SSF1033-MALAYSIAN SOCIAL HISTORY

THE USES OF HISTORY

• History: The study of change over time

 Wang Gungwu
(1968):

a) Desire to remember and the awareness that memory
confers power on those who remember

b) As useful knowledge where past experiences and examples
can help improve humankind

c) Explore the meaning of life and death – a means of
understanding humanity’s place on earth and what’s their

destiny

 Yong Mun Cheong
(2000):

a) Helps us better understand the present – current beliefs, practices, knowledge,
way of life are rooted in the past

b) Provides lessons from the past – achievements and failures of past civilisations
and people

c) Promotes awareness of our ancestral heritage – appreciate our rich cultural
heritage, customs and practices; basis for personal identity

d) Understand how people think and feel – how people react in different cultures,
places and times; what they value, etc.

e) Develop critical and analytical skills – asking questions and thinking
about/researching the answers

f) Develop a sense of national identity – who we are as a people and where we
come from

OFFICIAL
VS

MISSING HISTORY

PREHISTORY
MESSAGE

1. Human bones discovered in caves (Niah) & stone tools
discovered (Perak and Sabah), (Palaeolithic period) is the
evidence of ancient human occupation (40,000 BCE)

2.Neolithic period (4000 BCE) & Bronze Age exhibits of
pottery, stone objects and bronze drums showed the advanced
settlements & developing culture during pre-history period

3.Evidence of major settlements like Bujang Valley (Hindu,
Buddhist) & Santubong (Hindu, Buddhist & Muslim) showed
the diverse beliefs and active trade relations between
“Malaysia” and other parts of the world, esp India, Arabia
and China (Sri Vijayan Influences).

COLONIAL
STORY

1.Malacca fell into the hands of the Portuguese in 1511, kicking off the

colonial era in Malaya. Following that, Malaya passed into the hands of the

Dutch in 1641 and the British in 1824 as a result of the Anglo–Dutch Treaty.

In comparison to others, British colonisation lasted the longest. The British

had incorporated all of Malaya's administration, which had previously been

managed by Malay rulers with the assistance of state dignitaries. The British

intervention had sparked resentment among the locals. Some people rose up

against the colonial, but they were easily defeated by the British because

their efforts were more focused on individuality. Dol Said, Tok Janggut, Datuk

Bahaman, Rentap, Dato Maharajalela, Rosli Dobi, and others were among the

heroes who stood up to the colonialists.
3. The British also took control of the north

2.Dutch Malacca (1641–1825) coast of Borneo in the late nineteenth
was Malacca's longest period of century, where Dutch rule had never been
established. Until the nineteenth century,
foreign control. During the development on the Peninsula and Borneo
Napoleonic Wars (1795–1818), were largely separate. The Sultan of Sulu,
the Dutch ruled for nearly 183 who later became a vassal of the Spanish

years, with intermittent British East Indies, nominally ruled the eastern part

occupation. Because of the of this region (now Sabah). The remainder
agreement reached in 1606 was Sultanate of Brunei territory. In 1841,
between the Dutch and the British explorer James Brooke assisted the
Sultanate of Johor, this era Sultan of Brunei in suppressing a revolt in
saw relative peace with few exchange for the title of raja and the right
serious interruptions from the to govern the Sarawak River District. His
title became hereditary in 1846, and the

Malay sultanates. "White Rajahs" began ruling Sarawak as a

recognised independent state. Sarawak was

expanded at the expense of Brunei by the

Brookes.

MISSING

HISTORY

Reality is that the struggle for a new country, Malaya/Malaysia,
was more inclusive and saw the involvement of Chinese, Indians,

rich, poor, left-wing and conservative elements. For example,
Sybil Kathigesu, Ong Boon Hua, Gurchan Singh

Approximately one-third of each territory's (Singapore, Malaya,
Borneo) population strongly supports Malaysia's early realisation
without regard for terms and conditions. Another third, many of
whom support the Malaysia project, ask, with varying degrees of
emphasis, for conditions and safeguards of varying nature and

extent: the warmth of support among this category would be
markedly influenced by Governments' firm expression of opinion that

the detailed arrangements eventually agreed upon are in the best
interests of the territories. The remaining third is split between
those who want independence before considering Malaysia and those
who would prefer to see British rule continue for some time. If the

conditions and reservations they have proposed can be met
substantially, the second category mentioned above will generally
support the proposals. Furthermore, once a firm decision was made,
a large number of the third category would be likely to abandon
their opposition and decide to make the best of a bad situation.
There will be a hard core, vocal and politically active, who will
oppose Malaysia on any terms unless it is preceded by independence
and self-government: this hard core may amount to nearly 20% of

Sarawak's population and slightly less in North Borneo.



— Lord Cobbold, Cobbold Commission

PREHISTORY

What is archeology/prehistory

Archaeology is the systematic study of the material remains of past human behaviour.



Prehistory is the period of human history preceding the era of written documents and archives.

Prehistory of Malaysia

1.Perak Man, the first anatomically modern human skeleton discovered in
Peninsular Malaysia, dates back 11,000 years, and Perak Woman, dating

back 8,000 years, was discovered in Lenggong. The site contains an
undisturbed stone tool production area, which was created using tools such
as anvils and hammer stones. Perak is also home to the Tambun rock art.

The oldest human remains in Malaysia, dating back 40,000 years, have
been discovered in Sarawak's Niah Caves in East Malaysia.

2. 35,000+ years ago – Paleolithic (Early Stone Age) - Niah Caves
in Sarawak is a significant prehistoric site where human remains

dating back approximately 40,000 years have been discovered. Stone
tools discovered in the Mansuli valley near Lahad Datu in Sabah have

been dated much earlier, according to archaeologists, but precise
dating analysis has not yet been published.

3.10,000–5,000 years ago- Neolithic (New Stone Age): Archaeological
discoveries in Perak's Lenggong valley show that people were making stone tools

and wearing jewellery. This period's archaeological data comes from cave and
rock shelter sites and is associated with Hoabinhian hunter-gatherers. It is
thought that Neolithic farmers arrived in this area between 3–4000 years ago.

4. 2,500 years ago – Bronze Age: More people, including new tribes and
seafarers, arrived. The Malay Peninsula became a crossroads in ancient
maritime trades. Among those who visited Malaysia's shores were Indians,
Javanese, and Chinese. The Malay Peninsula was given the name "Golden

Chersonese" by Ptolemy.

Out-of-Malaysia
Theory

1.83-million-year-old hand axe
from Bukit Bunuh is older than

Peking Man, Java Man, Perak Man

Out-of-Africa
Theory

Between 100 and 200,000 years ago, Homo sapiens evolved
first in Africa and then spread throughout the world, eventually
displacing all other hominid species. This argument implies that

all modern people are ultimately of African descent.

The fossils of early African Homo erectus (also known as Homo ergaster)
are the oldest known early humans to have had modern human-like body
proportions, with relatively elongated legs and shorter arms compared to
the size of the torso. These characteristics are thought to be adaptations

to a life on the ground, indicating the loss of earlier tree-climbing
adaptations, such as the ability to walk and possibly run long distances.
Take note of the expanded braincase relative to the size of the face in

comparison to earlier fossil humans.

The 'Turkana Boy' is the most complete fossil individual of this species, a
well-preserved skeleton (though missing almost all of the hand and foot
bones) dated around 1.6 million years ago. A microscopic examination of his
teeth reveals that he developed at a rate comparable to that of a great ape.
There is fossil evidence that this species cared for the elderly and the sick.

ANCIENT HISTORY

Ancient history is the collection of past events dating back to the beginning of
written and recorded human history and extending all the way to post-classical

history.

i. Borobudur Early Kingdoms in SE Asia/Malay Archipelago

iii.Angkor Wat

7th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple in Hindu-Buddhist Built by Suryavarman II (Khmer empire):
Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia, 12th century AD
not far from the town of Muntilan. It is the


largest Buddhist temple in the world. Originally dedicated to the Hindu god

The temple was built in the 9th century Vishnu, Angkor Wat became a Buddhist
during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, temple by the end of the 12th century.

and its design is based on Javanese

Buddhist architecture, which combines the

Indonesian indigenous tradition of ii.A Hindu Neighbor:
ancestor worship with the Buddhist Prambanan Temple

concept of Nirvana.




1. Constructed c. AD 850 by either Rakai Pikatan (king of 2nd

Mataram dynasty) or Balitung Maha Sambu (during Sanjaya

dynasty)




2. Para Brahman




3. Prambanan bas-reliefs tell Hindu tales




4. Episodes from Vishnu's incarnation as Rama encircle the main

shrines at Prambanan that are dedicated to Shiva and Brahma

By the fourth century AD, coastal states in Malay Peninsula: On the Malay Peninsula and other parts of
what is now Peninsular Malaysia were From pre- to Southeast Asia, several kingdoms and
proto-history entrepôts arose.
conducting intra- and extra-regional trade on
a regular basis (forest goods and luxury
items).

The majority of these were on the coast (e.g., Kuala Selinsing, Bujang Valley, Santubong), though some were inland (e.g., Chih Tu).

i. Kuala Selinsing ii. Cherok Tok Kun


An early Indian presence/influence is
Human burials and artefacts, including pottery, also suggested by Cherok Tok Kun, a site
beads, shells and glassware - 3rd century BC to
in Bukit Mertajam, Penang.
11th century AD.



Sanskrit script – South Indian Pallava
Carnelian seal inscribed in South Indian Grantha – c.4th -6 th cent. AD
Grantha script – c.5th cent. AD

iii. Santubong iv. Bujang Valley

Maritime trade: gold objects, glass Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that flourished in the
beads, Chinese ceramics, gold, local iron Bujang Valley from the fourth to the seventh

production, HinduBuddhist objects, centuries.
“Tantric” shrine – 10th -13th century


AD Important trade centre



Status as “rice bowl” of Malaysia a relatively
recent phenomenon



Bujang Valley surveyed in the 1930s by
Quaritch-Wales (found some 30 sites in the area)

The “Indianization”
of

Southeast Asia

The establishment of Indian kingdoms on the mainland or in insular Southeast Asia: The
spread of a structured culture based on the Indian concept of royalty, characterised by

Hinduist or Buddhist cults, and expressed in Sanskrit (Coedes 1968)

Influence of India on Malay Culture

1.Kingship 3.Administration 5.Practices 7. Arts

9. Literature

2. Ceremonial 4. Language 6. Beliefs 8. architecture

The Malays of Peninsular Mandi Safar Ceremonial bathing in the
Malaysia are known to have river or sea.
celebrated the Mandi Safar
festival annually on the last The purpose is to cleanse oneself of
Wednesday of the Muslim month spiritual impurity and to guard
against misfortune.
of Safar.

Historical interpretations

1.Mandi may have originated as a secular festival to 2.May have originated as a secular festivity to allow
allow young men and women to meet – to look for young men and women to meet – to look for future

future life partners. life partners

3. The addition of the term Safar to Mandi may have 4.Similarly, the added explanation of
occurred after the adoption of Islam, particularly during the the goal to achieve spiritual purity.

time of the Melaka Sultanate, to make the practise more
acceptable to the Islamic society.

Trade and its Consequences

1. History is made and changes with trade
2. Kingdoms and Countries survive, rise and fall on trade

3. For trade to flourish, contracts and alliances built on mutual economic interests (either long or short-term)
required

4. From the 15th century onwards, diplomacy was the art of striking economic and political deals to maintain

strategic interests of each kingdom.

1580s – 1630s : Netherlands and British get involved Dutch East India Company (VOC) and
in global maritime trade to
Resurgence in international circumvent Venice and Genoa; to East India Company (Britain) set up
trade between Europe, to venture into the New World for
India, China and Japan. overthrow Portuguese and Dutch
control over trade and resources trade.

5. Entry of Capitalism in SE Asia brought about major political, economic and social changes via contracts,
shifting alliances and conflict.

Capitalism brought about divergence in

understanding over rights and obligations over

a) Western powers belief in the how business is conducted b) Local Malay/Bugis belief in the
value of signed contracts value of solemn oaths ( The

agreement of the Sultan and his
subjects in the Malay Annals)

6. All pre-colonial and colonial conquests;

International trade between Regional struggle to control
Europe, India, SE Asia and entreport trade and regional trade

China

8. Desire for wealth and resources via Trade brought about contracts and alliances and political-economic control of
trade routes.



9. Portuguese/Dutch/British/ US/French entry into the region built on struggle and conquests rooted in constantly
shifting alliances with local chiefs.



10. Trade led to huge movements/migration of peoples whether for trade or due to slavery (e.g. the Bugis, the
Acehnese, the Portuguese, Dutch, British, Tausug, Spanish, Illanuns)



11. The entry of Europeans and Capitalism formed and reformed the region into what it is today politically;
economically; culturally.

The Creation of The Modern SE Asia

European presence led to destruction of Old Malay World and creation of the New. But not simply due to European
expansionism/Imperialism but also due to local politics and global changes.

1. Siam and Northern Malay States 2. Treaty of 1824 and The Partition of The
Malay World
a) Siamese Overlordship over Northern Malay States

(NMS) post 1782.
a) In the meantime, trade rivalry between EIC and
b) East India Company (EIC) trading interests Dutch East Indies Company (VOC)
required that they recognise Siamese suzerainty


(control) over NMS. b) 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty – divided up SE Asia
c) 1822 – Rama III ascends throne. Has expansionist between British sphere and Dutch sphere.

policies. Extremely important document that ultimately
d) NMS esp. Kelantan and Perak look to EIC to shaped modern Malaysia/Indonesia


provide assistance against Siamese power.
e) 1825; Perak threatened and possibility of c) In 1826, EIC concludes an agreement with Siam –
Siam agreed not to attack Perak or Selangor.
Selangor coming under Siam.

f) Threat to Selangor serious as it affected the d) 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty – divided up SE Asia
between British sphere and Dutch sphere. –
possibility of EIC investment in tin mines. Malaysia and Indonesia take shape



e) 1826 EIC-Siam Treaty divided up NMS between
British sphere and Siamese sphere – Thailand and

Malaya take shape.



f) 1826 EIC-Siam Treaty led to 1909 Anglo-Siam
Treaty: Formal division of sovereignty and land

g) Modern Malaya & Thailand take shape.

3. Treaty of 1824, 1826, 1909 and The Partition
of The Malay World.

Political division now affects everything – resource exploitation, control of trade, Riau-Johor
Temenggung family becomes Sultan of Johor; movements of peoples, academic study, even

identity and nationalism (until today).



b) 1826 – Penang, Province Wellesley, Malacca & Singapore formed into Straits Settlements (SS)
(Note: all gained via treaty or via annual payments – no war involved)

Population, Immigrants and Ethnic Identity

the total of individuals -a person who comes to a Ethnic identity is a measurement of the feeling of belonging to a particular
occupying an area or country to take up ethnic group. Ethnic
making up a whole
permanent residence identity can be measured in different ways. One method of measurement is
simply asking a
respondent about his or her identity with the majority group and the
respondent's ethnic group.

1.The immigrants The Creation of ‘Malay’ Ethnicity

• ‘Malays’ • Previously, peoples of Southeast Asia – spoke mother tongue languages
• ‘Chinese’ • Great diversity in SE Asia

• ‘Indian’ • Malay – language of regional trade
• ‘Europeans’ • With coming of the Portuguese, Dutch and British – census and classification of groups via

• Armenians background (region of origin, religion and ‘ethnicity’)
• Baghdadis • Ethnic categories driven by ideological imperatives
• British colonial practices = high level of migration = created Malaya’s/Malaysia’s
• Siamese
• Burmese diverse/plural society.
•Bangladesh • 1850-1920: Large scale in-migration especially. Chinese, Indian, Java & Sumatra
• Vietnamese
• Timorese • Need for census data for trade/investment purposes
• Impt to distinguish indigenous from immigrant populations;
• Arabs • Also necessary to maintain the boundary between colonizer and the colonized - defining the
• Japanese
• Filipinos boundary for being a European was essential.
• Parsees
• Sri Lanka • Indigenous Peoples?
-1911 Federated Malay States census: ‘Sakai’ recognized as a category.
3.The Creation of ‘Malay’ Ethnicity -Colonial attitude towards the non-Christian population, phrases such as

‘semi-civilized’, ‘wild’
and ‘highly civilized’ were used to describe the indigenous population

(Nathan 1922: 16,
Vlieland 1932: 103).
-Jakun was recognized in the 1921 census
-1931 census recognized additional ethnicities – Semang, Jakun and

Orang Mantra, but
enumerated them together as “Nomadic Aboriginals”(Nathan 1922: 2,

Vlieland 1932: 102).
-Linguistic differences were used to determine differences between the

groups.
-1947 census had a longer listing of ethnic categories of Aborigines,

which were Negrito, Jakun,
Semai (aka Semak, Senoi), Sisek (Besisi), Semelai and Temiar.

'The Penang Story'

i)The Early History of the Burmese Community in Penang
by Dato' Mary J. Ritchie & Ms. Nyee Aye Toolseram, Penang Burmese

society

1800, there was a large Burmese settlement in the area
between Bagan Jeramal and Pulau Tikus.
The Burmese also settled in Batu Maung.

The earliest settlers were fishermen who came by fishing boats and established a colony –
probably at Telok Ava, near the present Chinese cemetery in Telok Bahang. -The Burmese

community expanded, and together with the Thai Buddhist community they appealed to Queen
Victoria of England for land to build bigger temples and burial grounds for elders.



-Queen Victoria through the East India Company granted land jointly for both communities to
erect their temples.

-The temple was founded on 1st August 1803 and named the Nandy Moloh Temple.
-The Burmese were traders who conducted barter trade and were famous for cigar
manufacturing.

-Some of the educated ones were civil servants, surveyors, station masters and clerks. -A few
became professionals, such as doctors. In recent years, much of the Buddhist -Temple, including

the old Simla Hall, has been redeveloped and new Buddha statues added.

ii)Penang Siamese: Cultural Values & Tradition
by Mr. Nai Wan Dee Aroonratana, RombonganMenora Thai Malaysia

-Noo Wan @ Wan Dee Aroonratana is a retired Thai Menora performer and shaman. The
91-year-old has been practising his craft since he was 14 years old. He was awarded the Penang
Living Heritage Treasures Award in 2007. I started training with a Menora teacher and followed

my father's troupe to perform as I trained. When performing the Menora, we can take on many
characters - sometimes we use masks, as a jester, and sometimes, we don the crown as the king.



-The Menora is a cultural tradition inherited from thousands of years ago. Pa'wan Dee started
learning Menora when he was 14 years old, following in his father's footsteps as a shaman and

performer. The troupe consists of about five performers, one "king" (the lead) and other
supporting performers. Each Menora troupe has about 10 people, five are performers and there

can only be one king, one lead. I took over from my father in 1949 and I retired in 1985 but
continued to mentor the new troupe leader.



-In 2002, when I was almost 80, I did my final Menora performance. It is sad that the Thai
Menora is slowly being forgotten here. Fortunately, it is still being practised and taught in
Thailand but in Penang, it's a culture that is slowly dying. The performers speak in local dialects

and sometimes in Bahasa Malaysia to reach out to the local crowd.

iii)The Filipino Community in Penang
by Catherine Lee Sue Si

By 1800, the population of the immigrant society in Penang numbered over 10,000, only about
300 of whom were Europeans. The 1835 census recorded 40,207 inhabitants, with 16,435

Malays, 8751 Chinese, 9,208 Indians and only 790 Europeans. Of the 3,000 immigrants of other
races were the Filipinos, who had come here not for social or trading purposes, but for purely
economic ones. Most of them were armed with only their musical skills, and their adventurous
spirit.

Settlement areas Marriages Language Dressing

Penang Road, Agryl Road, Originally married among Tagalog a sarong plus a simple
Farquhar Street, around themselves; intermarriages blouse-sort of “baju pendek”.
the Assumption Cathedral,
were more common,
Transfer Road especially among the
Chinese and Eurasian races.

Food Education Burial

Adabo : chicken or pork-based. Marinated The elder families were
in black sauce, vinegar and garlic and
stir-fried. Like the majority of immigrants, the poor did buried at the Western Road
Sinigang : a fish soup, non-spicy. Cemetery.
Garnished with tomatoes, onions and not attend school. It was only from the
vegetables.
second
Totar : from the Spanish “tortilla”. Egg
fried with lean meat, omelet style. generation these Filipino immigrants were
Cooked on banana
leaves for the fragrance. sent to school. Popular schools at that time

Balenciana : a sort of chicken rice with were St.
red colouring.
Xavier’s Institution and Convent Light

Street. Another school that had many

immigrant Filipinos

was St. George’s Girl’s School.

iv)The History of Penang Eurasians
by Dr. Anthony E. Sibert, PJK, Penang Eurasian Association

Place of Penang Eurasian -The Catholic Church
-Phuket, Thailand
-Kedah

-Penang-Georgetown
-College General
-Father Pasqual

-Kampung Serani Pulau Tikus
-Portuguese – French Mission Rivalry

v)Eurasian Contributions to the Economic & Social
Development of Penang

by Eustace A. Nonis, Penang Eurasian Association

-The Eurasian community in Penang EARLY ACTIVITIES

started with the arrival of The Eurasians were largely urban
the British in 1786. The dwellers.

focal One other important aspect of the
point of this Catholic early Eurasian community in
community was the Church
Penang was the significant role
of the Immaculate played by women in economic
Conception, which they
built. A school, commonly activity.
known as "Noah's Ark", was
eventually built to serve

the community.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC THE SITUATION TODAY

AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT In education for example, Eurasian men and
women are still teachers in large numbers, but
On the social side, Eurasians have been
noted for their ability to organize and they
have broadened their horizons as educators.
excel in various The next generation of Penang Eurasians is
social and sporting activities. showing encouraging signs that it will carry on
In 1919, the Penang Eurasian Association
was formed to promote the social, with
what began in 1786, and that it will be even
welfare, moral and more successful than the generations before.
intellectual advancement of all Eurasians

in Penang as well as maintain cordial
relations within

the community and the other
communities in Malaya towards the

development of the country.

vi)An Introduction to the Malaysian Ceylonese Community and the Malaysian Ceylonese

Congress

by Dato' Dr.D.M.Thuraiappah,President of MCC

INTRODUCTION

-A greater understanding of the history of the different races in Malaysia, their culture and
traditions, would go a long way in building up an integrated Malaysian society and in fact all the

detailed histories of the influx of the various communities and races in Malaysia and their
subsequent prosperity in the country would act as a highly important source material when the

history of the emotional integration of this country is written.
The recent past of all these communities in Malaysia – the Chinese, Indians and the Ceylonese –
is associated with Malaysia – a country which all these races have adopted as their motherland.

Malaysian Ceylonese and where did they come from ?

1.Sinhalese 2.The Ceylon Tamils 3.Indian Tamils

migrated to Ceylon from India in the come from the Jaffna Peninsula They were more recent
sixth century B.C. They are believed and islands to the west. The arrivals as businessmen with

to have been of Aryan majority of them are Hindus with the majority who came as
descent. The introduction of Indian some converting to Christianity. workers in the tea
Buddhism marks the beginning of the There is a strong minority in the
rest of the provinces of Ceylon, plantations when under British
authentic history of the rule tea became a major cash
Sinhala. Some have converted to particularly in the Western,
Christianity in more recent times. Central and Northwest Provinces. crop. They are also mainly
Hindus.

The Burghers 5.Eurasians 6.Moors

the descendants of Children of British mixtures with The Muslim Moors were
the Dutch, Sinhalese and Tamils were the involved in export trade.
Eurasians. Most Eurasians lived
Portuguese and other They were not greatly
Europeans born in in the plantations as tea makers, attracted by
Ceylon. apothecaries, book-keepers and
managers. In later years the term westernisation or education
Malays 'Burgher' was extended to include and continued to practice
their old occupations, the
The Malays were either 'Eurasians'.
the early sea-faring village retail

community from Malaya trade.
or members of Dutch
imported regiments of British
‘Ambonese’, who, in
British times, became The last to colonize Ceylon after the The arrival of Ceylonese to Malaya.
known as Malays. They Portuguese and the Dutch. They
were were instrumental in Through virgin jungle, braving the many
Muslims. perils, the greatest of which was the
introducing English education to the fever mosquito,
local population for their own
reasons and for subsequent they laid the foundations of some of the
employment of them in their finest roads and railway tracks in the
Colonies. world during that
period in Malaya's development.
Each ship from Colombo brought its full

quota of young men seeking employment

Malaysia/singapore as Immigrants Societies

Who were the immigrants?

i)the malay kings from bukit seguntang(Palembang) to temasek to melaka (14th-15th
century)

ii)minangkabau pioneers to n9 (15th-17th century)

iii)bugis to selangor, kedah, johor, (1700-1824)
iv)the european/chinese/indian/SEAsian (from 1511-1860)
v)cantonese and tamil with fewer javanese’s contracts labourers, (19th century)
vi)banjarese, mandailing, hainanese, hokichiu and various other, to everywhere in Asia

i) RELATIONS BETWEEN COMMUNITIES
IN A MIGRANT SOCIETY

First Second

certain frontier mentality immigrant societies were readier to define the object of nationalist

-a pragmatic determination to adopt policies loyalty as a
that
territory rather than a people
are good for the country rather than
reiterating ancient beliefs or shibboleths. to civic rather than ethno nationalism."
-This latter might seem to work better for Instead there developed a more artificial
Chinese than for Malay Malaysians, given
racial construct of "whiteness" (in
the heavy Australia) or
emphasis on most modem Malay societies on
Malayness' (in Malaysia), which could be
kingship and loyalty as the epitome of all the more shrill because it had no basis
Malayness.
in a shared
past.

Third Last

There was/is a readiness to accept further migration in Relations between the migrant society and the older
indigenous population are tense and
the interests of growing the
tortured, including massacres in the early period, mutual
economy and attracting talent fear and detestation, attempts both to

combined with a fierce competition ignore and to assimilate, along with a paternalistic desire
between generations to improve, and individual heroes who

and types of migrants. Malay identity go out of their way to empathize and change majority
proved wonderfully absorptive in the attitudes.

15 Century as a Australia has more obviously had to deal with the
creative creole, absorbing Indians, problem than has Malaysia, and it can hardly
Arab Chinese, Javanese and Filipinos. be said to have made a good job of it.

The Arabs Migration and Its Importance in the Historical Development of the Late
Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century Malaya

Most Arabs who are settled in Malaysia today trace their roots from Hadhramaut, a piece of
land situated at the southern extremity of the Arabian Peninsula. Arabs were perceived by

Malays as direct inheritors of the wisdom of Islam and possessors of an unexampled piety and
religious merit

Origins, Migration and Settlement Historical Contributions to Islamisation

-The Malay World has been known to the -The Arabs began trading in Asia around
Arabs since early times from the trading 622 A.D and sent their first embassy to

activities of China around
their merchants on the way to China. The the same time as Islam.
Chinese mentioned the existence of a Muslim -The study of Islamisation of the Malays
settlement in East Sumatra, San-Fu-Chi is incomplete if local traditions are

(Palembang) in 55AHl674AD. ignored. Early

Muslim missionaries who converted their
forefathers were Arabs from Arabia. When
-Aden was an important gateway for the
Arabs of Hadhramaut who began to migrate the Muslim
Kingdom of Perlak was founded, it was
to the ruled by Sayyid Abdul Aziz (ruled 1161-
Malay World, including Malaya, before the
arrival of the Dutch. Its importance as a 1188).


trading
centre was recorded by Marco Polo (1294) -Malays' attachment to the Arabs was
stemmed from a feeling of indebtedness
and later by Ibn Battuta (1325-1355).

to a community
which had contributed to and influenced
-Before World War II, Arabs who migrated to
Malaya and elsewhere tended to foster a the development of their history and
close and civilisation. The
lasting relationship with their countries of
domicile. They normally preserved strong Islamisation of the Malays elevated their
emotional bond with the Middle East, which no
and spiritual ties with Hadhramaut which longer rested on a
were manifested in dress, language and
intensity of commercial basis, but now encompassed
religious life. religion and education

7.The Armenians of Penang

-The street named after the Armenians, the people of Armenia, is in Georgetown, Penang. The
Armenians played a far greater role in the settlement than their actual numbers suggest. They
were descendants of Armenians taken forcibly to Persia by Shah Abbas in the 1600s. Armenian
Street and Aratoon Road remind you that Armenians once lived in Penang. The Sarkies Brothers

also ran the Sea View Hotel, the Oriental Tiffin and Billiard Rooms and Crag Hotel. Most of
their senior staff was Armenian, thus boosting the Armenian population.

From 1802 to 1956, the total number who Three of his sons - Anthony, Satoor
ever lived in Penang was probably under 175. and Johannes - became leading civic

Armenians played a far greater role in the figures. Armenian
economic, social and civic life of the Street and Aratoon Road remind you
settlement. They that Armenians once lived in Penang.

were descendants of Armenians taken forcibly Most of their senior
to Persia by Shah Abbas in the 1600s. After staff was Armenian, thus boosting
the Armenian population. The Sarkies
1840,
few Armenian families remained in Penang Brothers also ran the
apart from the Anthonys. Arathoon Anthony Sea View Hotel, the Oriental Tiffin
and Billiard Rooms and, from 1905
brought
his family to Penang in 1819, becoming a until 1920, the Crag
Hotel.
trader and planter.

8.The Indonesians in Penang (1786-2000 )

Captain Light built a stockade of palm fibres that became known as Fort Cornwallis. The
majority of Indonesian migrants in the early days of Penang were Acehnese. Light wooed Tunku
Syed Hussain, an Acehnese Arab, to move to Penang. He claimed to be the grandson of Sultan

Jamal Syah of Aceh (1703-1726). Through his wealth and philanthropic contributions, he
emerged as a leader in the community.

Indonesian founders Baba and Nyonyas

Acheen Street Mosque is the oldest -Slaves from Nias, Bali, Java, Toba, Karo, and
mosque in George Town and still elsewhere in the archipelago were sold in Penang.
stands today. During the They became the progenitors of the Baba and Nyonyas
Aceh War of the 1870s, prayers
were performed there for the (CinaPeranakan) The present chief
success of the resistance against minister of Penang, Tan Sri Koh Su Koon, was educated
the
in Medan.
Dutch. Chinese Muslim influence in Indonesia-Malaysia-Thailand. Growth Triangle presents
the architecture is reflected in the
a new means of building linkages
swallow-tail ridged roof. between people through their common legacy.

Dato'Abdullah Hussain, one of Malaysia's
best-loved writers, was involved in the fight for
Indonesian independence in Aceh in the 1940s.

9. The Japanese Community in Malaya
before the Pacific War: Its Genesis and Growth

-The Japanese community in Malaya has grown from a few prostitutes to
thousands of

entrepreneurs. During the Meiji era Malaya was a refuge for vagabond sailors
and a dumping

ground for enslaved prostitutes. Today it is a source of valuable supplies as well
as a market for
Japanese goods.

Despite an ignominious beginning, the Japanese in Malaya grew into a socially cohesive
community with important stakes in the country's economy. The major reasons for the

Japanese
presence there were the availability of natural resources, such as rubber and iron, and access

to a
market for its manufactures. The reserved character of the Japanese gave rise to a popular

image
of them as espionage agents. The existence of a Japanese community in Malaya was a

fulfilment
of the hopes of the expansionists. But its presence was not sufficiently large to make any

considerable impact on the economy

ORANG ASLI

Who are the Orang Asli?

• The Orang Asli, or literally known as “Original Peoples”,
are the descendants of the earliest known inhabitants of
the Malay Peninsula, arriving in the peninsula as early as
25,000 years ago.

A heterogeneous group, Also known as:
they are widely


dispersed in all states in • Orang Hulu – people of the headwaters
Peninsular Malaysia. • Orang Darat – people of the hinterland
• Orang Laut – people who live by the sea
The term “Orang Asli” is a
collective term for the • Besisi – people with scales
19 sub-ethnic groups • Mantra – people who chanted
officially classified for
administrative purposes • Orang Liar – wild people,
under three main • Pangan – eaters of raw food,
• Orang Mawas – apelike people
categories; Senoi, Negrito • Orang Jinak – tame or enslaved people.
and Aboriginal Malay

Today, the Orang Asli It is an ethnic label given by
population numbers about the colonial government to
150,000, representing a differentiate them from the
mere 0.5 per cent of the
dominant Malay, Chinese and
national population. Indian.

Subgroup

Negrito Kensiu Northeast Kedah
(Semang) Kintak Kedah-Perak Border
Jahai Northeast Perak and West Kelantan
Lanoh North Central Perak
Mendriq Southeast Kelantan
Batek Northeast Pahang and South Kelantan

Senoi Semai Northwest Pahang and South Perak
Temiar North Perak and South Kelantan
Jah Hut Central Pahang
Chewong Central Pahang
Mah Meri Coastal Selangor
Semoq Beri South Central Pahang

Aboriginal Temuan Selangor and Negeri Sembilan
(Proto) Malay Semelai Central Pahang and East Negeri Sembilan
Jakun
Orang Kanaq South Pahang and North Johor
Orang Kuala East Johor
Orang Seletar
West and South Coasts of Johor
West and South Coasts of Johor

largest Orang The Senoi Traditionally more
Asli group sedentary compared to the
Negritos

About 54 per cent
of the Orang Asli population

The Negrito Less sedentary,
more
Smallest category of the
Orang Asli, populationwise. hunter-gathering

A little over 3 percent of the total Orang Asli
population and they are believed to be the the

oldest indigenous group in Malay Peninsula.

The Aboriginal

Second largest group, consisting (Proto) Malays Live in the most accessible areas,
about 43 way of life

percent of the total Orang Asli is generally similar to that of the
population. rural Malay

Senoi and Negrito Aboriginal Malay
(Northern (southern)

Orang Asli groups) Dialects belong to
Austronesian family of
Mon-Khmer or Austroasiatic
family of languages languages as Malay
• Except for the Semelai and
• Suggests historical links with Temoq dialects – Austroasiatic
indigenous people of Burma,
Thailand and Indo-China

Before WW2 Relationships between OA and various
groups:

The Emergency

During the Japanese Occupation of Malaya Post-Emergency

Before WW2

In some parts of the region, the Orang Asli

Proto-Malays – close contact with the had important leadership
Malays for hundreds of years roles and at times even oversaw Malay


subjects (Nicholas, 2000: 74–
75).
• There is evidence to show that many
modern Malays have some Proto-Malay • Indeed, they played an important role in
the formation of the Melaka
blood
empire in the 15th century (Andaya, 2002).
• Many Proto-Malays have been assimilated • Hang Tuah was of Orang Laut background
into the Malay communities – many have
converted into Islam (?), native to Melaka
(Andaya & Andaya 2001:74) - One of the

duties of a Laksamana

There is ample evidence to show that during the Melaka period was to command the
particularly the Senoi obtained Orang Laut fleets that

commodities such as salt, jungle knives were considered vital for the defence of the
(parang) and metal axe kingdom in times of war

heads by selling or exchanging jungle

produce in the form of rotan,

jelutong, bamboo and other items.

A number of Chinese men married

• During this time period up through the into Orang Asli communities,
early 20th century, learnt

the Malays depended on the Orang Asli as their languages, and lived with
their primary the tribes.

source of forest products such as rattan,

resin, gutta

percha and sandalwood for international • Besides forest produce, the Orang Laut, with their diving
trade and swimming skills, provided marine produce such as
akar bahar (coral), tripang (sea slug) – ingredients for

Chinese soup and medicine

The Japanese Occupation

Dec1941 - Feb 1942: Japanese invaders swept from Kota
Bharu in the north to Singapore

• Many individuals and organisations took refuge in the hills
and forests.



• E.g. European tin-miners, colonial administrators, managers of
rubber estates and, in some cases, their female relations.



• Chinese members of armed political organisations and bandit
gangs, the Malayan Communist Party (MCP), the Kuomintang or

Chinese National Party (KMT)



• It was necessary from time to time, however, for some of them to
retreat to deep jungle and to use courier-routes which passed
through Orang Asli areas. This was particularly the case with
members of the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA),
the armed wing of the MCP

Friendly contacts made by many Chinese with the Orang
Asli before the war became invaluable during the
Occupation



• The jungle peoples also became targets for Communist
propaganda, which was particularly effective coming from

men they trusted and whom they had known for years.



• Members of the MPAJA carefully nurtured friendships with
the Orang Asli and they even went as far as to protect the
jungle peoples from the attacks of bandits and Japanese

troops.



• In return the Orang Asli aided the Communist forces by
providing porters, guides, food and intelligence on Japanese

movements if the latter should venture into deep jungle.



• It was reported that out of a population of 50,000, a
staggering 30,000 Orang Asli aided the communist guerrillas

at one point during the Emergency period (Leary, 1995).

The Emergency (1948-1960)

These crucial twelve years saw the challenge and defeat of the Communist
forces which had rearmed and reorganised following their temporary
demobilisation after the capitulation of Japan.

For the first time, the Orang Asli From 1947 to 1949, under the British Military
were the main interest of Administration, the welfare of the Orang Asli came
the British administration.
under
The success of resettling the the jurisdiction of the Department of Social
Chinese led the authorities to
believe that much the same Welfare.
tactics could be used with the
Orang Asli in order to deny their Thousands of Orang Asli resettled into
support to the Communists. hastily prepared camps

surrounded by barbed wire to prevent
their escape. The OA

struggled to adapt mentally and
physically and mental and

hundreds did not survive the
experience.

Towards the end of 1953, the Department was reorganised and
expanded "in order to meet the additional commitments

resulting from the Emergency, and with particular reference to
the assistance it is required to give to the Security Forces and

the Administration.“

By the end of 1954 an impressive degree The Aboriginal Peoples Ordinance 1954 (No. 3)
of expansion had covered the

occurred. The Department had become whole of the Federation of Malaya and it
responsible for the introduced a number

provision of education, welfare, and of provisions for the protection of the Orang Asli
medical facilities in Orang
Asli areas

The Government, which formerly ignored
and neglected them, now took an active
and extensive interest in Orang Asli welfare

and development.

Post-Emergency period

But despite these, until today, the Orang Asli continue to
be one of the most marginalised groups in Malaysia.

• Orang Asli • National poverty rate




• 50% of households live
below the poverty line • 3.8% poverty
• 19% considered • 0.7% hardcore poor
hardcore poor

Health Orang Asli have 5.5 times the 80% of Orang Asli children are 53.6% of the total malaria
incidence undernourished and stunted, many
cases
of tuberculosis as the have
national average intestinal worms, protozoa, recorded in Peninsular
Malaysia in 2003
anaemia,

dental caries and vitamin A

deficiency

Education In 2007, 36.2% of Orang Asli primary A significant number have never attended
schoolchildren did not continue to secondary school at all (so, they do not figure in the

level statistics)

Development What type? (Schools, Clinics, Roads, How? – Since OA are different
Public Amenities OR Dams and (Traditional lifestyle, culture, beliefs,
Resettlement?) interaction with modern world, etc)

CHINESE ORIGIN SECRET SOCIETIES

THE KONGSI FEDERATIONS
(as republics and democracies)

Kongsi - Clan Hall •The Lanfang Republic, the Fosioen Federation,
>Kongsi=brotherhood which related with Chinese and the Samtiaokioe
overseas organization-benevolent organization.
>Objective: aimed at assisting their clan members Federation are three largest Kongsi federation
especially migrants from China in adjusting to life in in Borneo.
Malaysia, Singapore, Sarawak, North Borneo, and others.
>Secret societies will help the newcomers (Singkeh) to • Historians only emphasize the connection
between kongsis and republicanism in the West.
start new life in Malaya based on their own
communities. •Kongsis Chinese democracies that developed
independently from the influence of Western

political institutions.

TYPICAL GROUP WHOSE RITUALS AND ACTIVITIES ARE HIDDEN AWAY FROM NON-MEMBERS

1. Ritual Activities:
•The initiation ceremony-kongsi's Kai Xiang Tang.
• Roll up left pant leg and right sleeve, and replace shoes with grass sandals.
• The journey end-drink the Red Flower Pavilion after pricked the finger and the blood mixed with chicken blood, rice

wine, and sugar.



2.Hidden Activities:
• Deconstructing Signs and Codes-to avoid undue suspicion from the outside world.
• Gambling dens underground held by the secret societies because the Grand Jury prohibited all forms of gambling,
the secret societies also invested in brothels, gambling dens, and opium dens as gambling as their sources of incomes.

THE RIOTOUS (economic discontent prompted the RULES BRING DOWN THE SOCIETIES
kongsi to resort to violence)
*British government enacted acts to blows secret
1.Anti-Catholics Riot (1851) societies out due to the violent nature of secret
•Due to the convert issues among secret societies
members to Catholicsm, 5 days massacre killed 500 peoples. societies in 1800s:
•There are 28 pepper and gambier plantations razed to 1. The Peace Preservation Act (1867)-detain
and deport convicted Chinese immigrants.
the ground.
•Ghee Hin Hoe as a leader of the kongsi irritated after 2. The Ordinance of the Suppression of
the rumours about smuggling opium that may be threat Dangerous Societies (1869)-all societies with
more than 10 members to be registered with the
their opium business.

Police Commissioner.
3. The Societies Ordinance (1890)-outlawing
2. HOKKIEN-TEOCHEW RIOTS (1854) all societies that engage in triad rituals.
• In 10 days, the riots had killed 500 peoples and

destroyed 300 houses.
•The riots occurs because of an economic threat on

pepper and gambier plantations.
•The different dialect groups between the Hokkiens and
the Teochews in the kongsi began to splinter into different

factions.

MALAYSIAN WOMEN'S MOVEMENT

Early Emancipation Impact of Education in Early Malaya

•Early 1900s: Educational Reform to meet •Malay women became teachers & many got
needs of modernising colonial economy. involved in women's organisations.
•Formal schooling for girls.
•Chinese women got involved in political
•Early 20th Century Arab reform movements movements reflecting situation in China;
also influenced local education.
joined nationalist (KMT) & communist
•Main purpose- to make women more movements (CPM).
efficient housekeepers.
• Indian women joined Indian Independence
Movement led by Chandra Subha Bose.

Nationalist&Labour Awakenings Mainstream (women in
ruling political parties)
•Malay women-set up Persatuan Kaum Ibu
Selangor (Kaum Ibu). •tightly controlled.
•1st generation women-struggle to
•Involved in anti-Malayan Union struggle. protect and enhance their new-found
•1950s: Khatijah Sidek (Kaum Ibu Leader)- status because their rights as employes
pushed for gender equality&greater women's
not guaranted.
representation in UMNO. •1960: set up National Council of
•1973: Aishah Ghani (Wanita UMNO leader)- Women's Organisations (NCWO).
proposed legal reforms to Muslim Marriage and •NCWO did not extend campaigns to
rural women & those working in
Divorce Laws.
1976: Wanita UMNO asked for women to be informal sector.
•NCWO approach is non-thus Mainstream
appointed Ketua Kampung.
•PUTERA-coalition of left-wing Malay groups approach.

•AMCJA-coalition of left-wing non-Malay
groups.

1947: drafted People's Costitution.
•AWAS (PUTERA) & Women's Federation
(AMCJA)-pushed for women's representation &

suffrage for women.
•1948: very activist bit banned by British

Colonial Government.
•1939: strike in Klang Estate-Labour movement

struggles.

Non-Mainstream (Violence Agst Women Campaign)

• As Malaysia developed, increasing awareness of feminism, sexual
oppression, and VAW.

•1982:Women's Aid Orgn (WAO)-deal with problems of battered women
& domestic violence.

1985: formed the Joint Action Group Against Violence Against Women
(JAG).

Violence Agst Women Agenda (Non MS)

•1988: All Women's Action Society Malaysia (AWAM) set up-
to advance resolutions of JAG.

•brought new styles of leadership to women's groups.
•new thinking also- women's issues seen not as women's
isuues but fundamentally one inequality, discrimantion &

social injustice.
• more proactive.
• more inclusive and non-religious, non racial.

Women's Agenda for Change and Reformasi (Non MS)

•1995-success of VAW &DVA led various Women's groups.
•Held public forum on Intl Women's Day.

• Women should enter politics and campaign solely on
social reforms to adcance the cause of women.

•No opposition from any Muslim women's group to WAC.

The Politic Of Left/Labour Movement

a) Political scientists have observed that the ideologies of political parties can be mapped along a single left–right axis.
b) Right wing beliefs value tradition, they talk about equity, promote survival of the fittest (meritocracy), and they
believe in economic freedom.
c) Politics of the Left are political positions or activities that accept or support social equality, often in opposition to
social hierarchy and social inequality.
d) It typically involves a concern for those in society who are perceived as disadvantaged relative to others and an
assumption that there are unjustified inequalities that need to be reduced or abolished.

e) The political term “right and left wing” began after the French Revolution - referred to the seating arrangement in
the Estates General - Left for opposing the monarchy and right for supporting the monarchy.

The Traditional Malay

a) With establishment of formal schools – impetus of new ideas from West and development of the world.
b) Abdullah Munshi questioned Malay Sultan’s authority – did not show any effort to help the Malay - and the

Malay – inability to change or modernize their ideas.
c) Singapore opened Malaya to outside world and became center of publication.
d) Many newspapers and magazines had been published such as Bintang Timor, Jawi Peranakan, Al-Imam etc.

e) This developments created awareness among the new Malay elite.

The Beginning of Left in Malaya

a) The rise of left movements in Malaya before WWII was largely based on communal sentiments.
b) The Malays – backward conditions and need to be uplift in line with changing in Malaya.

c) The Indian – facing poverty in estates with low income, need for better living conditions etc.
d) The Chinese – engulfed with the nationalism movement in China but some (also the Indian elites) regarded Malaya as

their homeland and demanded a fair share in Malaya.
e) The spread of communist ideology enhanced the idea of the left for struggle against the inequality, backwardness,

oppression, and to achieve independence for Malaya.
f) In addition, communal views began to take national form
g) The Malay left began with the Islah (reform) movement which refer to Kaum Muda against Kaum Tua.
h) The Kaum Muda began to challenge the Kaum Tua regarding the Islamic affairs.
i) However the Kaum Muda movement overshadowed by the emerging of the Malay Associations in 1920s.
j) The Malay Associations began to help to uplift Malay living conditions.
k) But the young Malays disillusion towards the influence from the British and the Malay Aristocrat on Malay associations.
l) Therefore the Malay divided with the right wing – the Malay Associations and the left wing - the young Malay formed

Kesatuan Melayu Muda (KMM).
m) Under leadership of Ibrahim Yaacob, the KMM tried to educate the Malay about their right and for advancement.

n) Against the British and influence by the Indonesian nationalists – “Melayu Raya”.
o) Several of the KMM’s leaders were arrested before coming of the Japanese.
p) Beginnings of the Left in Malaya
q) Sun Yat Sen toured Singapore and Penang and raised funds here.
r) A branch of the Koumintang was formed.
s) In line with this development, communist ideas also germinated in Malaya.

t) Apart from the Chinese, Indonesia leaders played an important role to spread communist ideas among Malays.
u) In 1930 the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) was formed to overthrow the British.
v) Beginnings of the Left in Malaya

w) The MCP, initially tried to organize the labour movement and help the labour to protect their right from injustice by the
employers.

x) Union of Unskilled Chinese rubber – plantation, tin mine, factory workers and seamen appeared in the early 1930s.
y) The demand for rising wages and conducive work conditions led to several strikes such as shoemakers and tailor strike in

1933 and 1934 respectively (KL), the rubber factory strike in Klang and coal mine strike in Batu Arang (1937).

The Left During the Japanese Occupation

a) Japanese Invasion 1942
b) Released all KMM’s leaders but only after the Japanese had
c) The Japanese also did not have any intention to give independence to Malaya.
d) On other hand, the idea of independence never faded away from exKMM leader’s goal.
e) Owing to this, Ibrahim Yaacob and his other friends ostensibly cooperated with the Japanese and in same time

support the MCP movements against the Japanese.
f) In order to overthrow the Japanese, the MCP had formed the Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA).

g) The British supported this movement.
h) Several regiments was formed under MPAJA.
i) Pasukan Pembela Tanah Air (PETA) which was formed by Ibrahim Yaacob continued their cooperation with the

MCP.
j) Unfortunately, the Bintang Tiga Episode (racial violence) in 1945 derailed good ethnic relations in Malaya.
k) However after the war, some Malay leaders began to work closely with nonMalay leaders to achieve common

goals.

The Left-1950s

a) Post WWII, several ex-KMM leaders retreated to Indonesia but the left movement never faded away.
b) MCP became more organized and stronger after the war.

c) MCP and several left Malay leaders jointed hand to reorganize the nationalist movements – led to formation
of PKMM, AWAS, API, Barisan Tani Se-Malaya (BATAS) and Hizbul Muslimin.
d) The labour movement also reorganized.

e) The British tried to introduce more control in Malaya by announce Malayan Union’s plan.
f) The MU was not welcomed by the majority of people in Malaya.

g) The MCP saw MU as betrayal of the promise for democratic freedoms.
h) PKMM demanded the transfer of government power to local people based on electoral representation.

i) The Malay opposition against the MU led to formation of UMNO – combination of mostly the Malay
Associations pre-war.

j) The British divided the Malays and Malaya - invited UMNO and the Malay Rulers to discuss the future of
Malaya.

k) The Leftist groups – more radical, vocal about their demands and not in line with British policy on Malaya -
were left out.

l) British-UMNO-Rulers working committee was set up and began to discuss about the
m) The Left -formation of the Fe.deration of Malaya.

n) Left groups formed new alliance to show their solidarity and coordinate the opposition towards the British-
UMNO-Rulers working committee – Federation of Malaya.

o) Parti Kebangsaan Melayu Malaya (PKMM), together with other Malay organizations formed Pusat Tenaga
Rakyat (PUTERA).

p) The non-Malay Left groups formed AllMalaya Council of Joint Action (AMCJA) under leadership of Tan Cheng
Lock.

q) AMCJA not only consisted the political parties but also labour unions.
r) AMCJA-PUTERA began to construct their own version of constitution called The People’s Constitution

Proposal.

The People’s Constitution Proposal

a) A united Malaya including Singapore
b) A popularly elected Central Government and popularly elected State councils
c) A citizenship granting equal rights to all who made Malaya their permanent home and the object of their

undivided loyalty
d) Malay Rulers to have real sovereign power responsible to the people through popularly elected Councils

e) Malay customs and religion to be fully controlled by the Malay people through special councils
f) Special provisions for the advancement of the Malays politically, economically and educationally

g) Malay to be the official language
h) A national flag and a national anthem
i) Melayu (Malay) to be the title of any proposed citizenship and nationality in Malaya
j) Foreign affairs and defence to be the joint responsibility of the government of Malaya and the government of

Great Britain

The Formation of Labour Movement

a) End of the war brought hardship to the living condition in Malaya.
b) The economic and social conditions of workers had not improved despite the restoration of civilian

government.
c) The employers more interested in restoring their businesses and their profits.
d) Signs of dissatisfaction - walkout of 7000 dockworkers in Tanjung Pagar (1945)
e) Labour strikes occur - in Malaya such as in Ipoh, Seremban, Johor Bharu, Kluang etc.

f) Between 1945 – 1948: 425 unions formed with 290,000 members.
g) 80% - 90% of the unions joined the Pan-Malayan Federation of Trade Unions (PMFTU) with 263,000

members.
h) PMFTU also became member of AMCJA to widen their struggle.
• PUTERA-AMCJA gained support from the labour movements but also from the Chinese Chamber of

Commerce (CCC)
• PUTERA-AMCJA continued their struggle by organising a hartal – first in Kelang dan Malacca.

• Emboldened by success - PUTERA-AMCJA decided to launch a country-wide strike
• All Malaya Hartal, on October 20, 1947 to coincide with the opening of the session of the British

Parliament where the Federation of Malaya’s agreement were to be tabled and debated.

Breaking Up the Labour Movement

a) This situation challenged British authority
b) Britain took several measures to counter Left Movement and Labour opposition to

Federation of Malaya and demands for better working conditions.
c) To control trade unions, the Societies Ordinance and Banishment Ordinance were

re-imposed.
d) Finally Emergency declared after three estate managers were shot dead in Perak.

e) Internal Security Act enacted 1948
f) Thousands of labour activists and political party members detained – many without

trial

Afterneath

a) Many left parties declared illegal – brought the right wing parties to dominate Malayan politics – UMNO and
MCA, followed by MIC.



b) Many left wing leaders arrested.



c) PMFTU and several state trade unions declared illegal on May 1948.



d) MCP took up armed struggle against the British.



e) Some Malay members of API joined the MCP and formed the 10th Regiment, Malayan National Liberation Army.

f) The left wing movement after 1948 could be divided into two types.
g) First the armed struggle by the MCP – the “Emergency” ensured that the MCP’s peaceful struggle failed.

Thus, armed struggle



h) Second the left wing parties that chose to go via the Constitutional route.



i) Though the communist armed struggle did not achieve their goals, it did bring about big losses to manpower and
incurred huge financial spending in Malaya.



j) Therefore the British had to speed up the political reforms in Malaya.



k) This reforms brought benefit the Alliance party (UMNO, MCA and MIC).



l) The MCP saw this situation as good option to negotiate with the government.



m) However the Baling Talks 1955 failed because both sides did not compromise.



n) In addition, Tunku as UMNO leader and PM, used this conference as political mileage to pressure the British for
Malaya independence.



o) Post 1948, saw politics become a struggle between communal and non communal parties.



p) The communal parties consisted by the UMNO, MCA and MIC in alliance.



q) The non-communal, were the IMP (later Parti Negara), Labour Party, Parti Rakyat, Pekemas, etc.



r) The left wing was in disarray and divided due to detentions and the Emergency.



s) Dr. Burhanuddin Helmy joined the Islamic party – PMIP later PAS.



t) Some of the left wing join UMNO and MCA.

Trade Union/Labour Politic

a) After 1948, the development of trade unions in Malaya was retarded.



b) Estate workers & trade unions faced problems of poor organisation, poor administration
and financial weaknesses.



c) In 1951, the Malayan Trade Union Council (MTUC) was formed as non-political
association.



d) MTUC failed to show dynamism and seemed to lack the courage to fight for the
workers’ rights.



e) Designed to combat communist infiltration into organized labour rather than to promote
the interests of labour.



f) Under the patronage of the government, the MTUC, could not but be weak and
ineffective.



g) Other left wing groups created several non-communal parties which fought for all
people.



h) The Labour Party (1955) took a socialist stand – aimed at nationalizing industry, mining
and estates. Had close links with activist labour unions.



i) The Peoples Party/Parti Rakyat (1955) favored granting citizenship to all domiciled
people owing undivided loyalty to Malaya, no discrimination against any race, demanded

abolishment of the emergency regulation.



j) Because of the ‘Emergency’, many Left Parties were branded ‘pro- communists’



k) Failed to get mass support at parliamentary level but substantial support at Local
Government Level before elections for local councils suspended in 1965 and abolished in

1976.



l) Both parties agreed to unite under the Malayan Peoples Socialist Front.
m) This weaken the SF and PP withdrew from SF.



n) However the PP’s struggle continued although received pressured from government

The malaysian student movement

Indonesia’s influence The STIC

a) Student movement was quite a) Ibrahim received lot of influence from student
profound-1930s movement

b) STIC- book and magazine import b) Ibrahim supported the ideas of ‘Indonesia
from indonesia as reading material Raya’-wanted to united all student

Communal Outlook-Early years c) Ideas begin by the material formation of Young
Student’s Alliance and Peninsula-Borneo Student’s

Alliance
d) KKM became new vehicle for young Malay to

struggle against the British



Anti British/independence

a) Early student movement-base on race to help a) Apart from the ideas of “Melayu
each other Raya/Indonesia Raya”, some students focus

b) The formation is Malay Boys League-1937 on anti-British movements.
c) Disbanded bye headmaster- tried to assist b) After the success of the Chinese
Communist Revolution in 1949, Chinese
Malay Student in education students were attracted to socialist
d) After WW II, another student organization was
ideology.
formed-Victoria Institution c) Students began to be more vocal and act
e) Victoria Institution was formed 1945 and
change in 1946(Persuratan Penuntut Melayu Kuala independently.
d) Unrest and strikes in Chinese schools
Lumpur) e) With help from Communists, students in
f) Kesatuan Persuratan Penuntut Melayu Selangor several Chinese schools in Kuching formed
formed in 1947 was consisted several of student
Students’ Self-Governing Society.
association f) Independent body to organise student
g) In order to unite them, Aminudin Baki urged movements in Chinese Middle Schools.
g) British banned this society because of
all Malay student organization to be united
h) Gabungan Pelajar Melayu Semenanjung(1948)- Communist influence.
h) Communist influence in student
toward social and welfare organization to help movements continued with the formation of
each other Sarawak Overseas Chinese Democratic Youth

League.
i) Another avenue for communists to recruit

students.

Post Independence

a) University of Malaya (1949) opened a new

chapter in student movements. UMSU
b) More concentrated in campus and focused on

national and international issues post a) The University of Malaya

independence a. Students Union (UMSU)

Telok Gong, Selangor(1967) b) University of Malaya Malay language
Society (PBMUM)
a) Govt reaction – destroyed the crops and
demolished the houses. c) The Socialist Club (SC)
d) Three key new organizations which
b) Hamid Tuan and several followers were
arrested. organized the student movement in
Malaysia.
c) The students denounced the govt. action.
d) The students had demonstration in front e) In UM, the students tried to became
of The S’gor State Building and demanded more independent and wanted more
autonomy.
the release of Hamid Tuah.
e) The student also collected money and f) Therefore any control by authorities
(Suitability Certificate
clothes to be donated to the landless a. 1964) was protested
peasants in Teluk Gong.
g) UMSU had its own newspaper –
Election(1969) Mahasiswa Negara -, own bus and canteen.

a) Student movement was involved in 1969 h) In 1966, Speaker’s Corner was
election but not as electoral candidates introduced.
b) Instead, voiced out their thought from

politics, economics to social issues.

c) They released their own manifesto and had

road tour in 13 parliamentary seats (9 of the The Government strike back
seats fall to opposition).

d) They urged people to vote for candidates a) In order to control the students, the

who supported their manifesto. government introduced the University And

e) They denounced parties that used racial University College Act, 1971.

issues to campaign vs democracy, social b) This brought protests and demonstrations

justice and policy issues. by students.

f) After May 13 riot, students demanded PM c) Demonstrations led to clashes between

Tunku Abdul Rahman step down. students and the police

g) Group under Anwar Ibrahim accused d) Many student leaders were arrested.

Tunku of poor leadership - did not help

Malays and did not improve the use of Malay

language sufficiently.

h) Socialist students under Syed Hamid Ali,

on other hand, attacked Tunku’s policies on

politics, the economy and social issues

Tasik utara(1974)

a) The formation of Barisan Nasional lessened opposition against the government.
b) At this point, students took opportunity to became new pressure group to champion

the poor people.
c) This happened when the squatters in Tasik Utara (called Kampung Barisan Nasional

promised land before election but later received notice of eviction.
d) When their call to stop the demolition fell onto deaf ears, the squatters contacted

UMSU.
a) The protest against the demolition lead by Hishamudin Rais failed.

b) Several student leaders were arrested by the police.
c) Demonstrations continued in front of Prime’s Minister Department.
d) When demands for the release of student leaders failed, students took to the

streets of Kuala Lumpur.



e) The Federal Reserve Unit (FRU) was deployed to stop the demonstration.
f) Clashes led to demonstration in campus and occupation of the University of

Malaya Administration Building.
g) The Student Provisional Supreme Council was formed.

h) UMSU got suspended by the Government.

Baling


a) The Baling Protests linked to inflation - 1974.
b) Demonstration by the people of Baling - Urged government to

lower the price of food and other necessities.
c) Majority of the people in Baling suffered cos’ decline of price of

rubber.
d) Students also staged the demonstration at the Selangor Club.
e) They not only conveyed the voice from Baling but also demanded

the govt. to punish the corrupt ministers and chief ministers.
f) Owing to tear gas attacked the students retreated to the National

Mosque.
g) The Mosque also not safe by the tear gas attacked, therefore some

had withdrawn to campus.

The international issues

a)Students were also involved in international issues.
b) Demonstration against the Soviet Union’s invasion on Czechoslovakia (1968).

c) Support for the Pattani Liberation
a. Movement Persatuan Mahasiswa Islam Universiti Malaya (PMIUM) - demo against visiting Thai Prime

Minister – Thanom
b. Kittikachorn (June 1971)
d) Arab-Israel conflict (1973), Malaysian students opposed US Govt’s support for Israel.
e) Demonstration was organized on 13 and 16 October.
f) Lincoln Cultural Center targeted by the students

The government’s response
a) ISA detentions – student leaders - Anwar Ibrahim, Idris Sanusi and Ibrahim Ali.

b) Hishamuddin Rais fled overseas.
c) UUCA was amended – made harsher.
d) All student organizations were dissolved.
e) The Student Representative Councils (SPC) was reconstituted - little power and freedom.
f) To look after the student affairs – Student Affairs Department (Bahagian Hal-Ehwal

Pelajar) was set up.

Post(1974)

a) AUKU and ISA used to suppress radical student movements.
b) Student movements now confined to campus.

c) Islamic groups like Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia (ABIM) attempted to influence
Student Representative Councils.

d) Recently, rise of two camps – pro-Aspirasi (antiBN) and pro-Mahasiswa (BN)
groups.

e) Current Issues - more towards Islamic issues such as wearing hijab, prohibition of
alcohol, anti unIslamic concerts, faith-based (fundamentalist); etc. – PEMBINA/ISMA
f) Other activities include community services, entrepreneurships, celebrate Merdeka

and other religious festivals, etc.
g) Post-Reformasi 1999, students began to get involved in street demos again.

h) 2001 - students organized Gerakan Mahasiswa Mansuh ISA
i) New groups emerged – e.g. Universiti Bangsa Utama, Gerakan Mahasiswa Lantang

Negara, Gabungan Mahasiswa
j) Islam Malaysia (GAMIS), Democratic Youth For Malaysia (DEMA), Persatuan
Kebangsaan Pelajar Islam Malaysia, Solidariti Mahasiswa Malaysia (SMM); PEMBINA;

etc.
k) Adam Adli started to became famous with his action to bring down Najib photo flag.

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