Why: To exercise scholarly creativity and to practice
creating citations. thinking deeply about future research directions and
experimental design.
• Check that you are always in
compliance with Harvard’s *A final paper rubric will be provided in class with more details and specific
academic integrity policies: grading criteria.
Harvard Handbook for Students—
Academic Integrity. 4

Harvard University - PSY 1519 Fall 2019

FAQ’s

How do I earn an A? See the breakdown of your final grade and the letter grading scheme
below.

Final Grade Breakdown

Final Paper Grade % Grade % Grade %
20%
A 93 - 100 B- 80 - 82.9 D+ 67 - 69.9
Observation Paper
15% Deep Engagement A- 90 - 92.9 C+ 77 - 79.9 D 63 - 66.9
Responses
40%

B+ 87 - 89.9 C 73 - 76.9 D- 60 - 62.9

Mastery Exam Participation B 83 - 86.9 C- 70 - 72.9 E < 60
15% 10%

I am not happy with how I scored, what can I do? I understand that grades are valued and
that learning is a process, not a single event. For those reasons, if you are willing to dedicate
additional time and effort to improve, I will give you opportunities to earn a higher score on
previously scored assignments. Please note, that grades are earned by demonstrating mastery of
the material, not just effort, so higher scores are achieved only by improved performance not by
the number of attempts or time you spent. If you wish to improve your score, you must notify
me within 2 days of receiving your score and I will provide you with individually-customized
instructions and a deadline for how to improve your score. **If you do not contact me within 2
days of receiving your score you forfeit your opportunity to improve that score.**

Can I work with my classmates? Yes and no. You are welcomed and encouraged to discuss
ideas with your classmates, consult with classmates about paper topics, and even offer peer
feedback on rough drafts. You are not allowed to collaborate with classmates on quizzes and
exams. Also, all written work must be your own.

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Harvard University - PSY 1519 Fall 2019

FAQ’s (continued)

Photo by Nicolas Hoizey on Unsplash How do I get the accommodations that I
need? Any student needing academic
adjustments or accommodations is requested
to present their letter from the Accessible
Education Office (AEO) and speak with me by
the end of the second week of the term.
Failure to do so may result in my inability to
respond in a timely manner. All discussions
will remain confidential, although AEO may
be consulted to discuss appropriate
implementation.

Will I be penalized for turning my assignments in late? Yes, you will lose a specified number of
points per day for work that is turned in late (details provided in class). However, you may be granted
a deadline extension if you have a reasonable need and if you contact me at least 3 days before the
deadline. (Exception: In the case of sudden medical and family emergencies, please contact me and
we will discuss options.)

What if I need to miss class for a religious holiday, interview, or another important event
that cannot be rescheduled? If you will be missing class for a reasonably important scheduling
conflict (such as a religious holiday or an interview that cannot be rescheduled) please contact me at
least 24 hours in advance (although the sooner the better) to notify me of the class you will be missing
and the reasons for missing it. You will be given instructions for how you can earn your participation
points for the missed class. Please note, that if you do not make arrangements in advance you forfeit
participation points for the missed class. The only cases in which 24 advance notice is not required is
when absence is due to sickness or family emergencies. In these medical and family emergencies,
please contact me and be prepared to provide documentation from HUHS via your Resident Dean.

3-2-1 Policy Timeline Reminders

3 days prior to deadline (to request deadline extension)

2 days after receiving score (to request instructions for improving score)

1 day prior to missed class (for instructions how to make up participation points)

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Harvard University - PSY 1519 Fall 2019

Course Schedule

No textbooks are required for this course, instead you will be reading original scholarly work (i.e. peer-
reviewed articles), which have been linked below. **Important Note on Readings: Although readings
are listed by class, starting on Week 3 readings for that entire week are to be thoroughly studied before
class on Monday. (See Deep Engagement Responses on page 2)**

Date Course materials Due

Week 1: Course overview

Wed 09/04 Welcome to Psychology of Competition and Peak Performance!

No readings

Mon 09/09 Week 2: Opposing Processes Model

Does competing help you perform better or worse?

Johnson, D., Johnson, R., & Roseth, C. (2012). Competition and performance:
More facts, more understanding? Comment on Murayama and Elliot (2012).
Psychological Bulletin, 138, 1071-1078.

*Optional reading: Murayama, K., & Elliot, A. J. (2012). The competition–
performance relation: A meta-analytic review and test of the opposing processes
model of competition and performance. Psychological Bulletin, 138(6),
1035-1070.

Wed 09/11 Do people take more risks or play it safe when competing?

Hangen, E. J., Elliot, A. J., & Jamieson, J. P. (2016). The opposing processes
model of competition: Elucidating the effects of competition on risk-
taking. Motivation Science, 2(3), 157-170.

Turner, M. J., Jones, M. V., Sheffield, D., & Cross, S. L. (2012). Cardiovascular
indices of challenge and threat states predict competitive
performance. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 86(1), 48-57.

Week 3: Social Comparison Theory

Mon 09/16 Why and when do we compare ourselves to others? Week 3
Deep
Suls, J., Martin, R., & Wheeler, L. (2002). Social comparison: Why, with whom, and Engagement
with what effect?. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11(5), 159-163. response

Garcia, S. M., Tor, A., & Schiff, T. M. (2013). The psychology of competition: A 7
social comparison perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(6),
634-650.

Week 3 continued on next page —>

Harvard University - PSY 1519 Fall 2019

Date Course materials Due

Wed 09/18 Comparisons before, after, and during the competition Week 4 Deep
Engagement
Garcia, S. M., Reese, Z. A., & Tor, A. (In press). Chapter 5 Social comparison response
before, during, and after the competition. In Suls, R. & L. Wheeler (Eds). Social
Comparison, Judgement and Behavior, Oxford University Press (forthcoming).

Mon 09/23 Week 4: Downsides to competing?

Losing interest and self-sabotage in competition

Reeve, J., & Deci, E. L. (1996). Elements of the competitive situation that affect
intrinsic motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(1), 24-33.

Kuczka, K. K., & Treasure, D. C. (2005). Self-handicapping in competitive sport:
Influence of the motivational climate, self-efficacy, and perceived
importance. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6(5), 539-550.

Wed 09/25 Turning everything into a competition: A consequence of gamification?

Huang, S. C., Lin, S. C., & Zhang, Y. (2019). When individual goal pursuit turns
competitive: How we sabotage and coast. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology. Advanced online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/
pspi0000170

Deterding, S. (2012). Gamification: Designing for motivation. Interactions, 19(4),
14-17.

Week 5: Competitors and Rivals

Mon 09/30 How many people are competing against you? Week 5 Deep
Engagement
Eisenkraft, N., Elfenbein, H. A., & Kopelman, S. (2017). We know who likes us, but response
not who competes against us: Dyadic meta-accuracy among work
colleagues. Psychological Science, 28(2), 233-241.

Garcia, S. M., & Tor, A. (2009). The N-effect: More competitors, less
competition. Psychological Science, 20(7), 871-877.

Wed 10/02 The motivational boost of rivalry Instructor
feedback
Pike, B. E., Kilduff, G. J., & Galinsky, A. D. (2018). The long shadow of rivalry: survey
Rivalry motivates performance today and tomorrow. Psychological
Science, 29(5), 804-813. 8

Garcia, S. M., Tor, A., & Gonzalez, R. (2006). Ranks and rivals: A theory of
competition. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(7), 970-982.

Harvard University - PSY 1519 Fall 2019

Date Course materials Due

Week 6: Person x Situation Competitiveness

Mon 10/07 What does it mean to be “competitive”? Week 6 Deep
Engagement
Newby, J. L., & Klein, R. G. (2014). Competitiveness reconceptualized: response
Psychometric development of the competitiveness orientation measure as a
unified measure of trait competitiveness. The Psychological Record, 64(4),
879-895.

Wed 10/09 Competitiveness: Personality x Situation

Morris, R. L., & Kavussanu, M. (2008). Antecedents of approach-avoidance
goals in sport. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26(5), 465-476.

Elliot, A. J., Jury, M., & Murayama, K. (2018). Trait and perceived
environmental competitiveness in achievement situations. Journal of
Personality, 86(3), 353-367.

Mon 10/14 Week 7: Mastery Exam
No class— Indigenous People’s Day/Columbus Day

Wed 10/16 Concept Mastery Exam

Mon 10/21 Week 8: An Audience and Teammates Week 8 Deep
Engagement
Audience effects and what your viewers are thinking response

Blascovich, J., Mendes, W. B., Hunter, S. B., & Salomon, K. (1999). Social
“facilitation" as challenge and threat. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 77(1), 68-77.

Kupor, D., Brucks, M. S., & Huang, S. C. (2019). And the winner is...?
Forecasting the outcome of others’ competitive efforts. Journal of
personality and social psychology. Advance online publication.

Wed 10/23 Social loafing: Are you pulling your fair share?

Hoigaard, R., Tofteland, I., & Ommundsen, Y. (2006). The effect of team
cohesion on social loafing in relay teams. International Journal of Applied
Sport Sciences, 18(1), 59-73.

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Harvard University - PSY 1519 Fall 2019

Date Course materials Due

Mon 10/28 Week 9: Choking Under Pressure Week 9 Deep
Engagement
Why people choke under pressure response

Wed 10/30 Beilock, S. L., & Carr, T. H. (2001). On the fragility of skilled performance:
What governs choking under pressure?. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: General, 130(4), 701-725.

How to avoid choking under pressure

Mesagno, C., & Beckmann, J. (2017). Choking under pressure: Theoretical
models and interventions. Current Opinion in Psychology, 16, 170-175.

Ramirez, G., & Beilock, S. L. (2011). Writing about testing worries boosts
exam performance in the classroom. Science, 331(6014), 211-213.

Mon 11/04 Week 10: Managing Stress Week 10 Deep
Wed 11/06 Engagement
Distraction and reappraising the situation response

Balk, Y. A., Adriaanse, M. A., De Ridder, D. T., & Evers, C. (2013). Coping Observation Paper
under pressure: employing emotion regulation strategies to enhance
performance under pressure. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 35(4),
408-418.

Stress reappraisal: Realizing that stress can help you—it’s contagious.

Jamieson, J. P., Peters, B. J., Greenwood, E. J., & Altose, A. J. (2016).
Reappraising stress arousal improves performance and reduces evaluation
anxiety in classroom exam situations. Social Psychological and Personality
Science, 7(6), 579-587.

Oveis, C., Gu, Y., Ocampo, J. M., Hangen, E. J., & Jamieson, J. (preprint
under review). Emotion regulation contagion: Stress reappraisal promotes
challenge responses in teammates.

Week 11: Practice and Mindfulness

Mon 11/11 Does practice make perfect? Week 11 Deep
Engagement
Ericsson, K. A. (2006). The influence of experience and deliberate practice response
on the development of superior expert performance. In K. A. Ericsson, N.
Charness, R. R. Hoffman, & P. J. Feltovich (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of Final paper
expertise and expert performance (pp. 685-705). New York: Cambridge selection
University Press.

Ericsson, K. A. (2016). Summing up hours of any type of practice versus 10
identifying optimal practice activities: Commentary on Macnamara, Moreau,
& Hambrick (2016). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(3), 351-354.

Week 11 continued on next page —>

Harvard University - PSY 1519 Fall 2019

Date Course materials Due

Wed 11/13 Mental preparation: Using imagery and mindfulness Week 12 Deep
Engagement
Baltzell, A. L. (2016). Chp 4 Mindfulness and performance. In I. Ivtzan & T. response
Lomas (Eds.), Mindfulness in Positive Psychology (pp. 74-89). London:
Routledge.

Cumming, J., Williams, S. E. (2014). Imagery. In R. C. Eklund & G.
Tenenbuam (Eds.). Encyclopedia of Sport and Exercise Psychology,
369-373.

Week 12: Winning and Losing on Motivation

Mon 11/18 When you are in the lead

Huang, S. C., Etkin, J., & Jin, L. (2017). How winning changes motivation in
multiphase competitions. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 112(6), 813-837.

Wed 11/20 After a loss

Wadhwa, M., & Kim, J. C. (2015). Can a near win kindle motivation? The
impact of nearly winning on motivation for unrelated rewards. Psychological
Science, 26(6), 701-708.

Buser, T. (2016). The impact of losing in a competition on the willingness to
seek further challenges. Management Science, 62(12), 3439-3449.

Mon 11/25 Week 13: Emotions Week 13 Deep
Engagement
All the feels—after the game response

Larsen, J. T., Peter McGraw, A., Mellers, B. A., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2004). The
agony of victory and thrill of defeat: Mixed emotional reactions to
disappointing wins and relieving losses. Psychological Science, 15(5),
325-330.

Wed 11/27 Medvec, V. H., Madey, S. F., & Gilovich, T. (1995). When less is more:
counterfactual thinking and satisfaction among Olympic medalists. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(4), 603-610.

No class— Thanksgiving Break

Mon 12/02 Week 14: Conclusion

Final discussion and reflection on final paper

**Final Paper due 9:00am on Dec. 13th**

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Harvard University - PSY 1519 Fall 2019

Reading for Fun: Book Recommendations

Top Dog: The Science of Winning and Losing
Po Bronson & Ashley Merryman

Boost!: How the Psychology of Sports Can Enhance your
Performance in Management and Work
Michael Bar-Eli, Ph.D.

Choke: What the Secrets of the Brain Reveal About
Getting It Right When You Have To
Sian Beilock, Ph.D.

Peak: Secrets from the New Science of Expertise
Anders Ericsson, Ph.D. & Robert Pool, Ph.D.

Fight Your Fear and Win: Seven Skills for Performing Your
Best Under Pressure--At Work, In Sports, On Stage
Don Greene, Ph.D.

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