Janice VanCleave's great science project ideas from real kids

Project 28

What Effect Does the Type of
Ground Cover Have on the Rate

of Soil Erosion?

Category: Earth Science—Physiography Mechanical weathering is a physical change,
Project Idea by: Alex and Drake Conner meaning the appearance of a material changes,
but its properties and makeup remain the
T he physical nature of Earth’s crust same. For example, when a seed germinates in
(the outer layer of Earth) is in a con- a crack in a rock, the growing plant that forms
stant state of change. The changes are may push hard enough to split the rock. The
the result of erosion, the process by which rock has been physically changed in that it
rocks and other materials of Earth’s crust are has been split into smaller pieces.
broken down and carried away. The part of
erosion that involves only the breakdown of Chemical weathering is the breakdown of
crustal materials is called weathering. Two crustal materials due to chemical changes in
weathering processes are mechanical weath- the substances making up the crust. A chemi-
ering and chemical weathering. cal change produces one or more kinds of
substances that are different from those pres-
Mechanical weathering is the breakdown ent before the change. For example, iron in
of crustal material by physical means. rocks combines with oxygen in the air, form-
ing iron oxide (rust).

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The moving part of erosion is caused by Design a way for equal amounts of water to

natural agents such as water and ice. For rain down on the separate testing surfaces.

example, water in a river erodes a riverbank, One way to measure erosion is to collect and

forming both a solution and a suspension. measure the amount of soil washed off the

When water in a river hits against the river- surface and collected at the lower end of

bank, material breaks away, and some dis- each surface.

solves in the water, forming a solution.

Other materials that break away from the Independent Variable: Type of ground cover

bank don’t dissolve, but they mix with the Dependent Variable: Degree of erosion

water, forming a suspension (a liquid mix- (measured by the amount of material

ture made of parts that separate upon stand- washed away)

ing). The moving water carries the Controlled Variables: Size and slope of sur-

weathered materials away. faces, type and amount of dirt, amount of
When new roads are built, material such water, type of watering method, measur-
ing devices
as hay is often placed over the newly formed Control: Soil without a covering
roadside to help prevent erosion. A project
Other Questions
? ? ?question might be, “What effect does the to Explore
? ?type of ground cover have on the rate of soil
?erosion?” 1. What effect does the slope of the land
? ? ?Clues for Your Investigation have on the rate of soil erosion?
? ? ?Cover four or more equal-sized pieces of
?boards, with dirt. Cover the dirt with differ- 2. What effect does plant growth have
? ? ?ent types of material such as leaves, hay, and on the rate of soil erosion?

grass. Raise one end of each board the same

? ? ?amount so that it is at a slant to the ground.
????????????91

Project 29

How Does the Texture of Paper
Affect Its Printing Quality?

Category: Engineering—Chemistry—Technology The degree of absorbency of paper affects
Project Idea by: David VanCleave and the brightness and sharpness of any lines of
Sebastian Mead the ink printed on it. Poor-quality ink prints
are made on paper with low absorbency,
A bsorbency is the ability of a material to partly because the ink that is not absorbed by
soak up a fluid such as water or ink. the paper tends to smear and/or rub off the
The absorption of liquid by paper is paper. Poor-quality ink prints are also made
the result of the attraction between the liquid on paper with a very high degree of
particles and the paper. The attraction absorbency. This is because the paper absorbs
between like particles is called cohesion, and so much ink that the ink shapes have blurred
the attraction between unlike particles is boundaries. The paper with just the right
called adhesion. When the adhesion between amount of absorbency produces ink prints
the liquid particles and the paper is greater with sharp, clear lines. Texture is how a sur-
than the cohesion, the liquid is absorbed by face feels, such as smooth or rough. A project
the paper. question might be, “How does the texture of
paper affect its printing quality?”

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Clues for Your Investigation

Determine a way of measuring printing

? ? ? ? ? ?quality. One way is to stamp an ink print on

papers with different textures. Using a mag-

? ? ? ?nifying lens, compare the sharpness of the

borders of the print on each type of paper.
Dependent Variable: Texture of paper

Independent Variable: Quality of ink print

Controlled Variables: Shape of ink print, ink
stamping procedure, measuring proce-
dure, color of paper, weight of paper

Control: Medium-textured paper
? ?? ?? ? ?? ??Other
? ? ? ?Questions
?? ? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???to Explore
1. Does the color of testing papers affect printing quality? ?

2. Does the weight of testing papers affect printing quality?

3. Copy paper has a suggested side for printing. Is the
absorbency different for each side of the paper?

4. Does the print on newspaper and magazine pages affect
absorbency rate?

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Project 30

What Type of Container Increases
the Shelf Life of Bread?

Category: Engineering—Food Technology doesn’t mean that the food will be inedible on
that date. Instead, it indicates when the food
Project Idea by: Arielle Simner and Naomi Chalfin most likely will start to go bad. Whether a
particular food has a longer or shorter shelf
S helf life is the period during which life than the expiration date or date mark
food may be stored and remain suitable depends on storing conditions. For example,
and safe to eat. Two ways of identifying if milk is left out of the refrigerator for a long
shelf life are date mark and expiration date. A time, the milk will probably spoil before its
date mark is a date stamped on the food date mark.
package with instructions that read “use by
[date]” or “best before [date].” A “use by” The shelf life of food is affected by fat,
date appears on highly perishable food with moisture, oxygen, heat, and time. Foods with
short shelf lives such as milk and meats. more fat spoil faster. Oxygen, moisture, and
These items may be dangerous to eat after the heat encourage the growth of microbes,
date. The “best before” date appears on foods which spoil food. So the longer foods are
with longer shelf lives such as breads and exposed to oxygen (a gas in air), moisture,
cookies. These foods are still edible after the and heat, the faster they spoil. The shelf life
date, but their taste quality may not be as of foods increases if they are kept cool and
good. For example, once the date on potato away from sunlight. Thus, foods should be
chips has passed, they will not be bad, just stored in dark, cool places.
less crisp.
The length of time bread can be stored
The expiration date on food tells you before it becomes stale (a decrease in the
when you can expect the food to go bad. It quality of taste, due to age), dehydrated
(dried out), or moldy is based on the type of

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bread and the storage conditions. Some time it takes for bread slices to dehydrate.

bread is packaged in plastic and some in cel- Design a measuring scale to compare bread

lophane. Breads are also stored in different dryness. For example, the driest might be 1

types of open and closed containers. A proj- and the most moist 10.

ect question might be, “What type of con-

tainer increases the shelf life of bread?” Independent Variable: Different types of

bread containers

Clues for Your Investigation

Use different kinds of bread containers
including plastic bread sacks, cellophane

? ? ? ? ? ?bread wrappers, and a plastic box with a lid.

The shelf life of bread is measured by the

? ? ?freshness of bread. One measure of fresh-
?ness is its moisture content. Compare the
Dependent Variable: Time to reach dryness
of 1 on your scale

Controlled Variables: Environmental condi-
tions including temperature, light, and
humidity, type of bread, size of samples,
same “best before” date

Control: Bread without a container
? ?? ?? ? ?? ??Other
? ? ? ?Questions
?? ? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???to Explore
1. How does temperature affect the drying of bread? ?

2. Staleness is a measure of the quality of a food’s taste. How
does temperature affect the staling rate of bread?

3. Mold is a sign of old or stale bread. How does water activity
affect the growth of mold?

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Project 31

How Does the Degree of Stretching
Affect the Ability of Plastic Food
Wraps to Keep Foods Fresh?

Category: Engineering—Product Development the ability to allow some particles to pass
Project Idea by: Britney Fleming through but not others. A semipermeable
material acts like a tea strainer—small parti-
D iffusion is the movement of particles cles pass through the holes, but large particles
from one place to another. Particles do not. The particles that diffuse through a
diffuse from more concentrated (par- permeable or semipermeable material move
ticles are grouped together) areas to areas of from the side of the material where they are
less concentration. One type of diffusion is at higher concentrations to the side where
the movement of particles through a perme- they are at lower concentrations.
able membrane (a thin sheet of flexible mate-
rial). Permeability is the ability of a material The movement of the particles continues
to allow substances to diffuse through it. toward the side of low concentration until
the concentrations on both sides of the mem-
Some membranes such as plastic food wrap brane are equal. Once they pass through the
are semipermeable, which means they have membrane, the particles continue to ran-
domly move until they are evenly spread out.

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When the concentration of a certain type starch and water mixture, which happens
of particle is the same on both sides of the when iodine particles come in contact with
membrane, the particles continue to move starch particles. In making the starch and
through the membrane. But for every parti- iodine solutions, use distilled water. For the
cle that moves through the membrane in starch solution, add 1 teaspoon (5 mL) of
one direction, a particle moves through the cornstarch to every 1⁄4 cup (63 mL) of water.
membrane in the opposite direction. Thus, The iodine solution can be made by adding
the concentration on both sides of the mem- 5 drops of tincture of iodine (found at the
brane remains the same. pharmacy) to 1⁄4 cup (63 mL) of water.
CAUTION: Iodine stains. It is also a poison,
The plastic in food wraps and food bags is so heed the warnings on the bottle. Do not
a semipermeable material. The more perme- do this experiment if you are allergic to tinc-
able the plastic, the greater the rate of diffu- ture of iodine.
sion of particles through the plastic; thus,
the less effective the plastic is at keeping the Independent Variable: Degree of stretching
food fresh. Plastic food wraps are stretched of plastic wrap
over food containers. A project question
might be, “How does the degree of stretch- Dependent Variable: Diffusion of iodine,
ing affect the ability of plastic food wraps to measured by the appearance of the blue-
keep foods fresh?” black color

Clues for Your Investigation Controlled Variables: Concentration of
iodine in iodine and water solution and
Design a way to stretch plastic food wraps. amount of this solution used, concentra-
One way could be to pull the plastic with tion of starch in the starch and water mix-
your hands. Stretch each piece with differ- ture and amount used, container over
ent amounts of force. Semipermeable plastic which plastic is stretched, type of plastic
food wrap is permeable to iodine particles wrap, distilled water, environmental con-
but not to starch particles. When iodine ditions such as temperature and light
combines with starch, a blue-black sub-
stance is produced. To test the permeability Control: Piece of plastic wrap that has not
of plastic wrap, determine the speed at been stretched
which iodine diffuses through it. This can
be done by placing a thick solution of starch ? ? ? ? ? ?Other Questions
and water in the center of a piece of plastic ? ? ?to Explore
food wrap. Bring the sides of the wrap ? ? ?1. How does temperature affect diffusion
together and secure with a twist-tie, forming ?through plastic food wrap?
a closed testing bag. Make two labeled test- ? ? ?2. How does time affect diffusion
ing bags from each stretched plastic wrap
being tested. Then place one bag of each through plastic food wrap?
type of plastic bag in a solution of iodine
(tincture of iodine) and one of each type in ? ? ?3. How does the type of food wrap
water. Design a timing method. One way is ?affect the rate of diffusion of
to determine the time it takes for the first ? ? ?particles?
appearance of a blue-black color on the
? ???? ?? ?97

Project 32

What Effect Does Triangle Size Have
on the Strength of a Truss Bridge?

Category: Engineering—Structural Engineering and tension are produced. Compression is a
force that pushes materials together, and
Project Idea by: Rosemary Kalonaros and tension is a force that pulls materials apart.
Megan Ganzenmuller In the diagram, the weight of the bridge as
well as the weight of the car causes the beam
I n designing a bridge, an engineer must to bend. The top edge of the beam has short-
consider the types of forces that will be ened because the compression forces, indi-
applied to the bridge. A force is a push or cated by the arrows pointing toward each
pull on an object. Two of the forces that must other in the illustration, squeeze the materi-
be considered when designing a bridge are als together. The bottom edge of the beam has
gravity forces and lateral forces. Weight is the lengthened due to tension forces, indicated
measure of gravity, which on Earth is a by the arrows pointing in opposite directions,
measure of the force pulling objects toward stretching the material.
Earth’s center. The weight or gravity of an
object increases as the mass of the object Lateral forces are those directed at the
increases. side of the bridge or other structure. These
forces include those generated by things such
Weight causes some structures to bend as the wind, earthquakes, and explosions. As
downward. When this happens, compression a system (different parts working together as

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one unit), a structure must be designed so bridges must be of comparable length, width,

that it can resist all forces to which it is sub- and height, with trusses containing differ-

jected, including gravitational and lateral ent-sized triangles. Design a way to test the

forces. strength of the bridges such as supporting

The most basic bridge design is a beam the bridge ends and adding a measured

bridge. A log across a creek is one of the amount of weight until each bridge breaks.

simplest beam bridges. Since beam bridges

cannot span great distances, other types of Independent Variable: Size of triangles
bridges have been designed such as truss
bridges. A truss bridge is a bridge with Dependent Variable: Strength of truss bridge
trusses (a simple skeletal structure made up
of straight beams forming triangular Controlled Variables: Type of building mate-
shapes). A triangle is a geometric shape that rials, type of strength-testing device, size
has a small amount of flexibility. By using of bridges
many combinations of triangles in a truss,
the unit can be designed to carry a great deal Control: Truss with the median size of
of weight and span great distances. A proj- triangles
ect question might be, “What effect does tri-
angle size have on the strength of a truss ? ? ? ? ? ?Other Questions
bridge?” ? ? ?to Explore
? ? ?1. How do the vertical beams affect the
Clues for Your Investigation ?strength of a truss bridge?
? ? ?2. How does the strength of different
Build small truss bridges with different-sized
trusses and test their strength. The bridges truss designs, such as the Howe, the
can be built with simple materials such as
craft sticks, toothpicks, and straws. The ?? ? ??????? ???? ?Pratt, and the Warren, compare?

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Project 33

How Steady Is the Moon’s Angular
Speed from One Day to the Next?

Category: Mathematics—Angular Measurements appears to be slower than some of the stars in
moving across the night sky to the western
Project Idea by: Sarah Yount horizon. The apparent race between the stars
and the Moon is due to Earth’s daily rotation
T he apparent distance between celes- on its axis, which causes celestial bodies to
tial bodies is how far apart they appear appear to move from east to west across the
to be from an observer on Earth. This sky. Unlike the stars, which in relation to
distance measured in degrees is called the Earth are relatively stationary, the Moon
angular distance. revolves around Earth from west to east. It
takes about 29 days for the Moon to complete
The width and distance between your fin- its revolution. So each night the Moon
gers can also be used to measure sky dis- appears to move toward the west because of
tances. Holding your hands at arm’s length, Earth’s rotation, but at the same time it is
use the diagram to measure different angular slightly moving toward the east because of its
distances. A combination of measurements own revolution. It is sort of like watching
can be used such as measuring the distance people on a moving escalator. If one person
between the stars of the Big Dipper as shown slowly steps backward, it appears that every-
in the example. one else is moving forward and passing the
slower person.
The Moon, which is Earth’s only natural
satellite (a celestial body orbiting another),

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Speed is a measurement of distance in a ular star. Record this distance as d1. After 1
given time period. For example, a car travel- hour, again measure the distance between
ing at 50 miles per hour moves a distance of
50 miles in a time period of 1 hour. The the Moon and the star. (Be sure it is the
speed of celestial bodies is measured in
degrees per a given time and is called angu- same star.) Record this distance as d2. Make
lar speed. A project question might be, three more measurements, each 1 hour
“How steady is the Moon’s angular speed
from one day to the next?” apart and all using the same star for refer-

Clues for Your Investigation ence. Record the distances as d3, d4, and d5.
Use the formulas in the table to determine
Measure the Moon’s angular speed on sev-
eral nights. Take measurements on clear, the average angular distance and the angular
dark nights. Design a measurement method.
One way is to use your hands to measure speed of the Moon for that night. Compare
the distance between the Moon and a partic-
this average to the average angular speed for

other nights.

Time, t Distance, D Speed, D/t

1 hour D1 = d1 – d2 S1 = D/1 hr
2 hours D2 = d1 – d3 S2 = D/2 hr
3 hours D3 = d1 – d4 S3 = D/3 hr
4 hours D4 = d1 – d5 S4 = D/4 hr
Average Dav = Sav=
(S1+ S2 + S3 + S4) ÷ 4
(D1+ D2+ D3+ D4) ÷ 4

Independent Variable: Time

Dependent Variable: Angular distance over

which the Moon moves

Controlled Variables: Measuring procedure,

star used for comparison

Control: The Moon’s average angular speed

???????????? ???? ????Other
? ? ? ?Questions
? ? ? ? ?to Explore
1. At what apparent angular speed do some of the more easily
visible planets, such as Mars and Jupiter, move each day?

2. What is the apparent angular speed that stars move each
day?
??? ???? ?? ????101
?

Project 34

How Does the Ratio of Two Dyes
in a Mixture Affect Its Color?

Category: Mathematics—Ratio you have two eyes and ten toes. The compari-
Project Idea by: Easton and Weston Walker son of 2 to 10 would be simplified, so the
ratio would be 1 to 5, 1:5, or 1/5. Order is
A ratio is a pair of numbers used to com- important when writing a ratio. For the blue
pare quantities. It can be expressed in paint to yellow paint, the ratio is 3 to 10, not
three different ways: (1) in words, 10 to 3. Eyes to toes is 1 to 5, 5 to 1.
(2) with a colon, or (3) as a fraction. For
example, the mixture of three parts of blue Paints, like other coloring materials, con-
paint with ten parts of yellow paint would tain colorants. A colorant that dissolves in a
look like this: liquid is called a dye. When dyes are mixed, a
new color is produced. A project question
Comparison In words With a As a might be, “How does the ratio of two dyes in
Blue to yellow using “to” colon fraction a mixture affect its color?”

3 to 10 3:10 3/10 Clues for Your Investigation

A ratio is generally written as a simplified Prepare two solutions using distilled water
fraction. For the comparison of eyes to toes, and two colors of food coloring. For example,
if the dye colors to be used are blue and

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yellow, make testing solutions by mixing dif- ture. For example, a mixture of blue to yel-

ferent ratios of blue and yellow. Make sure low with a ratio of 1:1 is green. A mixture of

that each solution has the same amount of blue to yellow with ratios of 2:1, 3:1, and 4:1

water. Design a method for mixing the dyes could be called light blue-green, medium

together in specific ratios such as by measur- blue-green, and dark blue-green, respec-
ing out spoons of dye and pouring them into
transparent cups. If the mixture is blue to
yellow and the ratio is 1:2, then mix 1 spoon

? ? ? ? ? ?of blue dye and 2 spoons of yellow dye.

Design a method of describing the color pro-

? ? ? ?duced. One way is to compare the dyes with
? ?the color of the control, which is a 1:1 mix-
tively.

Independent Variable: Ratio of dyes
Dependent Variable: Color of mixture
Controlled Variables: Measuring instrument,

method of measuring color, dye solutions
Control: 1:1 dye ratio
? ? ?? ? ? ??Other
? ? ? ?Questions
?? ? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???to Explore
1. What effect does the ratio of three or more dyes have on the
resultant color of the mixture?

2. What effect does the ratio of dry colorants, such as colored
sand, have on the resultant color of the mixture?

?

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Project 35

How Does a Refrigerant’s Surface
Area Affect How Well It Cools?

Category: Physics–Energy—Heat surface area. A project question might be,
“How does a refrigerant’s surface area affect
Project Idea by: Declan Morgan how well it cools?”

T emperature is the measure of how hot Clues for Your Investigation
or cold a material is. Heat is the energy
that flows from a warm material to a Design a way to measure the effectiveness of
cool material. For a material’s temperature to a refrigerant such as ice. One way is to deter-
decrease, it must lose heat. For a material to mine how fast ice cream melts when it’s put
increase in temperature, it must gain heat. in contact with ice having different surface
areas such as different sizes of crushed ice
A refrigerant is a material used to cool and cubed ice. A measured amount of ice
other materials. Ice is a refrigerant that owes cream can be placed in a cup and surrounded
its effectiveness to the fact that it stays at its by one form of ice. After a predetermined
freezing temperature of 32°F (0°C) until it time, measure the amount of melted ice
absorbs enough heat to melt. cream. To measure how much has melted,
pour just the liquid into a measuring cup.
Surface area is the size of the surface of Use the same amount of refrigerant for each
an object. Surface area increases with the test.
subdivision of the material. For example,
crushing and grinding a solid will increase its

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Independent Variable: Refrigerant’s surface ? ? ? ? ? ?Other Questions
area ? ? ?to Explore
? ? ?1. How does insulating material affect a
Dependent Variable: Effectiveness of refrig- ?refrigerant’s effectiveness?
erant determined by amount of melted ice ? ? ?2. How does the thermal conductivity of
cream
a material affect cooling or heating it?
Controlled Variables: Amount of ice cream,
amount of refrigerant, containers, incre- ? ? ?3. Are gel ice packs better refrigerants
ments of time, measuring device ? ? ???? ?? ? ?? ?than ice?

Control: Ice cream not surrounded by a
refrigerant

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Project 36

What Effect Does Salt Concentration
Have on the Specific Heat of an
Aqueous Salt Solution?

Category: Physics—Energy—Heat heat to increase or decrease its temperature.
Project Idea by: Daniel O’Leary and The opposite is true for a material with a
high specific heat.
John Paul Carollo
Pots and pans should be made with materi-
H eat is the energy that is transferred als having low specific heats. That way, it
between objects because of differ- doesn’t take much heat to get the pot or pan
ences in their temperature. It moves hot, and most of the heat goes into cooking
from an object with a higher temperature to the food. Wood has a higher specific heat
one with a lower temperature. Specific heat than metal. When the same amount of heat is
is a measure of how well a material resists added, a wooden handle on a pot does not get
changing its temperature. A material with a as hot as a metal handle.
low specific heat changes temperature easily;
it has to gain or lose only a small amount of Water has a very high specific heat:
1 cal/g °C. One calorie of heat is needed to
raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1°C.

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This specific heat is for pure water. A proj- Independent Variable: Amount of salt
ect question might be, “What effect does salt
concentration have on the specific heat of an Dependent Variable: Temperature change
aqueous salt solution?”
Controlled Variables: Amount of water, type
Clues for Your Investigation of containers, method of cooling, time
intervals for measuring
Design a safe method of measuring tempera-
ture changes. One way is to cool the water ? ? ?Control: Distilled water
and water-and-salt solutions instead of heat- ? ? ?Other Questions
ing. Start with a measured amount of dis- ? ? ?to Explore
tilled water at room temperature. The water ? ? ?1. Do other kinds of solutes such as
can be cooled by placing the container in the ?sugar or baking soda affect the spe-
refrigerator or surrounding it with ice. Mea- ?cific heat of an aqueous solution?
sure the temperature every 5 minutes for 30 ? ?2. How can the specific heat of different
or more minutes. Repeat the experiment ?? ? ??????? ???? ?solids be compared?
using the same amount of water but with
different amounts of salt mixed in.

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Project 37

What Effect Does the Time of Day
Have on Passive Solar Heating?

Category: Physics—Energy—Solar through pipes to heat a building or to heat air
blown into the building.
Project Idea by: Connor Fields
Passive solar heating does not use any
S olar energy is a form of radiant energy mechanical means of distributing the col-
from the Sun. Radiant energy is energy lected heat; instead, it is direct heating from
in the form of waves that can travel sunlight. For example, when sunlight comes
through space. Solar heating is a process of through a window, it is absorbed by materials
using solar energy to heat materials. There in the room, causing them to heat up. Heat is
are two types of solar heating: active and pas- transferred from warm materials to cold
sive. Active solar heating involves using materials until the temperature of the
special devices for absorbing and transporting materials is the same. Thus, the heat transfer
solar energy. For example, some solar collec- is by natural means. To get the most out of
tors are covered with tubes containing water. passive solar heating, buildings can be
As sunlight strikes the collector, solar energy designed so that more sunlight will enter. In
is absorbed and the heat is transferred to the the Northern Hemisphere, the path of the
water in the tubes. The hot water circulates Sun is from east to west across the southern
sky. So a building with large windows facing

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the south will receive the greatest amount of way is to design a solar cooker and deter-

sunlight. mine how hot a container of water gets in

Because of the variations in the amount of the cooker in a given amount of time. Use a

solar energy received during the day and at thermometer to measure the change in the

a particular location, generally neither temperature of the water. Repeat the proce-

active nor passive solar heating is the only dure at different times during the day.

heating source for a building. In order to

know when solar heating is going to be the Independent Variable: Time of day

most effective, you must know when the
greatest amount of solar energy can be col-
lected during the day. A project question
might be, “What effect does the time of day
have on passive solar heating?”

? ? ? ? ? ?Clues forYour Investigation
? ? ? ?Design a way to measure the amount of
? ?solar energy at different times of day. One
Dependent Variable: Amount of solar heat
measured by water temperature

Controlled Variables: Solar cooker, amount
of time the water is cooked, energy source
(sunlight), measuring device (thermome-
ter), environmental conditions such as
humidity and cloudiness, position of
cooker

Control: Median time
? ? ?? ? ? ??Other
? ? ? ?Questions
?? ? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???to Explore
1. What effect does the color of the solar cooker have on the ?
amount of solar energy absorbed?

2. How does the placement of the solar cooker in relation to
sunlight affect the amount of solar energy absorbed?

3. What is a greenhouse, and how does the location of a green-
house affect the amount of solar energy absorbed?

109

Project 38

How Does the Size of a Vibrating
Surface Affect the Pitch of Its Sound?

Category: Physics—Energy—Sound (move back and forth) at a particular fre-
quency (the number of vibrations per sec-
Project Idea by: Zachary N.C. and ond). The vibrations of the ruler cause the air
Catherine E. Daunis particles around the ruler to move back and
forth at the same frequency, creating areas of
S ound is energy produced by a vibrating compression (where the particles are pushed
material that can be heard and is also together) and rarefaction (where the parti-
called sound waves, which are waves cles are spread apart). Waves such as sound
produced as a result of the vibration of a waves that have areas of compression and
material. Vibration is a back and forth or up rarefaction are called longitudinal waves.
and down motion. Sound originates from a
vibrating object that forces the particles of a The movement of the air around the
medium (the material sound passes through) vibrating ruler transfers the sound energy
to vibrate. For example, if one end of a ruler through the air. The vibrating air enters your
is held securely to a table and the end extend- ears and hits against your eardrums causing
ing past the table is pushed down, the free them to vibrate. The frequency of the vibra-
end of the ruler can be observed to vibrate tion of the eardrums is perceived by your
brain as a specific sound called pitch. The

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“How does the size of a vibrating surface
affect the pitch of its sound?”

Clues for Your Investigation

Make one type of percussion instrument

such as a drum in different sizes. Drums

have plastic or other materials stretched

tightly across a hollow plastic, wooden, or

metal cylinder. Decide on the material to be

used and make drums that have the same

shape but vary in surface size. Decide on

how the drums will be struck, and use the

greater the frequency, the higher the pitch. same procedure when testing each drum.

As the length of the ruler decreases, its fre- Compare the pitch produced by each drum.

quency increases, producing increasingly
higher-pitched sounds.

Percussion instruments are musical

? ? ? ? ? ?instruments that make sound when you

strike or shake them. Percussion instru-

? ? ?ments include drums, xylophones, gongs,
?and cymbals. Drums come in different sizes
? ? ? ?and shapes. A project question might be,
Independent Variable: Surface size of drum
Dependent Variable: Pitch
Controlled Variables: Material the drums are

made of, shape of the drums, how the
drums will be tested

Control: Medium-sized drum surface
? ? ? ? ? ?Other
? ? ? ?Questions
?? ? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???to Explore
1. What effect does the density of a vibrating material have on
pitch?

2. What effect does the shape of a vibrating material have on
pitch?

?

111

Project 39

How Does Density Affect the
Buoyancy of Objects?

Category: Physics—Mechanics—Buoyancy water it displaces, and thus the lower it sits
in the water.
Project Idea by: Amy Grabina and
Britanny Manchio An object floats or sinks in water because
of the difference between the total downward
B uoyancy is the upward force of a fluid force and the total upward force acting on the
on an object placed in it. Archimedes object. If no other forces are acting on the
(287–212 B.C.), a Greek mathematician, object, the downward force is equal to the
is given credit for explaining buoyancy. Float- weight (Fwt) of the object, and the upward
ing is usually associated with water or air, force is equal to buoyancy (FB). Weight is the
but floating can describe any object that is measure of the force of gravity acting on the
suspended in any fluid, whether it is a liquid object. If the weight of the object is less than
or a gas. The term buoyant is a measure of the buoyancy on the object, then the object
how well an object floats. floats. If the weight of the object is greater
than the buoyancy on the object, then the
When an object such as a boat is placed in object sinks. In diagram A, the weight of
water, the submerged part of the object dis- the boat is equal to the buoyancy on it, which
places (pushes aside) an amount of water is indicated by equal-length arrows; thus,
whose weight is equal to the weight of the Fwt = FB, and the boat floats. In diagram B,
object. The heavier the object, the more the weight of the boat is greater than the

112

A

buoyancy on it, which is indicated by

unequal-length arrows; thus, Fw > FB, and
the boat sinks.

Since an object continues to sink into the B

water until it displaces an amount of water

whose weight equals the weight of the measurement, determine the density of each
object, would spreading out the weight boat using this formula:
make a difference in buoyancy? Volume is
how much space an object takes up. For density = mass ÷ volume.
example, a piece of aluminum foil that is Determine a way to compare buoyancy such
wadded into a tight ball has a small size and as by measuring the height of the boat above
thus a small volume. If the same-size piece the waterline.

of aluminum foil has a boat shape, it has the Independent Variable: Boats with different
same weight, but it now has a bigger size (a volumes
bigger volume).

Boats are made of different materials such Dependent Variable: Buoyancy measured by

as wood and steel. But boats are not solid the height of the boat above the waterline

pieces of material. Instead, boats have Controlled Variables: Mass of the boats,
hollow spaces filled with air. Air is lighter material used, testing container for hold-
than wood or metal. The more hollow ing water, method of measuring buoyancy
spaces a boat has, the greater its volume.
Control: Median density
? ? ?Since density is a measure of the mass of a
? ?given volume, a project question might be, Other Questions
?“How does density affect the buoyancy of to Explore
?objects?”
? ? ? ? ?Clues for Your Investigation 1. How does the placement of cargo in a
? ?Build boats with the same mass but different boat affect its buoyancy?
? ?volumes. Use the same kind and amount of
?material. Determine a way to measure the 2. What effect do building materials have
? ?volume of each boat such as submerging the on buoyancy?
?boats in water and measuring the amount of
?water displaced. With the mass and volume 3. What effect does salinity of ocean
water have on buoyancy?
??? ?? ????113

Project 40

How Does Mass Affect the Period
of a Pendulum?

Category: Physics—Mechanics—Pendulum Displacement is the distance a pendulum
moves to one side from its vertical position.
Project Idea by: Chris Holifield Since the pendulum moves in an arc (a part
of a circle), its displacement is an angular
Apendulum is a device with a bob (a distance measured in degrees. The displace-
weight) hung from a fixed pivot (the ment angle is measured from the pendulum’s
point on which something turns) so vertical position. At a displacement angle of
that it swings back and forth. When a 15° or less, the periodic motion of the pendu-
pendulum hangs so that its bob is directly lum is the same; that is, regardless of the dis-
below the pivot, it experiences zero net force placement of the pendulum, as long as it is
(the sum of all forces simultaneously acting 15° or less, the period of the pendulum will
on an object) and is said to be at its resting be the same.
point. When the bob is pulled to one side
and released, it repeatedly swings back and Since weight is a measure of the gravita-
forth. One back-and-forth motion is called a tional pull on an object, would pendulums
vibration. The pendulum’s period (T) is of different weights have different periods?
the time required to complete one vibration. As the mass of an object increases, its
The equation for period is: weight increases. A project problem might
period (T) = time/vibrations. be, “How does mass affect the period of a
pendulum?”

114

Clues for Your Investigation ? ? ? ? ?Other Questions
?to Explore
Design pendulums that are the same except ? ? ?1. What effect does a displacement
for the weight of the bob. They might be ?greater than 15% have on the period
washers tied to a string. You can vary the ? ?of a pendulum?
weight of the bob by using a different num- ? ?2. What effect does the stiffness of the
ber of washers for each pendulum. Pull the ? ?bob support have on the period of a
pendulums to one side so that they all start ?pendulum?
with the same displacement. Count the ? ?3. What effect does the size of the bob
oscillations in a given time period. ? ?have on the period of a pendulum?
? ?4. What effect does the length of a pen-
Independent Variable: Weight of bobs ? ? ?? ? ? ? ?dulum have on its period?
Dependent Variable: Period
Constant Variables: Length of pendulum,

timing of period, displacement angle
Control: Median-weight pendulum

115



ApSpteenpdix1 A

100 Project Ideas

AGRICULTURE 9. How does Earth’s rotation affect the position of
stars in a constellation in relation to one
1. What effect does the pH of soil have on plant another?
growth? Independent variable: Earth’s rotation (deter-
Independent variable: Soil pH mined by passing of time measured in min-
Dependent variable: Plant growth utes or hours)
Dependent variable: Star position
2. What effect does soil pH have on the color of
flowers? 10. What effect does the color of a material have on
Independent variable: Soil pH it absorption of solar energy?
Dependent variable: Flower color Independent variable: Color of material
Dependent variable: Absorption of solar energy
3. What effect does seed size have on the number of (measured by an increase in temperature)
seeds that germinate?
Independent variable: Seed size BIOLOGY
Dependent variable: Number of germinating
seeds 11. What effect does gender have on the rate of eye
blinking?
4. How does the surface area of soil affect evapora- Independent variable: Gender
tion rate? Dependent variable: Rate of eye blinking
Independent variable: Surface area
Dependent variable: Evaporation rate 12. What effect does age have on the rate of eye
blinking?
5. What effect does wind speed have on the evapo- Independent variable: Age
ration rate of water from soil? Dependent variable: Rate of eye blinking
Independent variable: Wind speed
Dependent variable: Evaporation rate 13. What effect does air temperature have on ant
activity near an anthill entrance?
ASTRONOMY Independent variable: Air temperature
Dependent variable: Ant activity
6. How does the position of the Sun in the sky dur-
ing the day affect the length of Sun shadows? 14. How does the age of a plant leaf affect the leaf’s
Independent variable: Position of the Sun (deter- size?
mined by passing of time measured in min- Independent variable: Leaf age
utes or hours) Dependent variable: Leaf size
Dependent variable: Length of Sun shadows
15. How does the type of plant (monocot or dicot)
CAUTION: Do not look directly at the Sun affect the pattern of leaf veins?
because it can permanently damage your eyes. Independent variable: Plant type—monocot or
dicot
7. How does the position of the Sun in the sky dur- Dependent variable: Vein pattern in leaves
ing the day affect the direction of Sun shadows?
Independent variable: Position of the Sun (deter- 16. What effect does the location of water have on
mined by passing of time measured in min- the direction of plant root growth?
utes or hours) Independent variable: Location of water
Dependent variable: Direction of Sun shadows Dependent variable: Direction of plant root
growth
8. How does the amount of light pollution affect the
visibility of stars? 17. What effect does the amount of sunlight have on
Independent variable: Amount of light pollution the rate of chlorosis in grass?
(design a scale such as 1 is almost no light Independent variable: Amount of sunlight
and 10 is the lights of a large city) Dependent variable: Rate of chlorosis in grass
Dependent variable: Degree of visibility

117

18. What effect does water pH have on the growth of Independent variable: Hair color
the water plant elodea? Dependent variable: Skin freckles
Independent variable: Water pH
Dependent variable: Growth of elodea 31. How similar are the fingerprints of siblings?
Independent variable: Siblings
19. What effect does the amount of sunlight have on Dependent variable: Fingerprints
the growth of elodea?
Independent variable: Amount of sunlight 32. What effect does the period of time an eye is
Dependent variable: Growth of elodea closed have on its pupil size?
Independent variable: Time eye is closed
20. How does temperature affect the blooming of a Dependent variable: Pupil size
flower?
Independent variable: Temperature 33. How does temperature affect the rate of insect
Dependent variable: Flower blooming metamorphosis?
Independent variable: Temperature
21. How does the amount of light affect the bloom- Dependent variable: Rate of metamorphosis
ing of a flower?
Independent variable: Amount of light 34. What effect does gender have on the sense of
Dependent variable: Flower blooming smell?
Independent variable: Gender
22. What effect does wind have on the rate of Dependent variable: Sense of smell
transpiration?
Independent variable: Amount of wind 35. What effect does age have on the sense of smell?
Dependent variable: Rate of transpiration Independent variable: Age
Dependent variable: Sense of smell
23. What effect does cigarette tobacco in soil have on
plant growth? 36. What effect does age have on the sense of
Independent variable: Amount of cigarette touch?
tobacco in soil Independent variable: Age
Dependent variable: Plant growth Dependent variable: Sense of touch

24. Which paper found around the house has the 37. What effect does gender have on the sense of
fastest rate of biodegradability? touch?
Independent variable: Type of paper Independent variable: Gender
Dependent variable: Rate of biodegradability Dependent variable: Sense of touch

25. What effect does the color of paper have on its CHEMISTRY
rate of biodegradability?
Independent variable: Color of paper 38. What effect does the type of solute have on the
Dependent variable: Rate of biodegradability rate of crystallization?
Independent variable: Type of solute
26. How does temperature affect the rate at which Dependent variable: Rate of crystallization
fruit ripens?
Independent variable: Temperature 39. What effect does the temperature of a solution
Dependent variable: Rate of fruit ripening have on the rate of crystallization?
Independent variable: Temperature of a solution
27. How does light affect the rate at which fruit Dependent variable: Rate of crystallization
ripens?
Independent variable: Light 40. During crystallization, what effect does the rate
Dependent variable: Rate of fruit ripening of evaporation have on the size of crystals
formed?
28. How does ethylene gas affect the rate at which Independent variable: Rate of evaporation
fruit ripens? Dependent variable: Crystal size
Independent variable: Ethylene gas
Dependent variable: Rate of fruit ripening 41. How does the pH of water affect the rate of the
rusting of iron?
29. What relationship is there between hair color Independent variable: Water pH
and eye color? Dependent variable: Rate of rusting
Independent variable: Hair color
Dependent variable: Eye color 42. What effect does exercise have on the production
of carbon dioxide in humans?
30. What relationship is there between hair color Independent variable: Exercise
and skin freckles? Dependent variable: Carbon dioxide production

118

43. What is the effect of salt on the freezing point of 54. How does wind direction affect direction of sur-
water? face currents?
Independent variable: Amount of salt Independent variable: Wind direction
Dependent variable: Freezing point of water Dependent variable: Current direction

44. What effect does the type of solute have on 55. What effect does the concentration of dust parti-
degree of solubility? cles have on sky color?
Independent variable: Type of solute Independent variable: Dust particle concentra-
Dependent variable: Degree of solubility (meas- tion
ured by the amount of solute that can be Dependent variable: Sky color
dissolved in a specific amount of solvent)
56. What effect does dust particle size have on sky
EARTH SCIENCE color?
Independent variable: Dust particle size
45. What effect does the amount of ground cover Dependent variable: Sky color
have on soil concentration in runoff?
Independent variable: Amount of ground cover 57. How does air pressure affect the type of clouds
Dependent variable: Soil concentration in runoff formed?
Independent variable: Air pressure
46. What effect does the type of ground cover have Dependent variable: Cloud type
on soil concentration in runoff?
Independent variable: Type of ground cover 58. How does air temperature affect the type of
Dependent variable: Soil concentration in clouds formed?
runoff Independent variable: Air temperature
Dependent variable: Cloud type
47. What effect does plant density have on soil
erosion? 59. What effect does wind speed have on the type of
Independent variable: Plant density clouds formed?
Dependent variable: Soil erosion Independent variable: Wind speed
Dependent variable: Cloud type
48. What effect do the type of plant roots have on
soil erosion? ENGINEERING
Independent variable: Type of plant roots
Dependent variable: Soil erosion 60. What effect does the shape of an object have on
its strength?
49. How does the mixture of mineral solutions affect Independent variable: Shape of object
crystal growth? Dependent variable: Strength
Independent variable: Mixture of solutions
Dependent variable: Crystal growth 61. Which brand of antacid tablet is the best at neu-
tralizing stomach acid?
50. How does soil color affect the cooling of land? Independent variable: Brand of antacid tablet
Independent variable: Soil color Dependent variable: Degree of neutralization
Dependent variable: Temperature change of the
soil 62. Which brand of hair spray holds hair in place the
longest time?
51. What effect does the Sun’s sky position have on Independent variable: Brand of hair spray
air temperature? Dependent variable: Holding time
Independent variable: Sun’s sky position (deter-
mined by time measured in hours) 63. Which brand of toilet paper decomposes the
Dependent variable: Air temperature fastest in water?
Independent variable: Brand of toilet paper
52. How does the difference between land and water Dependent variable: Rate of decomposition
temperature affect the direction of wind?
Independent variable: Temperature difference 64. Which brand of detergent has the most effect on
between land and water stain removal from clothes?
Dependent variable: Wind direction Independent variable: Brand of detergent
Dependent variable: Degree of stain removal
53. How does the depth of water affect the altitude
of water waves? 65. Which type of cloth is the most resistant to food
Independent variable: Depth of water stain?
Dependent variable: Altitude of water waves Independent variable: Type of cloth
Dependent variable: Degree of resistance to food
stain

119

66. Which brand of shampoo produces the most 77. How do the number of coils in a solenoid affect
lather? the strength of an electromagnet?
Independent variable: Brand of shampoo Independent variable: Number of coils in a
Dependent variable: Amount of lather solenoid
Dependent variable: Magnetic strength
67. What effect does borax concentration have on
softening water? 78. What effect does the intermittent use of a dry-
Independent variable: Borax concentration cell battery have on its life?
Dependent variable: Degree of water softness Independent variable: Time intervals of use of a
dry-cell battery
68. Which brand of washable colored markers does Dependent variable: Length of life of a dry-cell
water most effectively remove from skin? battery
Independent variable: Brand of washable colored
markers 79. What effect does the type of material charged
Dependent variable: Degree of water solubility have on the time it holds a static charge?
Independent variable: Type of material
MATHEMATICS Dependent variable: Time of holding a static
charge
69. How does age affect the mean height of a group?
Independent variable: Age 80. What effect does humidity have on the strength
Dependent variable: Height of a static charge?
Independent variable: Humidity
70. How does gender affect the mean height of a Dependent variable: Strength of a static charge
group?
Independent variable: Gender 81. What effect does temperature have on the
Dependent variable: Height strength of a static charge?
Independent variable: Temperature
71. How does the height of a rain gauge affect the Dependent variable: Strength of a static charge
distance between scale measurements?
Independent variable: Height of rain gauge 82. Which brand of battery lasts the longest?
Dependent variable: Distance between scale Independent variable: Brand of battery
measurements Dependent variable: Time to discharge the
battery
72. How does the diameter of a rain gauge affect the
distance between scale measurements? 83. What effect does the wattage of a lightbulb have
Independent variable: Diameter of rain gauge on the amount of light it emits?
Dependent variable: Distance between scale Independent variable: Wattage of lightbulb
measurements Dependent variable: Amount of light

PHYSICS 84. What effect does the number of strokes of a mag-
net on a nail have on the degree the nail is
73. How does the length of the string of a stringed magnetized?
instrument affect pitch? Independent variable: Strokes of a magnet on a
Independent variable: String length nail
Dependent variable: Pitch Dependent variable: Degree of magnetism

74. How does the thickness of the string of a 85. How does the position of the fulcrum in a first-
stringed instrument affect pitch? class lever affect the weight it can lift?
Independent variable: String thickness Independent variable: Fulcrum position
Dependent variable: Pitch Dependent variable: Weight lifted

75. How does the volume of water in a glass bottle 86. How does the position of the fulcrum in a first-
affect the pitch of the sound produced when the class lever affect the force needed to lift an
bottle is struck? object?
Independent variable: Volume of water Independent variable: Fulcrum position
Dependent variable: Pitch Dependent variable: Force applied

76. How does the volume of water in a glass bottle 87. What effect does temperature have on the elastic-
affect the pitch of the sound produced when air ity of a rubber ball?
is blown across the mouth of the bottle? Independent variable: Temperature
Independent variable: Volume of water Dependent variable: Elasticity of a rubber ball
Dependent variable: Pitch (measured by the height the dropped ball
bounces)

120

88. What effect does the amount of a lubricant 94. What effect does the viscosity of a fluid mate-
have on friction between a marble rolling down rial have on the buoyancy of an object in it?
a wooden incline? Independent variable: Fluid viscosity
Independent variable: Amount of lubricant Dependent variable: Object buoyancy
Dependent variable: Amount of friction
95. What effect does the density of an object have
89. What effect does the temperature of a lubricant on its buoyancy in water?
have on friction between a marble rolling down Independent variable: Object density
an incline? Dependent variable: Object buoyancy in water
Independent variable: Temperature of
lubricant 96. In what type of light is fluorescent ink most
Dependent variable: Amount of friction effective?
Independent variable: Type of light
90. What effect does the diameter of a string have Dependent variable: Effectiveness of fluores-
on its strength? cent ink (measured by brightness)
Independent variable: String diameter
Dependent variable: Strength (measured by 97. What effect does the size of a prism have on the
supporting weight) spectrum produced?
Independent variable: Prism size
91. What effect does the number of fibers in a Dependent variable: Spectrum
string have on its strength?
Independent variable: Number of fibers 98. What effect does the type of metal have on con-
Dependent variable: Strength (measured by ducting heat?
supporting weight) Independent variable: Type of metal
Dependent variable: Rate of heat conduction
92. What effect does the thickness of plastic have
on the weight it will hold? 99. What effect does paint color have on its color-
Independent variable: Thickness of plastic fastness when exposed to solar energy?
Dependent variable: Weight supported Independent variable: Paint color
Dependent variable: Degree of fading in
93. How does wing shape affect flight distance of a sunlight
glider?
Independent variable: Wing shape 100. What effect does the mass of an object have on
Dependent variable: Flight distance momentum?
Independent variable: Mass of object
Dependent variable: Momentum

121

ApSpteenpdix1 B

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Unwin, Mike, and Helen Edom. Science with Burroughs, William J., Bob Crowder, Ted Robert-
Plants. London: Usborne Books, 1993. son, Elanor Vallier-Talbot, and Richard
Whitaker. Weather. New York: The Nature
VanCleave, Janice. Janice VanCleave’s Biology for Company, 1996.
Every Kid. New York: Wiley, 1990.
Campbell, Ann-Jeanette, and Ronald Rood. The
———. Janice VanCleave’s Food and Nutrition for New York Public Library Incredible Earth. New
Every Kid. New York: Wiley, 1990. York: Wiley, 1996.

———. Janice VanCleave’s Insects. New York: Christian, Spencer. Can It Really Rain Frogs? New
Wiley, 1998. York: Wiley, 1997.

———. Janice VanCleave’s The Human Body for Darling, Peter. Crystals. London: A Quintet Book,
Every Kid. New York: Wiley, 1995. 1998.

Walker, Richard. The Children’s Atlas of the Deene, Ben. First Encyclopedia of Seas and Oceans.
Human Body. Brookfield, CT: Millbrook Press, 2001. London: Usborne, 2001.
1994.
Farndon, John. How the Earth Works. Pleasantville,
Walpole, Brenda. Pocket Book of the Human Body. NY: Reader’s Digest, 1992.
New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987.
———. 1000 Facts on Planet Earth. New York:
Weiner, Esther. The Incredible Human Body. New Barnes and Noble, 2002.
York: Scholastic, 1996.
Gibson, Gary. Science for Fun Experiments. Brook-
Weise, Jim. Head to Toe Science. New York: Wiley, field, CT: Copper Beech Books, 1996.
2000.
James, Ian. Planet Earth. Bath, England: Dempsey
Chemistry Parr, 1998.

Branzei, Sylvia. Grossology. Reading, MA: Addi- Kahl, Jonathan. Audubon First Field Guide:
son-Wesley, 1995. Weather. New York: Scholastic, 1998.

Edom, Helen. Science with Water. London: Lynch, John. The Weather. Toronto: Firefly Books,
Usborne, 1992. 2002.

Epp, Dianne N. The Chemistry of Food Dyes. Mid- Sherman, Joseph, and Steve Brick. Energy at Work:
dletown, OH: Terrific Science Press, 1995. Solar Energy. Mankado, MN: Capstone Press,
2004.
———. The Chemistry of Natural Dyes. Middle-
town, OH: Terrific Science Press, 1995. Time-Life Books. Planet Earth. Alexandria, Vir-
ginia: Time-Life Books, 1997.
Headlam, Catherine. The Kingfisher Science Ency-
clopedia. New York: Kingfisher Books, 1991. VanCleave, Janice. Janice VanCleave’s Energy for
Every Kid. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2005.
Heiserman, David L. Exploring Chemical Elements
and Their Compounds. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: ———. Janice VanCleave’s Weather. New York:
Tab Books, 1992. Wiley, 1995.

Kenda, Margaret, and Phyllis S. Williams. Science Walpole, Brenda. 175 Science Experiments to Amuse
Wizardry for Kids. Hauppauge, NY: Barron’s and Amaze Your Friends. New York: Random
1992. House, 1988.

Levine, Shar, and Allison Grafton. Einstein’s Sci- Watt, Fiona. Planet Earth. London: Usborne, 1991.
ence Parties: Easy Parties for Curious Kids. New Williams, Jack. The Weather Book. New York: Vin-
York: Wiley, 1994.
tage Books, 1992.
Moore, John T. Chemistry for Dummies. Hoboken, Wilsdon, Christina. Audubon First Field Guide:
NJ: Wiley, 2003.
Insects. New York: Scholastic, 2005.
Strauss, Michael. Where Puddles Go. Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann, 1995. Engineering

VanCleave, Janice. Chemistry for Every Kid. New Farndon, John. 1000 Facts on Science and Technol-
York: Wiley, 1989. ogy. New York: Barnes and Noble, 2004.

Wellnitz, William R. Homemade Slime & Rubber Harris, David W. Truss Fun. Lakewood, CO: BaHa
Bones! Blue Ridge Summit, PA.: Tab Books, Enterprises, 2000.
1993.
Hooker, Saralinda, Christopher Ragus, and Mario
Earth Science G. Salvadori. The Art of Construction: Projects
and Principles for Beginning Engineers and
Allaby, Michael. How the Weather Works. New Architects. Chicago: Chicago Review Press,
York: Reader’s Digest, 1995. 1990.

Brewer, Duncan. 1000 Facts on Mammals. New Kaner, Etta. Bridges. Toronto: Kids Can Press, 1995.
York: Barnes and Noble, 2002.

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Kline, Michael P., Carol A. Johmann, and Eliza- ———. Janice VanCleave’s 202 Oozing, Dripping
beth J. Rieth. Bridges! Amazing Structures to and Bouncing Experiments. New York: Wiley,
Design, Build & Test. Charlotte, VT: Williamson 1996.
Publishing, 1999.
———. Janice VanCleave’s 203 Icy, Freezing, Frosty,
Pollard, Jeanne. Building Toothpick Bridges. Cool & Wild Experiments. New York: Wiley,
Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 1990. 1999.

General Science Walpole, Brenda. 175 Science Experiments to Amuse
and Amaze Your Friends. New York: Random
Breckman, Judy. 365 Super Science Experiments. House, 1988.
New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., 2001.
Wollard, Kathy. How Come? New York: Workman,
Churchill, Richard E., Louis V. Loeschnig, and 1993.
Muriel Mandell. 365 Simple Science Experiments
with Everyday Materials. New York: Black Dog Physics
and Leventhal Publisher, 1997.
Ardley, Neil. The Science Book of Sound. New
Eyewitness Visual Dictionaries. The Visual Dictio- York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1991.
nary of Plants. New York: Dorling Kindersley,
Inc., 1992. Franklin, Sharon. Power Up! Glenview, IL:
GoodYearBooks, 1995.
Hann, Judith. How Science Works. Pleasantville,
New York: Reader’s Digest, 1991. Gardner, Robert, and Eric Kemer. Science Projects
about Temperature and Heat. Springfield, NJ:
Highlights for Children. The Highlights Big Book of Enslow, 1994.
Science Secrets. New York: Barnes and Noble,
1997. Glover, David. Sound and Light. New York: King-
fisher Books, 1993.
Mandell, Muriel. Simple Science Experiments with
Everyday Materials. New York: Sterling Publish- Graham, Ian. Boats, Ships, Submarines, and Other
ing Co., 1989. Floating Machines. New York: Kingfisher Books,
1993.
Ontario Science Centre. Scienceworks: 65 Experi-
ments That Introduce the Fun and Wonder of Sci- Jones, Mary, and Geoff Jones. Physics. New York:
ence. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing, Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Inc., 1987.
Kentley, Eric. Boat. New York: Dorling Kindersley
Reader’s Digest. Did You Know? Pleasantville, NY: Eyewitness Books, 1992.
Reader’s Digest, 1990.
Murphy, Pat, Ellen Klages, and Linda Shores. The
———. Why in the World? Pleasantville, NY: Science Explorer. New York: An Owl Book,
Reader’s Digest, 1994. 1996.

Robinson, Tom. The Everything Kids Science Exper- Potter, Jean. Science in Seconds with Toys. New
iment Book. Avon, MA: Adams Media Corpora- York: Wiley, 1998.
tion, 2001.
Sabbeth, Alex. Rubber-band Banjos and Java Jive
Science and Technology Department of the Bass. New York: Wiley, 1997.
Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh. The Handy Sci-
ence Answer Book. New York: Visible Ink, 1997. Seller, Mick. Sound, Noise, and Music. New York:
Shooting Star Press Inc., 1992.
Smith, Alastair, ed. The Usborne Big Book of Experi-
ments. New York: Scholastic, 1996. Soucie Gary. What’s the Difference Between Lenses
and Prisms and Other Scientific Things? New
Stein, Sara. The Science Book. New York: Workman York: Wiley, 1995.
Publishing, 1980.
VanCleave, Janice. Janice VanCleave’s Science
Suplee, Curt. Everyday Science Explained. Through the Ages. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2002.
Nashville, Tennessee: National Geographic
Society Book Division, 1998. ———. Janice VanCleave’s Scientists Through the
Ages. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2004.
VanCleave, Janice. Janice VanCleave’s Science
Around the World. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2004. ———. Physics for Every Kid. New York: Wiley,
1991.
———. Janice VanCleave’s Super Science Models.
Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2004. Wiese, Jim. Roller Coaster Science. New York:
Wiley, 1994.
———. Janice VanCleave’s 201 Awesome, Magical,
Bizarre & Incredible Experiments. New York: Wood, Robert W. Sound Fundamentals. New York:
Wiley, 1994. Learning Triangle Press, 1997.

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Glossary

absorbency The ability of a material to soak up a cool days; the season following summer and
fluid. before winter.
auxin A light-sensitive growth chemical.
acid A sour-tasting chemical that forms salt and axis An imaginary line through the center of a
water when mixed with a base. body around which the body rotates.
banned Forbidden to be used.
active solar heating Involves using special bar graph A graph in which bars are used to
devices for absorbing and transporting solar show the relationship between two variables.
energy. barometer An instrument used to measure
atmospheric pressure.
adhesion The attraction between unlike particles barometric pressure See atmospheric pressure.
such as particles of water and paper. base A bitter-tasting chemical that forms salt
and water when mixed with an acid; metal
agriculture The science that deals with farming oxides.
concerns. beam bridge The basic bridge design; for exam-
ple, a log across a creek.
air The mixture of gases in Earth’s atmosphere. behavior The study of actions that alter the rela-
air pressure See atmospheric pressure. tionship between a plant and its environment; a
alviolus An air sac in the lungs; a balloon-shaped study in which the actions and reactions of
humans and animals are recorded through
structure at the end of each bronchiole. observational and experimental methods.
analyze To examine, compare, and relate all the biology The study of living things.
blood The liquid in animals that carries nutri-
data. ents and oxygen to cells and takes away wastes.
anatomy The study of the structure of plants; the blood pressure The force of blood on the walls of
arteries.
study of the structure and use of animal body bob The weight of a pendulum.
parts. bond The force holding chemicals together.
angular apparent measurement A measurement botany The study of plants and plant life.
in degrees of how far or how large objects bronchi Tubes at the end of the trachea that lead
appear to be. to the lungs.
angular distance The apparent distance meas- bronchioles Smaller tubes branching from the
ured in degrees. end of each bronchus.
angular speed Speed measured in degrees per time. buoyancy The upward force of a fluid on an
apparent distance In reference to celestial bodies, object placed in it.
it is how far apart celestial bodies appear to be buoyant A measure of how well an object floats.
from an observer on Earth. camouflage A disguise caused by similarities
aqueous solution A solution in which water is between the color of an animal’s body and its
the solvent. environment.
arc A part of a circle. capillary The smallest blood vessels in animals;
artery A blood vessel carrying blood from the where oxygen from inhaled air transferred is to
heart to the body. the blood and waste from the blood is trans-
artificial light Light from a man-made source. ferred to the lungs and exhaled.
asexual reproduction Reproduction involving carbon dioxide (1) A gas used by plants to make
only one parent. food. (2) A gaseous waste in animals.
astronomy The study of celestial bodies. celestial bodies The natural objects in the sky
atmosphere The blanket of gas surrounding a such as stars, moons, suns, and planets.
celestial body.
atmospheric pressure The measure of pressure
that the atmosphere exerts on surfaces resulting
from the collision of gas molecules in Earth’s
atmosphere; also called air pressure or baromet-
ric pressure.
atoms The building blocks of elements.
autumn The climatic season with medium-length

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celestial motion The study of the motion of celes- concentration The strength of a solution; the
tial bodies. amount of solute in a specific amount of solvent.

chemical Any substance with a definite composi- conclusion A brief summary of what you discov-
tion made up of one or more elements. ered based on data from your experimental
results.
chemical change See chemical reaction.
chemical reaction When substances combine or condensation rate The amount of gas that con-
denses in a certain amount of time.
break apart and recombine in a new way to
form new substances. condense To change from a gas to a liquid state
chemical technology engineering The branch of of matter.
engineering concerned with the application of
chemistry in the production of goods and serv- control An experiment used for comparison to
ices that humankind considers useful. the results of other experiments.
chemical weathering The breakdown of crustal
materials due to chemical changes of the sub- controlled variables The parts of an experiment
stances making up the crust. that could change but are kept constant.
chemistry The study of what substances are
made of and how they change and combine. cotyledon The part of a seed where nutrients are
chlorophyll A green pigment in plants that cap- stored.
tures light so that it can be used in the photo-
synthesis reaction. crust The outer layer of Earth.
circle graph A graph (also called a pie chart) in crystal The arrangement of particles forming
which the area of a circle represents a sum of
data, and the sizes of the pie-shaped pieces into most solids; solids with particles arranged in a
which the circle is divided represent the amount regular, repeating pattern with flat surfaces.
of data. crystalline solid A solid made up of crystals.
climatic seasons Divisions of the year based on crystallography The study of the formation of
average temperature and the amount of time crystals as well as the crystals themselves.
that the Sun is in the sky each day; winter, data Recorded collections of information.
spring, summer, autumn. date mark A date stamped on the food package
cognitive process The mental process a person with instructions that read “use by date” or
uses for remembering, reasoning, understanding, “best before date.”
problem solving, evaluating, and using judgment. decompose To break down into simpler parts; to
cohesion The attraction between like particles rot.
such as two water particles. degree (°) A unit that can be used to measure all
colorant A substance that selectively absorbs and or part of the distance around a circle.
reflects visible light so that you see a certain dehydrated Dried out.
color. density The ratio of mass to volume of an object.
colorfastness A measure of how well a dyed dependent variable The part of an experiment
material resists fading. that changes due to changes in the independent
column In reference to a table, it is a vertical list- variable.
ing of data values. diastolic pressure Blood pressure in the arteries
complete fertilizer A fertilizer containing all when the heart is resting.
three primary nutrients: nitrogen (N), phospho- diffusion The movement of particles from one
rus (P), and potassium (K). place to another due to a difference in concen-
compound A chemical made up of two or more tration.
different elements. dilute Having a low concentration.
compress To press together. dilute solution A solution in which more solute
compression (1) A force that pushes the material will dissolve at a specific temperature.
of a structure together. (2) The part of a longitu- displace To push aside.
dinal wave where the particles of the medium displacement In reference to a pendulum, it is
are pushed together. the distance that it moves to one side from its
concentrated (1) In reference to a solution, it vertical position.
means to have a large amount of solute. (2) In dissolved In reference to a solute, it means to be
reference to diffusion, it means particles are separated into parts and spread throughout.
grouped together. dye A substance that contains a colorant dis-
solved in a liquid.
Earth science The study of the parts of Earth: the
atmosphere (the gas layer surrounding Earth),
the lithosphere (the outer solid parts), and the
hydrosphere (the water parts).

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ecology The study of relationships of living things animal parts in water; an odorless, tasteless, and
to other living things and to their environment. colorless substance that forms a gel when dis-
solved into hot water and then cooled.
elements Basic chemical substances; substances gelling The process by which a gel is formed by
that contain only one kind of atom and that mixing gelatin with hot water, then allowing it
cannot be broken down into simpler substances. to cool.
geotropism Plant movement due to growth in
embryo An organism’s earliest stage of develop- response to gravity.
ment. germination The sprouting of seeds.
germination starting time (GST) The time it takes
energy The capacity to make things change. from planting a seed to the first signs of growth.
engineering The study of applying scientific germination time (GT) The time it takes from
planting a seed to the end of germination; deter-
knowledge for practical purposes. mined by the time it takes for the epicotyl to
entomology The study of insects. fully emerge from the cotyledons.
epithelial cells Cells on the surface of organisms. glucose A type of sugar produced by plants. It is
equator In reference to Earth, it is an imaginary needed by both plants and animals for energy.
gnomon The part of a sundial that casts a
line dividing Earth in half. shadow on the scaled surface of the sundial.
erosion The process by which rocks and other graph A visual representation of data that shows
a relationship between two variables.
materials of Earth’s crust are broken down and gravity The force pulling objects toward the cen-
carried away by natural agents such as water, ter of Earth; gravity increases as the mass of an
ice, and gravity. object increases.
evaporate To change from a liquid to a gas. guard cells Cells that open and close stomata.
evaporation The process by which a liquid heat The energy that flows from a warm material
changes into a gas. to a cool material.
evaporation rate The amount of liquid that evap- herbicide A pesticide for weeds.
orates in a certain amount of time. heterogeneous mixture A mixture that is not the
exhale To breathe out. same throughout.
experimental data Observations and/or meas- homogeneous mixture A mixture that has the
ured facts obtained from a project experiment. same composition throughout.
expiration date The date on food that indicates horizon Where the sky appears to touch Earth.
when you can expect it to go bad. humidity The measure of the amount of water
exploratory experiment An experiment in which vapor in air.
the results are part of the project research. hydrometer An instrument used to measure the
face The flat surface of a solid. specific gravity of a liquid.
fade To become lighter in color. hydrosphere The part of Earth that is water.
fertilizer A soil additive containing plant nutri- hypertension A condition resulting from blood
ents that promote plant growth. pressure being consistently higher than normal
flexible Able to change shape in response to a during rest time.
force, then recover the original shape when the hypha (pl. hyphae) Threadlike structure forming
force is removed. mycelia.
fluid A liquid or a gas. independent variable The part of an experiment
food science The study of food, including the that is purposely changed.
causes of food deterioration and the nature of inhale To breathe in.
food, such as nutritional value. inhibition The stopping of one brain process in
food technology engineering The branch of engi- order for another response to be processed.
neering concerned with the application of food inquiry questions Questions about a science topic
science to the selection, preservation, process- that may or may not be used as the project
ing, packaging, and distribution of safe, nutri- problem.
tious, and wholesome food. insecticide A pesticide for insects.
force A push or pull on an object. insect pest management The study of methods of
frequency The number of vibrations per second. controlling insects that affect crop production as
fungus A single-celled or multicellular organism well as the health of farm animals.
that obtains food by the direct absorption of
nutrients.
gas A state of matter that has no definite shape
or volume.
gel A semisolid formed by gelling.
gelatin An animal protein produced by boiling

128

interference In reference to memory, it is one of so small that they cannot be seen except by mag-
the reasons that short-term information is for- nification, such as with a microscope.
gotten; information in storage is distorted as microscopic organism An organism that you
new information is stored. need a microscope to see because it is so small.
microwave A form of electromagnetic radiation.
interpret In reference to data, it means to explain mixture Two or more substances mixed together.
by restating the data. mold A fungus that produces a fuzzy, cobweblike
growth on moist materials, including food.
introduction The part of a report that contains a mordant A chemical that bonds the colorant in a
statement of your purpose, along with some of dye to a material.
the background information that led you to mycelium (pl. mycelia) A fungal body made of a
make the study and what you hoped to achieve netlike mass of hyphae.
from it. natural satellite A celestial body orbiting
another; Earth’s moon.
invertebrate An animal without a backbone. negative tropism The movement of an organism
lateral force A force directed at the side of a away from the stimuli.
nerve A special fiber that transports impulses
structure. between the brain and body; made of bundles of
line graph A graph in which one or more lines thousands of neurons.
nerve impulse An electric signal traveling from
are used to show the relationship between the one neuron to another.
two quantitative variables. net force The sum of all forces simultaneously
liquid A state of matter with a definite volume acting on an object.
but no definite shape. neuron A nerve cell.
lithosphere The part of Earth that is solid. neutral Neither an acid nor a base.
log book A science diary or journal, which is a Northern Hemisphere In reference to Earth, it is
written record of your science project from start the part north of the equator.
to finish. nutrient A nourishing material necessary for life
longevity A measure of the length of life. and growth.
longitudinal waves Waves that have areas of com- observation Information collected about some-
pression and rarefraction. thing by using your senses.
long-term memory Information that you can oceanography The study of the oceans and
recall after days and even years. marine organisms.
lungs Balloonlike structures in the chest that are organic Made from living material.
used to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide organic pesticide A pesticide that comes from
between your blood and the atmosphere. natural sources, including plants such as
mass The amount of material in an object. marigolds, and minerals such as boric acid.
mathematics The use of numbers and symbols to oxidation A chemical reaction in which one
study amounts and forms. chemical combines with oxygen.
matter The substance from which all objects are passive solar heating Solar heating that does not
made; anything that has mass and takes up use any mechanical means of distributing the
space. collected heat; instead, it is direct heating from
mechanical weathering The breakdown of crustal sunlight.
material by physical means. pendulum A weight hung so that it swings about
mechanics The study of objects in motion and a pivot.
the forces that produce the motion. percussion instrument A musical instrument that
medium Any solid, liquid, or gas; a substance makes sounds when it is struck or shaken.
through which sound can travel. period (T) In reference to a pendulum, it is the
melting The process of changing from a solid to a time required to complete one vibration.
liquid state of matter. periodic motion Any type of motion that suc-
membrane A thin sheet of flexible material. cessively repeats itself in equal intervals of
memory The ability to retain and recall past time.
experiences. permeability The ability of a material to allow
meteorology The study of weather, climate, and substances to diffuse through it.
Earth’s atmosphere. pest An unwanted organism.
microbe An organism too small to be seen with
the unaided eye.
microbiology The study of microscopic organ-
isms such as fungi, bacteria, and protista.
microscopic level The level at which particles are

129

pesticide A substance intended to repel, kill, or project problem A scientific question or purpose
control any kind of pest. for a science project.

pharynx The throat. project report A written report of an entire proj-
photosynthesis A process in plants in which ect from start to finish.

light energy is used to change carbon dioxide project research An in-depth study of the project
and water into glucose and water. topic with the objective of expressing a project
phototropism The movement of organisms in problem, proposing a hypothesis, and designing
response to light. a project experiment to test the hypothesis.
pH scale The scale for measuring the strength of
an acid or a base. project summaries The project abstract and proj-
physical change A change in the appearance of ect report.
matter, but its properties and makeup remain
the same. project title A descriptive heading for a project.
physics The study of forms of energy and the protective coloration The coloring that helps to
laws of motion.
physiography The study of the physical features camouflage an animal from a predator.
of Earth’s surface. protein A substance in living organisms neces-
physiology The study of life processes of plants
and animals. sary for their survival and growth; a large parti-
pigment A substance that provides color to a cle make of one or more chemical chains.
material. qualitative observation A description of the phys-
pitch In reference to sound, it is how the fre- ical properties of something.
quency of a sound is perceived by the brain; the quantitative observation A description of the
greater the frequency, the higher the pitch. amount of something.
pivot The point on which something turns. radiant energy Energy in the form of waves
positive tropism The movement of an organism that can travel through space; also called
toward the stimuli. radiation.
precipitate To separate a solid from a solution. rarefaction (1) The force that pulls the material
predator An animal that kills and eats other of a structure apart. (2) The part of a longitudi-
animals. nal wave where particles of the medium are
primary nutrient The nutrient most often lacking spread apart.
in soil; nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. ratio A pair of numbers used to compare quanti-
primary research Research you collect on your ties.
own. raw data Data collected as a result of observing
product A chemical produced in a chemical experimental results.
reaction. reactant A starting chemical that is changed dur-
product development engineering The branch of ing a chemical reaction.
engineering concerned with designing, develop- refrigerant A material used to cool other materials.
ing, and testing new products. regeneration The growth of new tissue or parts
project abstract A brief overview of a scientific of an organism that have been lost or destroyed.
project. reproduction The process of producing a new
project category A group of related science organism.
topics. research The process of collecting information.
project conclusion A summary of the results of revolve To move in a curved path around
the project experiment and a statement of how another object.
the results relate to the hypothesis. root system The parts of a plant that generally
project display A visual representation of all the grow below ground; the parts of a plant that
work that you have done. anchor it in the ground and take in water and
project experiment An experiment designed to nutrients from the soil.
test the hypothesis of a science project; a test to rotate To turn on an axis.
determine a relationship between two variables: row In reference to a table, it is a horizontal list-
an independent variable and a dependent vari- ing of data values.
able. salinity The salt concentration in a salt and
project hypothesis An idea about the solution to water solution.
a problem based on knowledge and research. sap In plants, it is the solution of water and
other nutrients.
saturated solution A solution in which the maxi-
mum amount of solute is dissolved in a solvent
at a given temperature.

130

science A system of knowledge about the nature speed A measurement of distance in a given time
of things in the universe. period.

science fair An organized contest in which sci- spore A reproductive cell.
ence projects are compared and judged based on spring The climatic season following winter with
predetermined criteria.
medium-length cool days.
science problem A science question or purpose. sprout To begin to grow.
science project An investigation that is designed stale A decrease in the quality of a food’s taste

to find the answer to one specific science prob- due to age.
lem. states of matter Solid, liquid, and gas.
secondary nutrients Three of the thirteen neces- stellar science The study of stars including their
sary elemental plant nutrients generally found
in soils: calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and composition, magnitude, classification, struc-
sulfur (S). ture, and groupings.
secondary research Information and/or data that stimulus (pl. stimuli) Something that tempo
someone else has collected such as that found in rarily excites or quickens a response in an
books, magazines, and electronic sources. organism.
semipermeable The ability of a material to allow stomata Special openings in the outer layer of
some particles to pass through but not others. plants, generally in the leaves, through which
sensory information Information collected by gases can pass.
hearing, seeing, touching, tasting, and smelling. Stroop test A test that demonstrates the interfer-
sensory memory The ability to retain impres- ence that happens in the brain when two simul-
sions of sensory information after the original taneous thinking process are involved such as
stimulus has ceased; this memory is thought to reading words and identifying colors.
last from 1 second to 2 seconds. structural engineering The branch of engineering
sexual reproduction Reproduction involving two concerned with designing as well as testing the
parents. strength of structures including bridges and
shelf life The period during which food may be dams.
stored and remain suitable and safe to eat. sublimation The change from a solid to a gas or
shoot system The part of a plant that generally vice versa.
grows above ground. summer The climatic season with the longest
short-term memory Your working memory; your and hottest days.
primary memory or active memory, the one you summer solstice The first day of summer on or
use most of the time. about June 21/June 22 in the Northern Hemi-
solar energy A form of radiant energy that comes sphere when the Sun’s zenith is highest during
from the Sun. the year.
solar heating A process of using solar energy to sundial One of the oldest, if not the oldest,
heat materials. See also active solar heating; pas- known device for the measurement of time.
sive solar heating. surface area The size of the surface of an object.
solid A state of matter that has a definite shape suspension A liquid mixture made of parts that
and volume. separate upon standing.
solute The part of a solution being dissolved. system Different parts working together as one
solution A mixture of a liquid with substances unit.
dissolved in it; a homogeneous mixture of a systolic pressure The blood pressure on the
solute and a solvent. inside walls of arteries when the heart contracts
solvent The part of a solution doing the dissolving. and pushes blood out.
sound Energy in the form of waves produced by table A chart in which data is presented in rows
vibrating material that can only travel through a and columns.
medium; energy produced by vibrating material table of contents The second page of a report
that can be heard; also called sound waves. containing a list of everything in the report
sound waves Waves produced as a result of the including a page number for the beginning of
vibration of a material. each section.
specific gravity The ratio of the density of a mate- tarnish Any coating on a metal that discolors
rial to the density of water. and/or dulls its shiny surface.
specific heat A measure of how well a material taste buds Special cells on your tongue and on
resists changing its temperature. the roof and the back of your mouth that detect
taste.

131

temperature A measure of how hot or cold a vaporize The change from a liquid to the gas
material is. state of matter.

tension A force that pulls materials apart. variables Things that can change.
texture How a surface feels. vascular plant A plant that contains tubelike
thixotropic liquid A liquid whose viscosity
structures that transport nutrients throughout
decreases with motion. the plant.
tidal air The amount of air involved during nor- vibrate To move back and forth.
vibration A back-and-forth or up-and-down
mal, relaxed inhaling and exhaling. motion.
title A descriptive heading. visible light Light the human eye can see.
title page The first page of a report with the proj- visible spectrum A list of visible light in order
from least to most energy: red, yellow, orange,
ect title centered on the page and your name, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
school, and grade in the lower right-hand cor- vital capacity The largest amount of air that can
ner. be exhaled after taking a deep breath.
topic research Research done with the objective volume The amount of space an object takes
of selecting a science project topic. up.
trace elements Seven of the thirteen necessary weather Conditions in the atmosphere.
elemental plant nutrients needed in only very weathering The part of erosion that involves
small amount: boron (B), copper (Cu), iron only the breakdown of crustal materials.
(Fe), chloride (Cl), manganese (Mn), molybde- weight The measure of gravity on an object;
num (Mo), and zinc (Zn). weight increases with mass.
trachea A breathing tube. white light A combination of all light colors in
transpiration The process by which plants lose the visible spectrum.
water through stomata. wilt To become limp or droopy.
transpiration rate The amount of water lost by a winter The climatic season that has the shortest
plant in a specific period of time. and coldest days; it starts at winter solstice.
tropism The movement of an organism in winter solstice The first day of winter on or
response to a stimulus. See also negative tropism; about December 21/December 22 in the North-
positive tropism. ern Hemisphere when the Sun’s zenith is lowest
truss A simple skeletal structure made up of during the year.
straight beams forming triangular shapes. work The transfer of energy when a force causes
truss bridge A bridge with trusses. an object to move.
turgor The pressure within plant cells. x-axis The horizontal axis on a line graph.
unit cells The smallest group of particles within a xylem Tubelike structures that transport water
crystal that retain the geometric shape of the and nutrients in the soil throughout vascular
crystal. plants.
unsaturated solution A solution with less than y-axis The vertical axis on a line graph.
the maximum amount of solute. zoology The study of animals and animal life.
vapor The gaseous state of a substance at a tem-
perature at which the substance is usually in a
solid or liquid state.

132

Index

absorbency, 12, 92, 126 projects, 44–71 summer, 54, 131
acid, 81, 126 blood, 62, 126 winter, 54, 132
active solar heating, 108, 126 blood pressure, 70–71 cognitive process, 66, 131
adhesion, 92, 126 cohesion, 92, 131
agriculture, 9, 126 definition of, 70, 126 colorant, 82, 127
diastolic pressure, 70, 126 colorfastness, 82, 127
project ideas, 117 hypertension, 70, 128 column, 21, 127
projects, 36–39 systolic pressure, 70, 131 complete fertilizer, 36, 127
air, 84, 126 bob, 114, 126 compound, 80, 127
air pressure. See atmospheric bonds, 56, 126 compress, 76, 127
botany, 9, 126 compression, 110, 127
pressure bread mold, 58–59 concentrated, 96, 127
alviolus, 63, 126 bridge: concentration, 74, 96, 127
analyze, 22, 126 beam bridge, 99, 126 conclusion, 2, 28,127
anatomy, 9, 10, 126 strength, 98–99 condensation rate, 86–87, 127
angular apparent measurement, truss bridge, 98–99, 132 condense, 86 , 127
bronchi, 62, 126 control:
10, 126 bronchioles, 62, 126 definition of, 3, 19, 127
angular distance, 100, 126 buoyancy, 112–113 example, 19
angular speed, 100, 126 definition, 11, 112, 126 controlled variable, 3, 19, 127
ants, 38–39 buoyant, 112, 126 cotyledon, 50, 127
apparent distance, 100, 126 crust, 90, 127
aqueous solution, 74, 126 calcium propionate, 58–59 crystal, 76, 127
arc, 114, 126 camouflage, 54–55 crystalline solid, 76, 127
arteries, 71, 126 crystallography, 10, 127
artificial light, 48, 126 definition of, 54, 126
asexual reproduction, 60, 126 protective coloration, 54, 130 data:
Aspergillus niger, 58 capillary, 64, 130 definition of, 2, 127
astronomy, 9, 126 carbon dioxide, 44, 62, 126 project, 8
celestial bodies, 9, 100, 126 raw, 2, 130
projects, 40–43 celestial motion, 9, 127
atmosphere, 10, 84, 126 chemical, 10, 80, 127 date mark, 94, 127
atmospheric pressure, 84, 126 chemical changes, 10, 80, 127 DDT, 38
atoms, 10, 126 chemical reaction, 80, 127 degree, 42, 127
autumn, 55, 126 chemical technology engineering, dehydrated, 94, 127
auxin, 47, 126 density, 88, 127
axis, 40, 42, 126 10, 127 dependent variable, 3, 17, 19, 127
chemical weathering, 90, 127 diastolic pressure, 70, 126
banned, 38, 126 chemistry, 10, 127 diffusion, 96, 126
bar graph, 22, 126 dilute, 74, 127
barometer, 84, 126 project ideas, 118–119 displacement, 114, 127
barometric pressure. See atmos- projects, 72–83 displaces, 112, 127
chlorophyll, 48, 55, 127 dye, 82, 127
pheric pressure circle graph, 22–23
base, 81, 126 definition of, 22, 127 Earth science, 10, 128
beam bridge, 99, 126 climatic seasons: project ideas, 119
behavior, 9, 126 autumn, 55, 126
bibliography, 16 definition, 54, 127
biology, 9, 10, 126 spring, 54, 131

project ideas, 117–118 133

Earth science (continued) gel: thickness of, 78–79
projects, 84–91 definition of, 56, 128
flexibility of, 56–57 lateral force, 98, 129
Earth’s natural satellite, 9, light:
42–43 gelatin, 56, 128
gelling, 56, 128 artificial light, 48, 126
ecology, 9, 128 geotropism, 9, 128 effect on plants, 46–49
elements: germination, 50–51 visible, 46, 132
white, 46, 132
definition of, 36, 80, 128 definition of, 50, 128 line graph, 24, 129
trace, 36, 132 germination starting time (GST), liquid, 72, 129
embryo, 50, 128 lithosphere, 10, 129
energy, 11, 128 51, 128 log book, 7–11
engineering, 10, 128 germination time, 51, 128 definition of, 1, 129
project ideas, 119–120 glucose: longevity:
projects, 92–99 definition of, 44, 129
entomology, 14, 128 definition of, 44, 128 flower, 44–45
epithelial cells, 60, 128 effect on cut flowers, 44–45 longitudinal wave, 104, 129
equator, 41, 128 gnomon, 40, 128 long-term memory, 66, 129
erosion, 90–91 graph: lungs:
definition of, 90, 128 bar graph, 22, 126 capacity of, 62–63
evaporation, 73, 128 circle graph, 22, 127 definition of, 62, 129
evaporation rate, 73, 86, 128 definition of, 22, 128
exhale, 62, 128 line graph, 24, 129 Man in the Moon, 42–43
experimental data. See raw data gravity, 98, 128 mass, 72, 129
expiration date, 94, 128 guard cells, 52, 129 mathematics, 11, 129
exploratory experiment, 2,
hand measurements, 100–101 project ideas, 120
128 heat, 11, 104, 106, 128 projects, 100–103
herbicide, 38, 128 matter, 72, 129
face, 77, 128 heterogeneous mixture, 78–79 mechanical weathering, 90, 129
fade, 82, 128 mechanics, 104, 129
fertilizer, 36–37 definition of, 10, 78, 128 medium, 11, 110, 129
homogeneous mixture, 10, melting, 73, 129
complete, 36, 127 membrane, 96, 129
definition of, 36, 128 128 memory:
flexible, 56, 128 horizon, 43, 128 definition of, 66, 129
flowers: humidity, 87, 128 long-term, 66, 129
longevity of, 44–45 hydrometer: short-term, 66, 131
sap, 44, 131 meteorology, 10, 129
fluid, 10, 128 definition of, 88, 128 microbe, 44, 129
food science: homemade, 89 microbiology, 9, 129
definition of, 9, 128 hydrosphere, 10, 128 microscopic level, 76, 129
food freshness, 94–97 hypertension, 70, 128 microscopic organisms, 9, 129
food technology engineering: hypha, 58, 128 microwave:
definition of, 10, 128 definition of, 51, 129
food freshness, 94–97 independent variable, 3, 19, effect on seeds, 50–51
force: 129 mixture:
compression, 98, 127 definition of, 10, 129
definition of, 11, 98, 128 inhale, 62, 128 dyes, 102–103
gravity, 98, 128 inhibition, 65, 129 heterogeneous mixture, 10,
lateral, 98, 129 inquiry questions, 12, 128
tension, 98, 132 insecticide, 38–39 78–79, 128
weight, 98, 132 homogeneous mixture, 10, 128
frequency, 110, 128 definition of, 38, 128 suspension, 91, 131
fungus, 58, 128 insect pest management, 9, 129 mold, 58, 129
interference, 66, 129
gas, 72, 128 interpret, 22, 129
introduction, 26–27, 129
invertebrates, 60, 129

ketchup:

134

Moon, 9, 42–43 physics, 11, 130 primary research, 14–15, 129
mordant, 83, 128 project ideas, 120–121 secondary research, 15–16, 130
mycelium, 58, 129 projects, 104–115 project summaries, 8, 25–29
abstract, 25, 130
natural satellite, 9, 100, 129 physiography, 9, 130 report, 2, 26, 130
negative tropism, 46, 129 physiology, 9, 10, 130 project title, 25, 130
net force, 114, 129 pie chart. See circle graph project topic research. See topic
neutral, 81, 129 pigment, 55, 130
Northern Hemisphere, 41, 129 pitch, 110, 130 research
nutrients: pivot, 114, 130 protective coloration, 54, 130
planaria, 60 protein, 56, 130
definition of, 9, 36, 129 plant:
primary, 36, 130 qualitative observations, 21, 130
secondary, 36, 131 growth, 48–49 quantitative observations, 21,
leaves, 52–53
observations: seeds, 50–51 130
definition of, 21, 129 transpiration, 52–53, 132
qualitative, 21, 130 plastic food wrap: radiant energy:
quantitative, 21, 130 food freshness, 96–99 definition of, 11, 46, 51, 108,
positive tropism, 46, 130 128
oceanography, 10, 129 precipitating, 77, 132 light, 44, 46, 108,
organic pesticide, 38, 129 predator, 54, 130 microwave, 51, 129
oxidation, 80, 129 primary nutrient, 36, 130 solar energy, 108–109
primary research, 14–15
paper: definition of, 14, 130 rarefaction, 110, 129
absorbency, 10, 92, 126 product, 80, 130 ratio, 102–103
printing quality, 92–93 product development engineer-
definition of, 10, 102, 130
passive solar heating, 108–109 ing, 10, 130 raw data, 21–24
definition of, 108, 130 project abstract, 2, 130
project acknowledgments, 28–29 definition of, 2, 21, 130
pendulum, 114–115 project calendar, 7 reactant, 80, 130
bob, 115, 126 project category, 9–11 refrigerant, 104–105
definition of, 114, 130
displacement, 114, 127 definition of, 1, 130 definition of, 104, 130
period, 114, 130 project conclusion, 2, 28, 127 surface area, 104–105
pivot, 114, 130 project data, 8, 21–24 regeneration, 60–61, 130
project discussion, 28 reproduction, 10, 130
percussion instrument, 111, project display, 8, 30–32 research:
130 definition of, 1, 130
definition of, 2, 130 primary, 14, 130
period (T), 114, 130 project evaluation, 33–34 project research, 2, 14–16, 130
periodic motion, 11, 130 project experiment, 8, 19–20, secondary, 15, 131
permeability, 96, 137 topic research, 1, 12–13, 132
pest, 38, 129 27–28 respiration rate, 17
pesticide: definition of, 2, 17, 19, 130 revolve, 41, 132
project hypothesis, 8, 18 root system, 50, 132
banned, 38, 126 definition of, 2, 130 rotation:
definition of, 38, 130 examples, 18 Earth’s, 40–43
herbicide, 38, 128 project oral presentation and definition of, 40, 42, 130
insecticide, 38, 129 row, 21, 130
organic, 38, 129 evaluation, 8, 33–34
pharynx, 62, 130 project problem, 8, 17 salinity, 88–89
photosynthesis, 44, 48, 130 definition of, 88, 130
phototropism, 46–47 definition of, 2, 130 ocean, 88–89
definition of, 9, 130 project references, 29 parts per thousand, 88
effect of the color of light, project report, 8, 26–27
sap, 44, 130
46–47 definition of, 2, 26, 130 satellite, 100
pH scale, 81, 130 project research, 14–16 saturated solution, 75, 130
physical changes, 10, 130
definition of, 2, 130
exploratory experiment, 2, 128

135

saturated solution (continued) speed: rate of, 52, 132
effect of temperature on angular speed, 100–101, 126 tropism:
preparing, 74–75 definition of, 101, 131
Moon, 100–101 definition of, 9, 132
science, 1, 131 geotropism, 9, 128
science fair, 1, 131 spore, 58, 131 negative tropism, 46, 129
science problem, 1, 131 spring, 54, 131 phototropism, 9, 46–47, 130
science project, 1, 131 sprout, 50, 131 positive tropism, 46, 130
secondary nutrients, 36, 131 stale, 94, 131 truss, 99, 132
secondary research, 15–16 states of matter: truss bridge, 98–99
definition of, 99, 132
definition of, 15, 131 definition of, 10, 72, 131 turgor, 52, 132
seed: gas, 72, 128
liquid, 72, 129 unit cell, 76, 132
effect of microwaves on, 50–51 solid, 72, 131 unsaturated solution, 75, 132
germination, 50–51, 128 stellar science, 9, 131
germination starting time, 51, stimulus: vapor, 73, 132
definition of, 9, 46, 131 vaporize, 13, 52, 73, 132
128 light, 46–47 variable:
germination time, 51, 128 stomata, 52, 131
semipermeable, 96, 131 Stroop test, 64–65, 131 controlled, 3, 19, 127
sensory information, 66, 131 structural engineering, 10, 131 definition of, 3, 132
sensory memory, 66, 131 sublimation, 13, 131 dependent, 3, 19, 127
sensory receptors, 131 summer, 54, 131 independent, 3, 19, 129
sexual reproduction, 10, 131 summer solstice, 41, 131 vascular plants, 37, 132
shelf life, 94–95 sundial, 40, 131 vibration, 11, 76, 110, 132
date mark, 94, 127 surface area, 104, 131 visible light, 46, 82, 132
definition of, 94, 131 suspension, 91, 131 visible spectrum, 46, 82, 132
expiration date, 94, 128 system, 98, 131 vital capacity, 63, 132
shoot system, 50, 131 root system, 50, 130 volume, 72, 132
short-term memory: 66–67 shoot system, 50, 131
definition of, 66, 131 systolic pressure, 70, 131 weather:
solar, 108, 131 definition of, 84, 132
solar energy, 108, 131 table, 21, 131 predicting, 84–85
solar heating: table of contents, project report,
active, 108, 127 weathering:
definition of, 108, 131 26, 131 chemical, 90, 127
passive, 108–109, 129 tarnish, 80–81, 131 definition of, 90, 132
solid, 72, 131 taste, 68–69 mechanical, 90, 129
solute, 74, 131 taste buds, 67, 131
solutions: temperature, 75, 86, 104, 131 weight, 98, 132
aqueous, 74, 126 texture, 92, 132 white light, 46, 82, 132
definition of, 10, 44, 74, 131 thixotropic liquid, 78–79 wilt:
sap, 44, 131
saturated, 75, 130 definition of, 78, 131 definition of, 44, 52, 132
unsaturated, 75, 132 tidal air, 63, 132 flowers, 44
solvent, 74, 131 title, 21, 132 winter, 54, 132
sound, title page, 132 winter solstice, 41, 132
definition of, 11, 110, 131 topic research, 12–13 work, 11, 132
sound waves. See sound
specific gravity: definition of, 1, 12, 132 x-axis, 24, 132
definition of, 88, 131 log book, 7–8 xylem, 37, 132
water, 88 trace elements, 36, 132
specific heat, 106–107 trachea, 62, 132 y-axis, 24, 132
definition of, 106, 131 transpiration, 52–53
definition of, 9, 52, 132 zoology, 10, 132

136