Ergonomic Hazard The science of adapting workstations, tools, equipment and job techniques to be compatible with human anatomy and physiology to reduce the risk of Musculoskeletal Disorder injuries due to Ergonomic Stressors. VIBRATION FORCE REPITITIVE AWKWARD POSTURE Awkward body posture happens when body parts are positioned away from their neutral position. Farmers in undeveloped country tend to do their job manually, which mean they need to bending, reaching and twisting their body. Repetition is defined as doing the same motions over and over again. The severity of the risk increases with a higher repetition of motions, particularly when combined with other risk factors. For example, manual seeding and fertilizing. Force is defined as physical exertion or pressure applied to any body part while working such as grip, pinch, push/pull, lift or carry. Due to muscle effort increasing when forceful activities are done, the muscles will fatigue and be at a higher risk of injury. Vibration as a risk factor is defined as when the body is exposed to pulsation, shaking, or tremors typically produced by a vibrating object such as a power hand tool. For example, palm motorized cutter and tractor. Based on American Society of Safety Personnel, there are many different ways to break up the risk factors that can be found in the workplace. Each one separately presents a risk to musculoskeletal injury but when combined the likelihood of injury goes up even more. 46
56% upper limb pain 69% backpain Confirmed Cases of Occupational Disease in Agriculture Industry in Italy. Source: INAIL 2020 Carpal Tunnel Backpain Soft tissues disorder 0thers 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 Substitution of agricultural technology and/or tools for manual tasks. For example, oil palm grabber. This motorized technology can prevent workers from carrying heavy load and awkward posture. Regular maintenance and repair of machinery equipment such as tractor and harvester. By doing that, the engine quality can be maintain. Thus, it will keep the vibration produced in tolerate frequency. Administrative control - Do job/task rotation among workers to reduce frequency of hazard exposure to the farmer. Besides, employer should implement frequent break to rest. Educate farmers about ergonomic risk and hazard. They should know how to maintain correct body posture while doing their task to prevent MSDs in the future. Ergonomic hazard can resulting in muscle stress, muscle pain, and fatigue. According to report by EU-OSHA 2019, 3 out of 5 European farmers report musculoskeletal disease complaints which are mostly: While in Italy, MSDs among farmers are mainly constituted by back pain caused by hernias and other pathologies of the intervertebral discs and by soft tissue disorders (mainly in the shoulder). 47
Chemical Hazard Category Function Commonly used Fungiside Kill or prevent the growth of fungi and their spores dithiocarbamates Herbicide Kill weeds and other plants that grow where they are not wanted Glyphosate Insecticide Disrupt the molting, maturing from pupal stage to adult, or other life processes of insects Organophosphates, pyrethroids and carbamates Phosphate Phosphorous is a nutrient that help to strengthen the root system and stems of a plant. Pesticides are the chemicals of greatest concern in regard to health and safety in agriculture. Pesticides are categorized according to their use: Nitrogen is a plan nutrient responsible for growth. This ingredient is useful as encouragement to continue grow large and stem new leave. Potassium will help plants to grow deeper and stronger roots. This nutrient is vital for photosynthesis and has the ability to slow down any diseases that may infect your garden. A natural or artificial material added to the soil or plants to promote growth and productivity. Most fertilizers that commonly used in agriculture contain the three basic plant nutrients: 48
Inhibit acetylcholinesterase that can give flu-like symptoms such as headaches, excess salivation and respiratory stress. ORGANOPHOSPHORUS Can cause parethesia following skin contact. Symptoms include continuous tingling or pricking, or when more severe, burning. PYRETHROID Skin contact to paraquat can lead to blistering, ulceration and discoloured fingernails. While ingestion can cause irreversible damage to lung. PARAQUAT Substitute hazardous pesticide to less hazardous one. Examples of least-toxic pesticide include insecticidal petroleum or plant-based oils, soaps, and the microbial insecticide such as (UC IPM) Substitute manual pesticide spray with drone pesticide sprayer to decrease risk of pesticide poisoning. SUBSTITUTION Restricting entry into enclosed areas that have been sprayed with pesticides. Segregation of the hazardous process from the operators or from other processes. Maintain a master file of all chemical safety data sheets in a location that is readily accessible. Label all container, place and machine that contain pesticide or fertilizer with hazard symbol . Fertilizers and pesticide are toxic chemicals that can produce acute health effect shortly after exposure within 24 hours. Cancers such as leukaemia, nonHodgkin’s lymphoma and multiple myeloma Endocrine disruption that can effect organ development in fetus and child. Infertility in both woman and man. Apply automated fertilizing system. Well design system for storage and dispensing of pesticide and fertilizer. ENGINEERING CONTROL ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROL Wear adequate and proper PPE such as footwear, gloves and equipment to protect the eyes and face while handling the chemical. PPE 49 Bacillus thuringiensis.
Biological Hazard Fever Headache Chills. Plasmodium falciparum malaria can lead to death Based on CDC, approximately: Ascaris lumbricoides 807-1,121million people infected with Ancylostoma duodenale 576-740million people infected with Biological hazards come from any biological substances that pose risks or threats to safety and health of farmer. It can cause infectious diseases and allergies . Some of the example are viruses, bacteria, molds and biotoxin. 1. Soil-transmitted helminths refer to the intestinal worms infecting humans that are transmitted through contaminated soil. Ascaris eggs are passed in the feces (poop) of infected people. If the contaminated feces is used as fertilizer, worm eggs can deposited in soil and grow into a form of the parasite that can infect others. Ascariasis - disease caused by ingesting Ascaris worm eggs. Hookworm's egg in contaminated soil can mature and hatch, releasing larvae (immature worms). The larvae mature into a form that can penetrate the skin of humans. Hookworm infection is mainly acquired by walking barefoot on contaminated soil. 50 Malaria is a life-threatening disease primarily found in tropical countries. The disease is transmitted through the bites of female mosquitoes. Intensive irrigation provides an ideal breeding ground for the mosquito. Thus, farmer is at risk of getting malaria. Anopheles Anopheles A study have been conducted by Nfor Omarine Nlinwe says: "The prevalence of malaria cases among the crop production farmers in India was 20%"
Redness and swelling around a pair of puncture marks Nausea and vomiting Increased salivation and sweating Respiratory failure Death employers to prevent them electric fence to prevent wild from getting any possible disease animal entering crop fields INSTALL Vectors are most active or During the peak season for infectious transmission. AVOID working when BIOTOXIN Snake bites, scorpion and spider are most common among agricultural workers who spend time in fields and forested area. The effect of the venom can be vary depends on species of animal including: Conflicts over natural resources and ecosystem services are essentially a result of divergent interests and requirements among various groups. When a social or environmental system undergoes change, it will cause chaos and problems to both human and wildlife. Human-environment conflicts in agricultural fields can threaten farmers' safety. WILD ANIMAL ATTACK In tropical and subtropical regions, wild animal stray into plantations and on to farms. They often come into crops looking for food. 51 If they feel threaten or disturbed, they will be a posibility of serious injury to the farm worker. At some cases, it also can lead to death. Adequate lighting in the storage room so that the worker can scan if there any venomous animal inside. Provide secure storage for workers’ boots, gloves and clothing to prevent venomous animal sneak into it. PROVIDE; Adequate PPE such as safety boots, long sleeve shirt, and mosquito repelent. VACCINATE
Physical Hazard WHOLE BODY VIBRATION Whole-body vibration (WBV) is transmitted through the seat or feet of employees who drive mobile machines, or other work vehicles, over rough and uneven surfaces as a main part of their job. The source of WBV in crop cultivation industry are including: Q Cab tractor Grain Harvestor HAND ARM VIBRATION Hand arm vibration is transmitted through the use of hand-held powered equipment. Some the hand-arm vibration source are: OIL PALM CUTTER provide fast, easy and safe pruning and harvesting MOWER used to tidy up the farm and also to clear the fields from grass 11..VViibbrraattiioonn Vibration in the workplace is generally classified as: Noise in the workplace is considered excessive when you need to raise your voice to be heard by someone a metre away. Noise from the crop cultivation industry can come from machines and vehicles used to help ease the burden of completing farmer's work. Some typical noise levels are shown in graph below: 22..NNooiissee Noise Levels in Selected Machine and Vehicle Use in Crop Cultivation Industry. 0 dB 25 dB 50 dB 75 dB 100 dBGrass Mower Tractor Cab Grain Dryer Chainsaw 52
HHooww ttoo ccoonnttrrooll ?? HHaazzaarrddEEffffeecctt :: NOISE Blanching of fingers when exposed to cold (Vibration induced white finger) Tingling and loss of sensation in the fingers Loss of light touch and grip strength VIBRATION Health issues brought on by vibration advance slowly. It typically begins as an ache at first. Vibration can cause changes in tendons, muscles, bones and joints, and can affect the nervous system. Hand-arm vibrating syndrome is common effect of prolong exposure to vibration. some of the symptoms are: Tinitus - ringing or buzzer in ear Temporary hearing loss - occurs immediately after exposure to a high level of noise. Permanent hearing loss - progresses constantly as noise expose in prolong duration. AUDITORY EFFECTS Physiological effect - stress and fatigue Behavioral effects - reduce productivity Safety concerns - interfering with communication and warning alarm NON- AUDITORY EFFECT Substitute unsuspended sit and tractor to suspended sit and tractor for off-road activities. Take count low vibration emission machine and tools during purchase. for example, chainsaws with anti-vibration mounting. Wear anti-vibration glove while using vibrating hand tool to minimize the transfer of vibration. ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROL Buy new tractor that have been designed to emit low levels of noise Specify low noise emissions as a condition of purchase from their suppliers to make sure it comply national legislation which is 85 dB. Provide suitable hearing protectors, such as earplugs or muffs. Noise control is designed to limit the amount of noise to which workers are exposed within the workplace. there are a few control measure that employer should consider to apply: Reduce the time workers spend in the noisy environment and vibrating tools by doing job rotation and frequent breaks. Maintain machinery and equipment as part of a planned programme of maintenance, since worn components may increase noise and vibration. 53
Environmental Hazard Unsuitable protective equipment also can increase the risk of getting heat stress. Thus, it was very important to have knowledge in choosing PPE. QUICK FACT! Heavy sweating, dizziness, fatigue, vomiting, headaches, and muscle cramps Heat stroke, Heat stress, Dehydration, Death 1.EExxttrreemmeeWWeeaatthheerr Global average temperatures have risen significantly as a result of climate change; they have risen by around 1.1°C overall since pre-industrial times. Additionally, heatwaves have been lasting longer, happening more frequently, and worsening globally. Compared to other occupation, farmworkers are more susceptible to heat. The combined effect of the metabolic heat produced internally from heavy physical activity and the external heat from the surrounding environment contributes to the high risk of heat stress among farmers While some agricultural operations use greenhouses and climate-controlled caves to control environmental elements, the majority of agricultural activity takes place outdoors and is influenced by ambient temperature, environmental, and lighting conditions. Moreover, non-vegetable plants need a large and wide area to grow and bear fruit. The impact of climate change estimated to be increasing unpredictable weather patterns and will affect farmers' health. EFFECT TO FARMER Often exposed to hot environmental conditions will increase probability of farmers getting heat related illness (HRI). Some of the symptoms are: MITIGATION MEASURE Provide shade rest area for farmers to rest corfortably Give sufficient drinking water and other electrolytes to maintain metabolic activities. Prohibit alcohol drinking during break because it can dehydrating the body. Acclimatization program to improve farmers' heat tolerance gradually. 54
100 µm able to penetrate to the skin & deepest lung FARMER'S LUNG DISEASE Hypersensitivity pneumonitis that is caused by precipitants such as moldy hay or straw. The symptoms are including short breath, dry irritating cough, fever, rapid heart rate and breathing. PODOCONIOSIS - Nonfilarial elephantiasis develops among barefoot farmers who have prolonged contact with red clay soil that are volcanic origins and contains silica dust. QUICK FACT! CATARACT - cloudy lense. Only can be cure by cataract surgery speeds the natural aging process can lead to early wrinkling SKIN CANCER - abnormal growth of skin cell that are irreversible. 33.. UUVV RRaaddiiaattiioonn 22.. DDuusstt Dusts are generated in the production of various grains, legumes and other field crops. It may contain straw, bagasse, husks of grain, mould, bioaerosol, pesticide residues, fumigants and silica particle. CONTROL ACTION Install proper ventilation system in drying and storage facilities. equipment such as tractor and grain dryer should be equipped with filteration system and regularly maintain. Wear proper PPE such as gloves and safety boots. Most agricultural tasks are routinely performed under full or partial sunlight, exposing workers to ultraviolet light radiation produced by the sun’s rays. EXPOSURE TO UV RADIATION CAN LEAD TO: CONTROL ACTION Use effective sunscreen products Wear sunglasses that effectively screen out both UVA and UVB rays Educate farmer to recognize UV burn injury Wear sun-safe head gear with sufficient brim width to protect the neck, forehead, nose and ear top 55
WASTE TREATMENT METHOD COMPOSTING VERMICOMPOSTING ANAEROBIC DIGESTION LANDFILL INCINERATOR
COMPOSTING The term ‘‘composting’’ is used to define the process of controlled biological maturity under aerobic conditions, where organic matter of animal or vegetal origin is decomposed to materials with shorter molecular chains, more stable, hygienic, humus rich, and finally beneficial for the agricultural crops and for recycling of soil organic matter. The process can be described by the follow equation: (Sequi 1996) 57 QUICK FACT! One tablespoon of soil has more organisms in it than there are people in Earth.
TTuurrnneeddWWiinnddrrooww AAeerraatteeddSSttaatteeddPPiillee It is comparable to passive windrow, however in this method, organic matter is turned often. It generates higher quality compost than passive windrow. In this method, processed organic waste is deposited over exhaust pipe or an aeration grid, resulting in the production of compost over time. It need regular and detailed monitoring. PPaassssiivveeWWiinnddrrooww It is one of the most basic composting procedures. Composting organic materials in windrows is done using this technology. It is the cheapest approach, but it creates the worst quality compost. IInn--VVeesssseell Composting is done in a closed tank or container using this method. It is possible to use solely biological therapy or a combination of biological and mechanical treatment (sorting). The compost generated by this approach is of high quality, but it necessitates a big area. 58 (Ahmad Bhat et al. 2021)
1. Oxygen and Aeration 2. Temperature 3. Moisture 4. Odours An aerobic composting process consumes large amounts of oxygen. The need for oxygen and the production of heat are greatest during the early stages and then decrease as the process continues. If the supply of oxygen is limited, the composting process slows and the process becomes anaerobic (without oxygen). A minimum oxygen concentration of 5% within the pore spaces of the composting material is recommended for a well managed compost facility (air contains about 21% oxygen). In addition to providing oxygen, aeration removes heat, water vapor and other gases trapped within the composting materials. Temperature frequently determines how much and how often aeration is required. Under optimal conditions, composting proceeds through three temperature phase: 1) the mesophilic, or moderate-temperature phase, which lasts for a couple of days, 2) the thermophilic, or high-temperature phase, which can last from a few days to several months, 3) a several-month cooling and maturation phase. Moisture is the lifeblood of the metabolic processes of the microbes. A moisture content of 50-60% is generally considered optimum for composting. Moisture levels should be maintained so the materials are thoroughly wet but not waterlogged or dripping excessive water. too little moisture (<30%) inhibits bacterial activity too much moisture (>65%) results in slow decomposition, odor production in anaerobic pockets, and nutrient leaching. Odors are the single biggest threat to a composting operation. Objectionable odors can come from certain raw materials or the process itself if composting is not properly managed. There are three primary sources of odors at a composting facility: 1) Odorous raw materials, 2) Ammonia lost from high nitrogen materials and 3) Anaerobic conditions within the windrows or composting facility. WHY COMPOSTING MATTERS ? When added to soil, compost helps filter out 60-95% urban storm water pollutant PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSTING 59
Ideal C/N ratio for composting 5. Nutrients 6. Time 7. pH Carbon and Nitrogen are the two most important elements required for microbial decomposition: Carbon Nitrogen C:N < 30:1 C:N > 30:1 Energy source and the basic building block of microbial cells (more than 50%). Crucial component of the proteins, nucleic acids, amino acids, enzymes and co-enzymes necessary for microbial growth. 30 parts carbon for each part nitrogen by weight (C:N ratio = 30:1). Nitrogen will be supplied in excess and will be lost as ammonia gas, causing undesirable odors. Not sufficient nitrogen for optimal growth of the microbial populations -> compost will remain relatively cool and degradation will proceed at a slow rate. The time required to transform raw materials into compost depends on many factors. Proper moisture content, C:N ratio and frequent aeration ensure the shortest composting period. A well-managed composting operation should produce quality compost within four months. The preferred pH is in the range of 6.5- 8.0. pH does become a consideration with raw materials containing a high percentage of nitrogen. A high pH, above 8.5, encourages the conversion of nitrogen compounds to ammonia. 60 (LSU Department of Agrocultural Economics and Agribusiness)
Composting has been shown to absorb odours along with remediate semivolatile and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as heating fuels, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and explosives. In contaminated soils, the composting process destroys and, in some circumstances, fully removes wood preservatives, pesticides, and both chlorinated and nonchlorinated hydrocarbons. 61 BENEFITS OF COMPOSTING 1. Enriches soils Compost has the potential to regenerate degraded soils. The composting process promotes the growth of beneficial microorganisms (mostly bacteria and fungus), which break down organic materials to produce humus. Compost has also been shown to decrease plant diseases and pests, reduce or eliminate the need for chemical fertilizers, and increase crop yields. 2. Helps cleanup contaminated soil 3. Helps prevent pollution 4. Offers economic benefits Composting organic waste diverted from landfills minimises the generation of methane and the formation of leachate in landfills. Pollutants in stormwater runoff can be prevented from entering surface water resources by using compost. Compost has also been shown to reduce erosion and silting along stream, lake, and river embankments. Composting reduces the consumption of water, fertilizer, and pesticides. Composting also extends the lifespan of municipal landfills by diverting organic waste from landfills and provides a less expensive alternative to conventional techniques of remediating (cleaning) contaminated soils. (US EPA 2022)
VERMICOMPOSTING The process of preparation of organic fertilizers with the use of earthworms is called as vermicomposting. It is the technique of breeding and raising earthworms for the production of vermicompost. (Datta et al. 2016) 62
DO YOU KNOW? In this method the pits below the ground are made for vermicomposting.The pits made for vermicomposting are 1 m deep and 1.5 m wide. Pits Below the Ground Heaping Above the Ground Tanks Above the Ground Cement Rings The waste material is spread over the polythene sheet and covered with cattle dung. The efficacy of heap method is better than pit below the ground method in terms of biodegradation of waste production. Tanks above the ground of various dimensions are used for vermicomposting. The partition wall between the tanks contains small holes for easy movement of earthworms between tanks. Cement rings above the ground of various dimensions are used for vermicomposting. PROCESS OF VERMICOMPOSTING Cover the bottom of the pit/tank ring with coconut husk or polythene or sand and broken bricks. Spread the layer of 15-20 cm organic waste material on the polythene sheet if heap method is used. Sprinkle rock phosphate powder if available and then cow dung slurry over the layer of organic waste material. Fill the pit/tank/ring with various layers of organic waste material using above described procedure. Paste the top layer with soil or cow dung. Red Wigglers (plain red worm) are the worm of choice for vermicomposting. 63
Allow the material to decompose for 15-20 days. After 15-20 days release earthworms through the cracks developed on the top layer. Cover the top layer with gunny bag, coconut fronds or wire mesh to prevent picking of earthworms by birds. Sprinkle water every three days to provide adequate moisture and temperature to the earthworms. Vermicompost is formed within 2 months if agricultural waste is used as substrate. Pile the compost in small heaps and leave for few hours so that earthworms move down the heap. Separate the upper portion of the compost and sieve the lower portion to separate the earthworms. Pack the compost in bags and store at cool place. REASONS WHY VERMICOMPOSTING IS IMPORTANT Improved plant growth Increase soil fertility Takes less time compared to composting Provides nutrients to soil for long time No need of any type of fertilizer treatment for seed (Kumar et al. 2020) (Ahmad Bhat et al. 2021) 64
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION Anaerobic digestion is a process which harnesses natural bacteria to treat biodegradable materials in the absence of oxygen, producing a methane-rich biogas which can be captured and used to generate electricity and provide a source of heat. The word anaerobic indicates "without oxygen." (Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland) 65 DO YOU KNOW ?
A system in which anaerobic digestion can occur to produce biogas and other useful co-products Biogas Handling System Collects and treats biogas ANAEROBIC DIGESTION PROCESS Crop Waste Collection System Collects waste in a way that is compatible with biogas recovery Crop Waste Handling System Stores and pretreats crop waste(s) Anaerobic Digester Co-products Separation, Treatment and Storage Biogas Processing, Transport and Use Solid Co-products Liquid Co-products include fiber-based products, fertilizer, compost, soil amendments, bedding include fertilizer, flush water, concentrated fertilize Electricity and Heat Transportation Fuel Flare Excess Destroys excess gas and backs up primary gas use device When processed and refined, biogas can be used as compressed natural gas and vehicle fuel Biogas can be used to produce electricity and heat (U.S. EPA 2022) 66
ADVANTAGES OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTION Generation of biogas and fertilizer Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions through methane recovery Combined treatment of different organic waste and wastewaters Reduction of solids to be handled (e.g. less excess sludge) Good pathogen removal depending on temperature Process stability (high loads can be treated but anaerobic sludge can also be preserved for prolonged periods without any feeding) 67 (Anon 2022)
DISADVANTAGES OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTION Small- and middle- scale anaerobic technology for the treatment of solid waste in middle- and low- income countries is still relatively new Experts are required for the design and construction, depending on scale may also for operation and maintenance Reuse of produced energy (e.g. transformation into, firelight, heat and power) needs to be established High sensitivity of methanogenic bacteria to a large number of chemical compounds Sulphurous compounds can lead to odour 68 (Anon 2022)
LANDFILL Landfills are sites designated for dumping rubbish, garbage, or other sorts of solid wastes and agricultural waste. Landfill sites act as ecological reactors where wastes undergo physical, chemical and biological transformations. (Nanda et. al 2021) 69
The waste is picked up from the storage facility to the transfer station. THE PROCESS FROM AGRICULTURE FIELD TO LANDFILL Generation of crop waste. Keeping the crop waste in place or container which is the responsibility of the project proponent and the workers. Waste will be transported to the disposal site which is landfill. Dump vs Landfill A dump is an open hole in the ground where trash is buried and where animals often swarm. They offer no environmental protection and are not regulated. A landfill is a carefully designed and monitored structure that isolates trash from the surrounding environment (groundwater, air, rain). This isolation is accomplished with the use of a bottom linear and daily covering of soil. (Fauzi et. al 2019) 70
Landfills are cheap. Garbage transport costs will be reduced, as our waste will only have to travel a short distance to landfill. ADVANTAGES What is leachate? Keep the area of agriculture activity clean. With properly maintained landfill facilities, agriculture waste will be dealt with locally instead of shifting them to other countries. Modern landfills are eco-friendly. The technology that well utilized in the landfills’ design may have a good soil lining and leachate management system ensures no seepage and damage. Leachate formed when rain water filters through wastes placed in a landfill. When this liquid comes in contact with buried wastes, it leaches, or draws out, chemicals or constituents from those wastes. (Anon 2022) 71
Landfills are partially responsible for climate change. Landfill gas contains methane and carbon dioxide as the major constituents and traces of other gases. Methane is a greenhouse gas which may increase the implications of global warming and climate change. Contaminate soil and water. Hazardous chemicals, gases, and toxins seep from landfills, get mixed with soil and groundwater causing soil and water pollution. DISADVANTAGES Methane lights up easily. Methane is a highly inflammable gas. In an enclosed space with poor ventilation, it lights up quite easily and the entire landfill site can be on fire in seconds. (Anon 2022) 72
Incineration is a waste treatment technology that involves destruction of solid waste by controlled burning at high temperature. It is a type of waste management. Incinerator What is Waste Incineration? (Kulkarni et al. 2014) 73
The good combustion of the wastes in an incinerator depends on temperature, time and turbulence. Combustion. Waste are fed into the furnace by an overhead crane and will be combusted in furnace at high temperature of more than 850°C for more than 2 seconds with sufficient supply of air to ensure complete burning of waste and to prevent the formation of dioxins and carbon monoxide. Waste incineration involves converting waste materials into ash, flue gas and heat. HOW WASTE INCINERATION WORKS? The collected crop waste on a land site and from here taken to be sent to incineration process, which will be performed in rotary kilns. (Rasheed et al. 2019) 74
Boiler. The heat from combustion is used to generate steam in the boiler. The steam then drives the turbine which is coupled to the electricity generator. Exhaust gas cleaning. The exhaust gas from the boiler is cleaned by the advanced pollution control systems. Dry or wet scrubbers. To spray lime powder or fine atomized slurry into the hot exhaust gas to neutralize and remove the polluted acidic gases such as sulphur oxides and hydrogen chloride. Activated carbon injection. To adsorb and remove any heavy metal and organic pollutant in the exhaust gas. Bag house filter. To filter and remove dust and fine particulates. Selective non-catalytic reduction. To remove a nitrogen oxide which is a cause of urban smog by reacting them with ammonia. Lastly, dispersion of treated gas to the atmosphere through chimney. (Nidoni et al. 2017) Figure 1: The incineration process in rotary kilns. 75
Incineration helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This is because incineration can provide the best way to eliminate methane gas that produced through decomposition of organic waste in the plant. The incineration plants can be located close to the waste generation thus reducing the cost of waste and harmful gases released by vehicles during transportation. Incineration plants generate energy from waste that can be used to generate electricity or heat. Incinerators are not limited to weather changes since they burn waste without leakages. ADVANTAGES Efficient way to reduce the waste volume and demand for landfill space. (Kulkarni et al. 2014) 76
DISADVANTAGES An incineration plant involves heavy investments and high operating costs. The complexity of an incineration plant requires skilled staff. The communities where waste incineration plants are built are at a higher risk for long-term negative health effects such as cancer, birth defects, reproductive dysfunction and other health effects that are known to occur at very low exposures to pollutants released by incineration facilities. The residues from the flue gas cleaning can contaminate the environment if not handled appropriately, and must be disposed of in controlled and well-operated landfills to prevent ground and surface water pollution. (Kulkarni et al. 2014) 77
PROCESS MODIFICATION & CLEANER PRODUCTION ASPECTS. Due to environmental harm in farming technique, this part will help farmer or farm manager to protect environment while producing a good quality of crops. Finding the right balance between the need for food production and the preservation of environmental ecosystems.
A sustainable agricultural system is based on the prudent use of renewable and/or recyclable resources A sustainable agricultural system protects the integrity of natural systems so that natural resources are continually regenerated. A sustainable agricultural system improves the quality of life of individuals and communities A sustainable agricultural system is profitable A sustainable agricultural system is guided by a land ethicthat considers the long-term good of all members of theland community. Sustainable agriculture The production of plant and animal products, including food, in a way that uses farming techniques that protect the environment, public health, communities, and the welfare of animals. Principles of agricultural sustainability DEFINITION (Chel Kaushik 2010) (Corwin et al. 1999) Distribution of organic land by region According to the USDA, the organic industry has witnessed a sharp increase in year 2016 of 37,032 certified organic operations which was less than 10,000 before the year 2006. 79
Terengganu 6 Pahang 46 Negeri sembilan 13 Sarawak 6 Penang 14 Perak 12 Melaka 2 Selangor 30 Sabah 20 Kelantan 8 Johor 37 Kedah 16 The production of crops and livestock without using any chemical pesticide, synthetic fertilizers, antibiotics, genetically modified organisms (GMO) and growth hormones. Organic Farming DEFINITION PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURE The principle of Health The principle of Ecology The Principle of Fairness The principle of Care 1. 2. 3. 4. BENEFIT Fast build up of soil microbiota and soil aeration. Improve organic matter and stimulate microbial activity in the soil. Treats the seed and alleviates in sheilding seedlings from soil-borne disease and young roos from the fungus. Mulching improves humus formation through enhances decomposition activity in the soil. Reduce emission and energy requirement since it advocates the elimination of synthetic fertilisers. Organic farming scenario in Malaysia (MARDI 2018) (IFOAM 2013) (Yeong 2012) 80
Mulching and cover crop Mulching Practice of covering the soil surface with organic material such as plant residues, leaf, compost, animal manure etc) AIM To conserve soil moisture To avoid runoff To increase soil productivity Cover crop Crops planted to cover the soil rather than to be harvested. Controlling erosion Adding oganic matter to the soil Controlling weeds Fighting insects or pest Practices at Malaysia 35-45% Adoption rate of mulching & cover crop in vegetable 8 month palm plant with Mulch AIM Legumes are widely used in Malaysia, primarily in palm oil, and rubber plantations. The common leguminous cover crop in Malaysia is uniquely dense in biomass and is good for suppressing weeds in the plantation (Yeong 2012) 81
Allow efficient use of water, nutrients and solar energy, lead to reduce the need for organic and inorganic fertilizers, thus saving cost. Mitigates soil health problem by controlling weeds and insect pest, decreasing soil run-off and increase soil health and structure through root system . Crop rotation Crop rotation Practice of planting two or more crops sequentially on the same plot or land to improve soil health, optimise nutrient & combat pest and weed pressure. Simple rotation involve two or three crops. Complex rotation may involve a dozen or more crops. Crop rotation requires the succeeding crops to be of a different species or subspecies than the previous crop . Such as legumes grown after wheat and cereals. Intercropping The growing of two or more crops simultaneously in the same field. Classification : 1. Mixed intercropping : When two or more crops are grown simultaneously with no district row arrangement 2. Row intercropping : When two or more crops are grown simultaneously on the same piece of land with distinct row arrangement 3. Strip intercropping : When two or more crops are grown simultaneously in alternate strips of uniform width and on the same field 4. Relay intercropping : When two or more crops are grown simultaneously but with overlapping life cycle, such that a second crop is planted before the first crop matures Crop rotation & Intercropping BENEFIT 35-45% Adoption rate of intercropping 30-40% Adoption rate of crop rotation Practices at Malaysia (Yeong 2012) (Das,2019) 82
On the opposite side of the hill, a ridge is then built using the soil from the furrow. Repeat this procedure until the entire field has been ploughed. Contour farming Practice of ploughing and/or planting along a contour (across the slope-horizontol) rather than up and down. Also called terrace farming. Follow the natural shape of the slope without altering it. Contour farming can help absorb the impact of heavy rains, which in straight-line planting often wash away topsoil. Contour farming is most effective when used in conjunction with such practices as strip cropping, terracing, and water diversion THE PROCESS The plough is guided by the land's contour. This causes the earth to be lifted, making a furrow on the slope. The length of the land and the slope's gradient determine the size of the furrow. 1. Reduce soil erosion and leads to an increase in vegetation thus supporting biological diversity and wildlife habitat 2. Helps to slow water runoff, making it more available for seepage into the soil. 3. Utilises water efficiency and also avoid runoff of nutrient, reducing the need for external fertilisers. 4. Increase crop yields, and improve rural livelihood. Assam & Meghalaya,India practices contour farming extensively 83 (jaymi 2022)
The slope's natural shape is suited by contour ploughing without being altered. The structure of the slope is altered by terrace farming, resulting in flat regions that can catch water. Creating a natural barrier to prevent liquids from draining down a slope by ploughing parallel to the contours of the hill. Wide flat steps or terraces are created on steep slopes so that level surfaces can be used for cultivation, reducing surface run-off and soil erosion. Terrace farming Rearranging farmlands or turning hills into farmlands by constructing specific ridged platforms. These platforms are called terraces. The most popular terracing types in farming are broadbase, narrow-base, and grassed back-slope. Their choice depends on how steep the hill is. Correspondingly, not all the types imply farming of all terrace slopes. All terracing techniques allow farmers to retain or remove water and reduce the steepness of the hill. In fact, the purpose of terrace farming is to intercept water in a designated channel and remove it via constructed erosion-resistant ditches or subsurface pipe outlets. Common crops farmed by terrace farming Wheat Buckwheat Apple Corn Rice Saffron Millet Pulses Black cumin Beautiful terraced rice field in water season in Laocai province in Vietnam CONTOUR FARMING TERRACE FARMING 84 (EOSDA 2021)
Conservation tillage Any tillage practice that builds up crop residues on the soil surface to minimize the impact of water and wind erosion. The 30 percent residue benchmark for water erosion and the 1,000 pounds per acre benchmark for wind erosion are minimum requirements. DEFINITION The use of conservation tillage requires the management of crop residues on the soil surface. Crop residues, a renewable resource, play a key role in conservation tillage. When crop residues are properly managed they protect soil resources; enhance soil quality; restore degraded ecosystems; improve nutrient cycling; increase water conservation and availability; enhance pest suppression, for example weed and nematode suppression; reduce runoff and leaching of nutrients off-site; and sustain and enhance crop productivity and profitability Conservation tillage can be combined with other practices to enhance the soil benefits provided from reducing tillage and increasing soil-surface coverage What is tillage? Tillage is mechanical modification of soil structure. Tillage tools modify soil structure through a wide range of soil–tool interactions, including: cutting, milling, crushing, beating, and rebound. 85 (UC Davis 2017)
Conservation tillage Conservation tillage system A collection of supplemental best management practises used in crop production systems together with other conservation measures to improve environmental stewardship, farm profitability, and agricultural sustainability. Environmental Stewardship Intensive agricultural practices such as inversion tillage can degrade indirect ecosystem services by reducing soil productivity, increasing soil erosion and degrading soil quality. This can contribute to eutrophication of water bodies, increased nutrient and pesticide runoff, higher rates of soil erosion, and a need for increased inputs such as fertilizer, water and energy as soil productivity declines Farm Profitability Economics plays a significant role in the management of conservation tillage systems. Many factors contribute to farmers’ conservation decision-making, including agricultural payment programs such as conservation programs; market conditions, for example crop prices, marketing options and the emerging biofuels market; market and production risk such as volatile commodity prices and weather; the cost of conservation practices; and management style Agricultural Sustainability Sustainability on the farm encompasses (1) protection and longterm maintenance of soil and water resources, which includes using practices that reduce soil erosion, enhance soil quality and improve water use efficiency; and (2) enhancement of economic opportunities and growth by improving cash crop yields, lowering costs of production, reducing risk, improving crop profitability and improving overall economic management. 86 (SARE 2020)
Cultural pest control – cultural methods of pest control consist of regular farm operation like crop rotation. Physical or mechanical control : Physical mehods are hand picking of insect pest while mechanical methods are based on knowledge of pest behaviour Biological control : Involves the augmentation and conservation of natural enemies of pest such as insect predators, fungi and bacteria. Chemical controls – the use of chemical pesticides is the last resort when all other methods fail to maintain pest population below level that are economically damaging. Integrated Pest Management System Using suitable technique and method in a compatible manner to maintain pest population at levels below those causing economically acceptable damage or loss. it combines cultural, biological and chemical measures to provide cost-effective, environmentally sound and socially acceptable method of controlling disease, insect, weeds and others. C o m p o n e n t B E N E FIT IPM is considered cost-effective and more efficient than chemical pest control Reduce and avoid pest infestation with soil and nutrient management Prevent soil-borne disease which can inflict damage on crops. IPM practices are known to have a better outcomes for surface and groundwater quality with reduced contamination from pesticides. 1. 2. 3. 87 (USEPA 2020)
Agroforestry Practice and science of the instruction between agriculture and forestary that involve farmers, trees(woody perennials), forest and livestock at multiple scales. Having trees on farms has huge benefits for farmers. It could mean more income, a more buffered climate, shelter from winds and rain and, because of tree roots and leaf litter, soil is protected and nurtured. What is Agroforestry? Benefits of agroforestry in coffee. Source: Jezeer, R. E., & Verweij, P. A. (2015) 88 Production of timber, firewood & fruits. Other crops and animal Microclimate control Nutrient cycling Conservation of biodiversity Reduced weed growth Carbon sequestration Improved been quality Erosion control Water regulation Nitrogen fixation
Agroforestry Benefit of Agroforestry Enhance productivity, profitability, diversity & sustainability of ecosystem. Low cost system Produce diversity of product and services Improve in soil fertility An agroforestry system with trees, crops, horticultural crops, livestock and a farmer’s home. World Agroforestry (2022) Commercial Agroforestry system, growing Silver oak and Black pepper in the Tea orchard, Waynad, India. World Agroforestry Centre (2022) Agroforestry in India In 2014, India became the first country in the world to adopt a national agroforestry policy. Major crops cultivated under agroforestry are Poplats,Eucalyptus, Dalbergia, Neem, Acacia, Melia, Tectona, Ailanthus, Gmelina, Bamboo, Leucaena, Casuarina & Mangium. 89 (ICRAF 2019)
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