Pipeline_Rules_of_Thumb_Handbook_5E

PIPELINE
RULESOFTHUMB

HANDBOOK



FIFTH EDITION

PIPELINE
RULESOFTHUMB

HANDBOOK

Quick and accurate solutions to your
everyday pipeline problems

E.W. McAllister, Editor

Boston · Oxford · Johannesburg · Melbourne · New Delhi · Singapore

Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Butterworth–Heinemann.

Copyright © 2002 by Butterworth–Heinemann

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Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written,
Butterworth–Heinemann prints its books on acid-free paper whenever possible.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Pipeline rules of thumb handbook: quick and accurate solutions to your everyday

pipeline problems / W.E. McAllister, editor—5th ed,

p.cm.

Rev. ed. of: Pipe line rules of thumb handbook. 4th ed. 1998.

ISBN 0-7506-7471-7

1. Pipelines—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. McAllister, E. W. II. Title: Pipe line

rules of thumb handbook.

TJ930.P535 2001

665.5¢44—dc21 2001040785

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
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Contents

1: General Information, 1 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Basic formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 How to estimate length of material contained in 13
Mathematics—areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 roll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mathematics—surfaces and volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 13
Convenient anti-freeze chart for winterizing cooling
Cables and Ropes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
14
Estimating strength of cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 How to determine glycol requirements to bring a 15
Find the working strength of Manila rope . . . . . . . . . 5 system to a desired temperature protection level . . 16
How large should drums and sheaves be for various 17
5 Weight in pounds of round steel shafting . . . . . . . . . . 17
types of wire rope? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Properties of shafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Find advantages of block and tackle, taking into 6 Tap drills and clearance drills for machine screws . . . . 18
6 Common nails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
account pull out friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Drill sizes for pipe taps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Safe loads for wire rope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Carbon steel—color and approximate temperature . . . 21
Stress in guy wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Bolting dimensions for raised face weld neck flanges . . .
Strength and weight of popular wire rope . . . . . . . . . 9 Steel fitting dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Measuring the diameter of wire rope . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 ANSI forged steel flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Wire rope: field troubles and their causes . . . . . . . . . . Color codes for locating underground utilities . . . . . . 23
Capacity of drums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approximate angle of repose for sloping sides of 23
24
Belts and Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 excavations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Trench shoring—minimum requirements . . . . . . . . . . 27
Determine length of a V-belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Reuniting separated mercury in thermometers . . . . . . 28
Calculate stress in shaft key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Typical wire resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calculate V-belt length using simple equation . . . . . . 12 How to cut odd-angle long radius elbows . . . . . . . . . .
Estimate the horsepower that can be transmitted by How to read land descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13 Size an air receiver for engine starting . . . . . . . . . . . .
a shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wind chill chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

v

Pipeline Pigging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Average pipelay table—On supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Allowable pipe span between supports . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Sizing plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 How engineers make pipe fit the ditch . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Caliper pigging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Cleaning after construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Pipe Lowering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Flooding for hydrotest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Dewatering and drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 How to lower an existing pipeline that is still in
Estimate volume of onshore oil spill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Estimating spill volume on water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

2: Construction, 34 When should steel be preheated before welding? . . . . 56
Welding and brazing temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Project Scoping Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Mechanical properties of pipe welding rods . . . . . . . . 57
Lens shade selector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Project scoping data worksheet for major facilities . . . 35
Pipeline Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Right-of-Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 How many welds will the average welder make per 67
hour? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
How to determine the crop acreage included in a 36 67
right-of-way strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . How much welding rod is required for a mile of 68
36 schedule 40 pipeline? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Clearing and grading right-of-way: labor/equipment 37 74
considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 How many pounds of electrodes are required per
38 weld on line pipe? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Estimating manhours for removing trees . . . . . . . . . .
Estimating manhours for removing tree stumps . . . . . Welding criteria permit safe and effective pipeline
Clearing and grading right-of-way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ditching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Cross country pipeline—vertical down electrode
consumption, pounds of electrode per joint . . . . . .
How many cubic yards of excavation in a mile of
ditch? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Guidelines for a successful directional crossing bid
package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shrinkage and expansion of excavated and compacted
soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3: Pipe Design, 83
39
Ditching and trenching: labor/equipment 39 Steel pipe design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Properties of pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Length of pipe in bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Concrete Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Calculation of pipe bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Spacing of pipe supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
How to approximate sacks of cement needed to fill a 40 American standard taper pipe threads . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 British standard taper pipe threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Normal engagement between male and female
What you should know about mixing and finishing
concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . threads to make tight joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Hand-held computer calculates pipe weight, contents,
Pipe Laying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
How to determine the degrees of bend in a pipe that 40 Formulas and constants of value in solving problems
must fit a ditch calling for a bend in both
horizontal and vertical planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 relating to tubular goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
How to calculate the contraction or expansion of a
How to bend pipe to fit ditch—sags, overbends and 41
combination bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
47 Estimate weight of pipe in metric tons per
Pipe bending computations made with hand-held 47
calculator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 kilometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
How to find pipe weight from outside diameter and
Calculate maximum bend on cold pipe . . . . . . . . . . . .
Determine length of a pipe bend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wall thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Length of pipe in arc subtended by any angle . . . . . . What is the maximum allowable length of
Average pipelay table—Underground . . . . . . . . . . . . .
unsupported line pipe? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

vi

Identify the schedule number of pipe by direct 5: Hydrostatic Testing, 133
measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Hydrostatic testing for pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Determine buoyancy of bare steel pipe . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Determine buoyancy of bare and concrete coated Appendix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

steel pipe in water and mud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Volume of water required to fill test section . . . . . . . . 140
Weights of piping materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Volume required at test pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Allowable working pressure for carbon steel pipe . . . . 105
Find the stress in pipe wall due to internal Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 How to use charts for estimating the amount of 142
How to calculate stress in above/below ground pressure change for a change in test water 145
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
How to identify the series number of flanged Compressibility factor for water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 6: Pipeline Drying, 146
Dimensions of three-diameter ells with tangents . . . . 110
Polypipe design data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Pipeline Dewatering, Cleaning, and
Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4: Electrical Design, 114
Dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Electrical design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Cleaning pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Hazardous locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Brush pig run with gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
NEMA Enclosure Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Brush pig run with liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Size portable electric generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Internal sand blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Typical wattages for tools and applicances . . . . . . . . . 119 Chemical cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Knockout dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Pipeline drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
National Electrical Code Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Moisture content of air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Electrical formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Commissioning petrochemical pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Full load currents—single phase transformers . . . . . . 124 Vacuum drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Full load currents—three phase transformers . . . . . . . 125
Motor controller sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 7: Control Valves, 159
Voltage drop on circuits using 600 V. copper
Control valve sizing formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
conductors in steel conduit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Sizing control valves for thruput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Determine the most economical size for electric Control valve selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

power conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Relief Valve Sizing, Selection,
How to find the resistance and weight of copper Installation and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Rupture disc sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
What you should remember about electrical Rupture disc sizing using the resistance to flow
176
formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 method (KR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
How to calculate microwave hops on level ground . . . 127 Variable orifice rotary control valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
For quick determination of the horsepower per
Sizing Valves for Gas and Vapor . . . . . . . . 180
ampere for induction motors (3 phase) at different
voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Basic valve flow-capacity coefficient (Cv) . . . . . . . . . . 180
Chart gives electric motor horsepower for pumping
units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 8: Corrosion/Coatings, 185
Pumping stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Hand-held computer determines concrete coating
Floodlighting Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Floodlighting calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Point-by-point method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Beam-lumen method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Design procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Conductor size coversion chart—Metric to AWG . . . . 132

vii

NAPCA specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 HVDC effects on pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
How much primer for a mile of pipe? . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Troubleshooting cathodic protection systems:
How much coal-tar enamel for a mile of pipe? . . . . . . 192 218
How much wrapping for a mile of pipe? . . . . . . . . . . 192 Rectifier ground bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Estimating coating and wrapping materials required How to control corrosion at compressor stations . . . . . 220
Project leak growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
per mile of pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Coefficient of friction for pipe coating materials . . . . . 193 Advances in Pipeline Protection . . . . . . . . 221
Troubleshooting cathodic protection systems:
Methods of locating coating defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Magnesium anode system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Case histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Cathodic protection for pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Estimate the number of squares of tape for pipe
Estimate the pounds of sacrificial anode material
coating (machine applied) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
required for offshore pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Estimate the amount of primer required for tape . . . . 227
Comparison of other reference electrode potentials Tape requirements for fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

with that of copper-copper sulfate reference Induced AC Voltages on Pipelines May
electrode at 25°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Present a Serious Hazard . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Chart aids in calculating ground bed resistance and
rectifier power cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Measuring Unwanted Alternating
How can output of magnesium anodes be Current in Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
predicted? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
How to determine the efficiency of a cathodic Minimizing shock hazards on pipelines near HVAC
protection rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
How to calculate the voltage drop in ground bed
cable quickly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 9: Gas—General, 237
What is the most economical size for a rectifier
cable? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Know the gas laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
How to estimate the number of magnesium anodes Calculate gas properties from a gas analysis . . . . . . . . 240
required and their spacing for a bare line or for a Physical properties of selected hydrocarbons and
corrosion “hot spot” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
How can resistivity of fresh water be determined other chemicals and gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
from chemical analysis? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Nomograph for calculating density and specific
What will be the resistance to earth of a single
graphite anode? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 volume of gases and vapors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
How to estimate the monthly power bill for a cathodic
protection rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Considerations for Selecting Energy
What will be the resistance to earth of a group of Measurement Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
graphite anodes, in terms of the resistance of a
single anode? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Facts about methane and its behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
How can the current output of magnesium rod used Conversion table for pure methane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
for the cathodic protection of heat exchanger shells Categories of natural gas and reserves terminology . . . 264
be predicted? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Glossary of common gas industry terms . . . . . . . . . . . 265
What spacing for test leads to measure current on a
pipeline? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 10: Gas—Compression, 268
How many magnesium anodes are needed for
supplementary protection to a short-circuited bare Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
casing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Performance calculations for reciprocating
Group installation of sacrificial anodes . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
How can the life of magnesium anodes be compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
predicted? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Estimating suction and discharge volume bottle sizes
How to find the voltage rating of a rectifier if it is to
deliver a given amount of current through a given for pulsation control for reciprocating
ground bed (graphite or carbon) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Determining current requirements for coated lines . . 213 Compression horsepower determination . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Determining current requirements for coated lines Generalized compressibility factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
when pipe-to-soil potential values are estimated . . . 213 Nomograph aids in diagnosing compressor cylinder
ills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

viii

Centrifugal Compressor Data . . . . . . . . . . 278 How to calculate the weight of gas in a pipeline . . . . . 305
Estimate average pressure in gas pipeline using up
Centrifugal compressor performance calculations . . . . 278 305
Nomographs for estimating compressor and downstream pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Chart for determining viscosity of natural gas . . . . . . . 306
performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Flow of gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Estimate hp required to compress natural gas . . . . . . 287 Multi-phase flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Estimate compressor hp where discharge pressure is Nomograph for calculating Reynolds number for 315

1,000 psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 compressible flow friction factor for clean steel
Calculate brake horsepower required to compress and wrought iron pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 12: Liquids—General, 318
How to find the size fuel gas line for a compressor
Determining the viscosity of crude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Chart gives API gravity of blends quickly . . . . . . . . . . 320
Estimate engine cooling water requirements . . . . . . . 289 Liquid gravity and density conversion chart . . . . . . . . 321
Estimate fuel requirements for internal combustion Nomograph for calculating viscosities of liquid

engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 hydrocarbons at high pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Estimating fuel requirements for compressor Calculate viscosity of a blend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Calculate gravity of a blend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Convert viscosity units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Convert specific gravity to API gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
11: Gas—Hydraulics, 291 Calculate bulk modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Viscosities of hydrocarbon liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Gas pipeline hydraulics calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Nomograph for calculating viscosity of slurries . . . . . . 325
Equivalent lengths for multiple lines based on Nomograph for calculating velocity of liquids in

Panhandle A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Determine pressure loss for a low-pressure gas Nomograph for calculating velocity of compressible

system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 fluids in pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Nomograph for determining pipe-equivalent Nomograph for calculating velocity of liquids in

factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
How much gas is contained in a given line Derivation of basic ultrasonic flow equations . . . . . . . 330
How fast does oil move in a pipeline? . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
section? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Estimate the volume of a pipeline per linear foot
How to estimate equivalent length factors for gas
using the inside diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 What is the linefill of a given pipe in barrels per
Estimating comparative capacities of gas pipelines . . . 297
Determination of leakage from gas line using pressure mile? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Estimate leakage amount through small holes in a
drop method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
A quick way to determine size of gas gathering pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Table gives velocity heads for various pipe diameters
lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Energy conversion data for estimating . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 and different rates of discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
How to estimate time required to get a shut-in test on
13: Liquids—Hydraulics, 335
gas transmission lines and approximate a maximum
acceptable pressure loss for new lines . . . . . . . . . . 299 Marine Hose Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
How to determine the relationship of capacity
increase to investment increase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 CALM system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Estimate pipe size requirements for increasing SALM system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
throughput volumes of natural gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Tandem system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Calculate line loss using cross-sectional areas table Multi-point mooring system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
when testing mains with air or gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Pressure loss in hose string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Flow of fuel gases in pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Pressure drop calculations for rubber hose . . . . . . . . . 341
Calculate the velocity of gas in a pipeline . . . . . . . . . . 303
Determining throat pressure in a blow-down
system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Estimate the amount of gas blown off through a line
puncture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
A practical way to calculate gas flow for pipelines . . . . 304

ix

Examples of pressure drop calculations for rubber 14: Pumps, 399
hose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Centrifugal pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Typical formulas used for calculating pressure drop Speed torque calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
and flow rates for pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Pulsation Control for Reciprocating
Hydraulic gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Equivalent lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Series systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Key Centrifugal Pump Parameters and
Looped systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 How They Impact Your Applications—
Calculate pressure loss in annular sections . . . . . . . . . 349 Part 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Calculate pressure and temperature loss for viscous
Key Centrifugal Pump Parameters and
crudes ≥1,000 cP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 How They Impact Your Applications—
Determine batch injection rate as per enclosure . . . . . 352 Part 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

Pressure Loss through Valves and Estimate the discharge of a centrifugal pump at
Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 various speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431

Representative resistance coefficients (K) for valves 353 How to estimate the head for an average centrifugal
and fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
359
Nomograph for calculating Reynolds number for flow 361 Find the capacity of reciprocating pump . . . . . . . . . . 432
of liquids and friction factor for clean steel and How to estimate the horsepower required to pump
wrought iron pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
at a given rate at a desired discharge pressure . . . . 432
Nomograph for calculating pressure drop of liquids in Nomograph for determining reciprocating pump
lines for turbulent flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Drag-Reducing Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Nomograph for determining specific speed of

The basics of drag reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
How drag-reducing agents can outweigh looping or Nomograph for determining horsepower requirement

boosting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 of pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
How active, passive drag affect DRA injections . . . . . 376 How to select motors for field gathering pumps . . . . . 435
How to estimate the rate of liquid discharge from a Reciprocating pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Understanding the basics of rotary screw pumps . . . . 445
pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Predict subsurface temperature ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 15: Measurement, 451
Sizing pipelines for water flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
How approximate throughput of a line can be Pipeline flow measurement—the new influences . . . . 452
Liquid measurement orifice plate flange taps . . . . . . . 455
estimated from pipe size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 Mass measurement light hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Gauge liquid flow where no weir or meter is Pipeline measurement of supercritical carbon

available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Estimate crude gathering line throughput for a given
Gas Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
pipe diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
How to determine head loss due to friction in Master meter proving orifice meters in dense phase
ethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
ordinary iron pipeline carrying clear water . . . . . . . 384
How to size lines, estimate pressure drop and Gas or vapor flow measurement—orifice plate flange
taps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
optimum station spacing for crude systems . . . . . . 385
Estimate the optimum working pressures in crude oil Properties of gas and vapors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Determine required orifice diameter for any required
transmission lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
How to size crude and products lines for capacity differential when the present orifice and differential
are known in gas measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
increases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Estimate the temperature drop across a regulator . . . 483
How to determine the maximum surge pressure in Estimate natural gas flow rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
How to estimate the average pressure differential
liquid-filled pipeline when a main valve is closed on the remaining meter runs of a parallel system
suddenly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 when one or more runs are shut off . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
What is the hydrostatic pressure due to a column of
oil H feet in height? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Transient pressure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Tank farm line sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

x

Sizing a gas metering run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 18: Tanks, 532
List of typical specifications for domestic and
Charts give vapor loss from internal floating-roof
commercial natural gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Determine the number of purges for sample
Estimating the contents of horizontal cylindrical
cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Find the British thermal units (Btu) when the specific
How to gauge a horizontal cylindrical tank . . . . . . . . . 536
gravity of a pipeline gas is known . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 Use nomograph to find tank capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Estimate for variations in measurement factors . . . . . 485 Correct the volume of light fuels from actual
Rules of measurement of gas by orifice meter . . . . . . 486
How to measure high pressure gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 temperature to a base of 60°F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Four ways to calculate orifice flow in field . . . . . . . . . 490 Volume of liquid in vertical cylindrical tanks . . . . . . . . 538
Practical maintenance tips for positive displacement Chart gives tank’s vapor formation rate . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Hand-held calculator program simplifies dike
meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Sizing headers for meter stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539

16: Instrumentation, 500 19: Maintenance, 544

Types of control systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 How to Plan for Oil Pipeline Spills . . . . . 545

Developments in Pipeline Regulatory requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 Contingency plan objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Related studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Flow measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 Planning concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Proving devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 Contingency response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 Immediate response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Acoustic line break detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 Immediate response actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
“Smart” pressure sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 Flexible response actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Densitometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Pipeline samplers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Pipeline monitoring systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512 20: Economics, 552
Computer systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
SCADA systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 Rule of thumb speeds payroll estimates . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Cathodic protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 Rule of thumb estimates optimum time to keep
System design guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 construction equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
How to estimate construction costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
Choosing the Right Technology for Cost estimating strategies for pipelines, stations,
Integrated SCADA Communications . . 517
terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
17: Leak Detection, 522 Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566

Pipeline Leak Detection Techniques . . . . 523 Time Value of Money: Concepts and
Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
Causes and economic aspects of leaks . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Simple leak detection systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Simple interest vs. compound interest . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
Pig-based monitoring systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 Nominal interest rate vs. effective annual interest
Computer-based monitoring systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Pipeline leak phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526 rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Background philosophy of pipeline modeling . . . . . . . 526 Present value of a single cash flow to be received in
Basic pipeline modeling equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Impact of instrument accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
System design aspects and guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 Future value of a single investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
Development of pipeline monitoring systems . . . . . . . 530 The importance of cash flow diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
Analyzing and valuing investments/projects with

multiple or irregular cash flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
Perpetuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573

xi

Future value of a periodic series of investments . . . . . 574 21: Rehabilitation—Risk
Annuities, loans, and leases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574 Evaluation, 600
Gradients (payouts/payments with constant growth
When does a pipeline need revalidation? The influence
rates) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 of defect growth rates and inspection criteria on an
Analyzing complex investments and cash flow operator’s maintenance program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601

problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 Pipeline risk management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610

Decision and Evaluation Criteria for 22: Conversion Factors, 614
Investments and Financial Projects . . . 577
Units of measurement from one system to another . . . 615
Payback method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 Viscosity—equivalents of absolute viscosity . . . . . . . . . 623
Accounting rate of return (ROR) method . . . . . . . . . . 578 General liquid density nomograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
Internal rate of return (IRR) method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Chart gives specific gravity/temperature relationship
Net present value (NPV) method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
for petroleum oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
Sensitivity Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 Weight density and specific gravity of various

Decision Tree Analysis of Investments liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
and Financial Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582 Metric conversions—metric to English, English to

Accounting Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
Temperature conversion—centigrade to Fahrenheit,
Estimate the cost of a pipeline in the U.S. (based on
1994 data) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590 Fahrenheit to centigrade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
Viscosity—equivalents of kinematic viscosity . . . . . . . . 629
How to compare the cost of operating an engine on Viscosity—equivalents of kinematic and Saybolt
diesel and natural gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
Universal Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
How to estimate energy costs for different pipeline Viscosity—equivalents of kinematic and Saybolt
throughputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
Furol Viscosity at 122°F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
Comparing fuel costs for diesel and electric prime Viscosity—general conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
movers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 Pressure conversion chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
A simple method to determine square root . . . . . . . . 633
Nomograph for calculating scale-up of equipment or SI data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
plant costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 Energy conversion chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
Flow conversion chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
Nomograph for calculating scale-up of tank costs . . . . 594 Conversions involving different types of fuel . . . . . . . 636
Nomograph for determining sum-of-years Weight of water per cubic ft at various

depreciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
Nomograph for estimating interest rate of return on Engineering constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
Mensuration units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
investment (“profitability index”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 Minutes to decimal hours conversion table . . . . . . . . . 642
Nomograph for determining break-even point . . . . . . 597 How to compare costs of gas and alternate fuels . . . . . 643
Chart gives unit cost per brake horsepower of Typical characteristics of fuel oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643

reciprocating compressors with various types of Index, 645
prime movers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
Chart shows influence on unit cost of numbers of
reciprocating compressor units installed in one
station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
Chart gives unit cost per brake horsepower of
centrifugal compressors with various types of prime
movers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599

xii

1: General Information

Basic formulas ..................................................................................... 2 Properties of shafting.......................................................................... 15
Mathematics—areas............................................................................ 3 Tap drills and clearance drills for machine screws ........................... 16
Mathematics—surfaces and volumes................................................. 4 Common nails ..................................................................................... 17
Drill sizes for pipe taps....................................................................... 17
Cables and Ropes .................................................. 5 Carbon steel—color and approximate temperature ......................... 17
Bolting dimensions for raised face weld neck flanges ...................... 18
Estimating strength of cable .............................................................. 5 Steel fitting dimensions ...................................................................... 19
Find the working strength of Manila rope ........................................ 5 ANSI forged steel flanges................................................................... 20
How large should drums and sheaves be for various types of Color codes for locating underground utilities ................................. 21
Approximate angle of repose for sloping sides of
wire rope? ........................................................................................ 5
Find advantages of block and tackle, taking into account pull out excavations ....................................................................................... 21
Trench shoring—minimum requirements ......................................... 22
friction.............................................................................................. 6 Reuniting separated mercury in thermometers ................................ 23
Safe loads for wire rope...................................................................... 6 Typical wire resistance ........................................................................ 23
Stress in guy wires............................................................................... 7 How to cut odd-angle long radius elbows ......................................... 24
Strength and weight of popular wire rope ........................................ 9 How to read land descriptions ........................................................... 25
Measuring the diameter of wire rope................................................ 9 Size an air receiver for engine starting.............................................. 27
Wire rope: field troubles and their causes......................................... 9 Wind chill chart................................................................................... 28
Capacity of drums ............................................................................... 11
Pipeline Pigging .................................................... 29
Belts and Shafts ..................................................... 11
Sizing plates......................................................................................... 29
Determine length of a V-belt ............................................................. 11 Caliper pigging .................................................................................... 29
Calculate stress in shaft key ............................................................... 12 Cleaning after construction ................................................................ 29
Calculate V-belt length using simple equation.................................. 12 Flooding for hydrotest ........................................................................ 30
Estimate the horsepower that can be transmitted by a shaft .......... 13 Dewatering and drying ....................................................................... 30
Estimate volume of onshore oil spill ................................................. 30
Miscellaneous ........................................................ 13 Estimating spill volume on water....................................................... 32

How to estimate length of material contained in roll....................... 13
Convenient anti-freeze chart for winterizing cooling systems ......... 13
How to determine glycol requirements to bring a system to a

desired temperature protection level............................................. 14
Weight in pounds of round steel shafting ......................................... 14

1

2 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

Basic Formulas

1. Rate of Return Formulas: The factor È i ˘
˙
S = P(1 + i)n ÍÎ(1 + i)n -1˚

a. Single payment compound amount, SPCA. The is referred to as the uniform series, which amounts to
(1 + i)n factor is referred to as the compound amount of $1.00.

$1.00. e. Capital recovery, CR:

b. Single payment present worth, SPPW. È i ˘ È i(1 + i)n ˘
R = SÍ ˙ = P Í (1 + i)n - ˙
Î (1 i)n -1˚ Î ˚
È 1 ˘ + 1
SÍ ˙
P = (1 + i)n ˚ È i(1 + i)n ˘
Î
The factor Í i)n ˙
-1˚
Î(1 +

The factor È1 ˘ is referred to as the present worth of
Í ˙
Î (1 + i)n ˚ is referred to as the uniform series that $1.00 will purchase.

$1.00.

f. Uniform series present worth, USPW:

c. Uniform series compound amount, USCA: È (1 + i)n - ˘
RÍ i(1 + i)n ˙
P = 1 ˚
Î
S = R È (1 + i)n -1˘
Í ˙
Î i ˚
È(1 + i)n - 1˘
The factor Í ˙ is referred to as the present worth
È(1 + i)n -1˘ Î i(1 + i)n ˚
The factor ˙
Í i ˚ of $1.00 per period.
Î

is referred to as the compound amount of $1.00 per period. where

d. Sinking fund deposit, SFD: P = a present sum of money
S = a sum of money at a specified future date
R = È i ˘ R = a uniform series of equal end-of-period payments
˙ n = designates the number of interest periods
SÍÎ(1 + i)n -1˚ i = the interest rate earned at the end of each period

General Information 3

Mathematics—areas

4 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

Mathematics—surfaces and volumes

General Information 5

CABLES AND ROPES

Estimating strength of cable Diameter = 1 = 4
2 8
Rule.
42 = 16 = 2
1. Change line diameter to eighths 88
2. Square the numerator
3. Divide by the denominator The approximate strength of 1/2-inch steel cable is 2 tons.
4. Read the answer in tons

Example. Estimate the strength of 1/2-inch steel cable:

Find the working strength of Manila rope

The working strength of Manila rope is approximately Example. Find the maximum working pull for a 11/2-inch
900 ¥ (diameter)2: Manila rope.

W = 900 d2 3 3
2 2
W = 900 ¥ ¥ = 2, 025 pounds.

where d is expressed in inches.

W is given in pounds. For rope diameters greater than 2 inches, a factor lower
than 900 should be used. In working with heavier rigging it
Example. What is the working strength of a 3/4-inch Manila is well to refer to accepted handbooks to find safe working
rope? strengths.

The maximum recommended pull is:

W = 900 ¥ 3 ¥ 3 = 506 lb
4 ¥ 4

How large should drums and sheaves be for various types of wire rope?

The diameter of sheaves or drums should preferably fall Example. What size should the hoisting drum on a
within the table* given below for most efficient utilization of dragline be, if the wire rope is 6 ¥ 19 construction, 3/4 inch
the wire rope. in diameter?

Type of Wire From the table, good practice calls for 30 diameters which
in this instance would be 221/2 inches. Loads, speeds, bends,
Rope 6 ¥ 19 6 ¥ 37 8 ¥ 19 5 ¥ 28 6 ¥ 25 18 ¥ 7 6 ¥ 7 and service conditions will also affect the life of wire rope so
it is better to stay somewhere between the “good practice”
For best wear . . . . 45 27 31 36 45 51 72 and “best wear” factors in the table.
Good practice . . . . 30 18 21 24 30 34 42
Critical . . . . . . . . . . 16 14 14 16 16 18 28 * Construction Methods and Machinery, by F. H. Kellogg, Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 1954.

6 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

Find advantages of block and tackle, taking into account pull out friction

The efficiency of various sheaves differs. For one with MA = .917 1 - .9174 = .917
roller bearings the efficiency has been estimated at 96.2%. 1 - .917
For plain bearing sheaves a commonly used figure is 91.7%.
The following formula will give close results: ÊËÁ 1 - .7074 ˜ˆ¯ .917ÊË .293 ˆ
1 - .917 .083 ¯
W 1 - En =
w 1-E
MA = = E

where MA = Mechanical Advantage MA = 3.25
W = Total weight to be lifted by the assembly
w = Maximum line pull at the hoist If the load weighed 3,250 pounds, what pull would be
n = Number of working parts in the tackle required on the lead line?
E = Efficiency of individual sheaves
W
It is assumed that the line leaving the upper block goes w = MA
directly to the hoist without additional direction change
(requiring a snatch block). 3, 250
w
Example. Find the Mechanical Advantage of a 4-part = 3.25
block and tackle using upper and lower blocks having journal
bearings, which have an efficiency of 91.7%. w = 1,000 pounds.

Safe loads for wire rope

General Information 7

Stress in guy wires

Guys are wire ropes or strands used to hold a vertical approximated by measuring the deflection at the center of
structure in position against an overturning force. The most the span from the chord drawn from the guy anchorage to
common types of guyed structures are stacks, derricks, masts the point of support on the structure. A good average figure
for draglines, reversible tramways and radio transmission to use for erection tension of guys is 20% of the maximum
towers. working tension of the guy.

As a general rule, stresses in guys from temperature This discussion outlines the method for determining
changes are neglected, but in structures such as radio masts the stresses in guys. One of the first considerations is the
this is an important feature and must be subject to special location of the guy anchorages. The anchorages should be
analysis. so located that the angle a, between the horizontal plane
and the guy line, is the same for all guys (to equalize erec-
The number of guys used for any particular installation tion tensions). Angle a, in good practice, seldom exceeds
is contingent on several variable factors such as type of struc- 45 degrees with 30 degrees being commonly used. The
ture, space available, contour of the ground, etc., and is not tension in the guys decreases as angle a becomes less. The
a part of this discussion. direct load on the structure is also less with smaller value of
a.
It is desirable to space guys uniformly whenever possible.
This equalizes the pull, P, on each guy insofar as possible, To find the maximum extra tension, T, that will be applied
particularly against forces which change in direction, as when to any single guy by the force, F; first, determine the pull, P,
a derrick boom swings in its circle. which is the amount required along the guys, in the same ver-
tical plane as the force to resist the horizontal component of
It is also desirable to equalize the erection tensions on the the force. This pull is entirely independent of the number of
guys. When no external force is acting on the structure, the guys. Assume that the following are known:
tension in each guy should be the same. A “Tension Indica-
tor” is sometimes used to determine the tension in guys. If
this instrument is not available, the tension can be very closely

Figure 1

8 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

F = The total resultant external force acting on the Example—A derrick mast 90 ft high is supported by nine
structure equally spaced guys anchored at a horizontal distance of
170 ft from the mast and the elevations of the guy anchorages
G = The angle between the horizonatal plane and the are 10 ft below the base of the mast. The load on the struc-
force F ture is equivalent to a force of 10,000 lbs, acting on an angle
of 10 degrees below the horizontal. What is the maximum pull
h = The height of the structure on any single cable?
d = The horizontal distance from structure to guy
From Figure 1—
anchorage
m = The vertical height of anchorage above or below the h = 90 ft
d = 170 ft
base of the structure m = 10 ft
The horizontal component of the force, F, = F cos g. g = 10°00¢
a = The angle whose tangent is (h ± m) ∏ d F = 10,000 lbs
m is plus if the anchorage is below the base of the
structure and subtracted if it is above.

P = F cos g ∏ cos a

As cos a is always less than one, P is always greater than F tana = 90 + 10 = 100 = 0.588
cos g, the horizontal component of force F. 170

It must be remembered that P represents the total pull a = 30°28¢
acting along the guys at an angle, a, with the horizontal, and
in the same vertical plane as the force, F. P = F cosg = 10,000 ¥ 0.985 = 11,427 lbs
cosa 0.862
If only one guy were used, P would represent the extra
tension, T. In practice, however, a number of guys are always From Table 1, T = 11,427 ¥ 0.50 = 5,714 lbs
used and, therefore, the pull on any one guy will not be equal
to P. The following table gives factors for any number of guys If erection tension is 10 percent of total working tension,
from 3 to 15, equally spaced about a central structure. To find
the maximum extra tension, T, that will be applied to any 5,714 is 90 percent of total working tension. Therefore,
single guy by the force, F, capable of rotating 360 degrees
around a vertical axis, it is only necessary to multiply the value working tension = 5,714 ¥ 100 = 6,349 lbs.
of P, as determined above, by the factor for the number of 90
guys used. It must be clearly understood in using this table
that the guys are uniformly spaced and under equal tension
when no load is acting on the structure.

Table 1

No. of Guys Factors* No. of Guys Factors*

3 1.15 10 0.45
4 1.00 11 0.40
5 0.90 12 0.37
6 0.75 13 0.35
7 0.65 14 0.32
8 0.55 15 0.30
9 0.50

* These factors are for average conditions. If the guys are erected
under accurately measured tensions of not less than 20% of the working
load, the factors for five or more guys may be reduced by 10%. If the
erecting tensions are low or not accurately equalized, the factors for 5
or more guys should be increased 10%.

General Information 9

Strength and weight of popular wire rope

The following tables give the breaking strength for wire Conversion factors for wire rope of other
rope of popular construction made of improved plow steel. construction

SIZE 6 ¥ 19 Weight To apply the above table to wire rope of other construction,
multiply by the following factors:
1/4 Breaking Strength 0.10
5/16 0.16 Wire Rope Construction 6 ¥ 19 6 ¥ 29 6 ¥ 37 18 ¥ 7
3/8 5,480 0.23
7/16 8,520 0.31 Strength Factors 1.00 0.96 0.95 0.92
1/2 12,200 0.40
9/16 16,540 0.51 Weight Factors 1.00 0.97 0.97 1.08
5/8 21,400 0.63
3/4 27,000 0.90 Example. Find the breaking strength of 6 ¥ 29 improved
7/8 33,400 1.23 plow steel wire rope two inches in diameter.
1 47,600 1.60
11/8 64,400 2.03 Strength = 320,000 ¥ 0.96 = 307,000 lb
11/4 83,600 2.50
13/8 105,200 3.03 The weight can be found the same way.
11/2 129,200 3.60
15/8 155,400 4.23
13/4 184,000 4.90
17/8 214,000 5.63
2 248,000 6.40
282,000
320,000

Measuring the diameter of wire rope

Wire rope: field troubles and their causes

All wire rope will eventually deteriorate in operation or field troubles and their causes give some of the field condi-
have to be removed simply by virtue of the loads and rever- tions and practices which result in the premature replacement
sals of load applied in normal service. There are, however, of wire rope. It should be borne in mind that in all cases the
many conditions of service or inadvertent abuse which will contributory cause of removal may be one or more of these
materially shorten the normal life of a wire rope of proper practices or conditions.
construction although it is properly applied. The following

Wire-Rope Trouble Cause Wire-Rope Trouble Cause
a. Rope broken
Overload resulting from severe h. Damage or failure on Rope improperly used on a
(all strands). impact, kinking, damage, a fishing job. fishing job, resulting in
localized wear, weakening of damage or failure as a result
b. One or more whole one or more strands, or i. Lengthening of lay and of the nature of the work.
strands parted. rust-bound condition and reduction of diameter.
loss of elasticity. Frequently produced by some
c. Excessive corrosion. j. Premature breakage type of overloading, such as
Overloading, kinking, divider of wires. an overload resulting in a
d. Rope damage in interference, localized wear, collapse of the fiber core in
hauling to the well or rust-bound condition. k. Excessive wear in spots. swabbing lines. This may
or location. Fatigue, excessive speed, also occur in cable-tool lines
slipping, or running too l. Spliced rope. as a result of concentrated
e. Damage by improper loosely. Concentration of pulsating or surging forces
socketing. vibration at dead sheave or m. Abrasion and broken which may contribute to
dead-end anchor. wires in a straight line. fiber-core collapse.
f. Kinks, dog legs, and Drawn or loosened
other distorted places. Lack of lubrication. Exposure strands. Rapid fatigue Caused by frictional heat
to salt spray, corrosive breaks. developed by pressure and
g. Damage by hooking gases, alkaline water, acid slippage, regardless of
back slack too tightly water, mud, or dirt. Period of n. Reduction in tensile drilling depth.
to girt. inactivity without adequate strength or damage
protection. to rope. Kinks or bends in rope due to
improper handling during
Rolling reel over obstructions o. Distortion of wire rope. installation or service.
or dropping from car, truck, p. High strands. Divider interference; also,
or platform. The use of wear against casing or hard
chains for lashing, or the q. Wear by abrasion. shells or abrasive formations
use of lever against rope in a crooked hole. Too
instead of flange. Nailing r. Fatigue breaks in wire. infrequent cut-offs on
through rope to flange. working end.

Improper seizing which allows A splice is never as good as a
slack from one or more continuous piece of rope,
strands to work back into and slack is liable to work
rope; improper method of back and cause irregular wear.
socketing or poor
workmanship in socketing, Injury due to slipping rope
frequently shown by rope through clamps.
being untwisted at socket,
loose or drawn. Excessive heat due to careless
exposure to fire or torch.
Kinking the rope and pulling
out the loops such as in Damage due to improperly
improper coiling or attached clamps or wire-rope
unreeling. Improper winding clips.
on the drum. Improper
tie-down. Open-drum reels Slipping through clamps,
having longitudinal spokes improper seizing, improper
too widely spaced. Divider socketing or splicing, kinks,
interference. The addition of dog legs, and core popping.
improperly spaced cleats to
increase the drum diameter. Lack of lubrication. Slipping
Stressing while rope is over clamp unduly. Sandy or
small sheave or obstacle. gritty working conditions.
Rubbing against stationary
Operation of walking beam object or abrasive surface.
causing a bending action on Faulty alignment. Undersized
wires at clamp and resulting grooves and sheaves.
in fatigue and cracking of
wires, frequently before rope Excessive vibration due to
goes down into hole. poor drilling conditions, i.e.,

Wire-Rope Trouble Cause Wire-Rope Trouble General Information 11
s. Spiraling or curling. t. Excessive flattening or
high speed, rope slipping, Cause
concentration of vibration at crushing.
dead sheave or dead-end Heavy overload, loose winding
anchor, undersized grooves u. Bird-caging or on drum, or cross winding. Too
and sheaves, and improper core-popping. infrequent cut-offs on working
selection of rope end of cable-tool lines.
construction. Prolonged Improper cutoff and moving
bending action over spudder program for cable-tool lines.
sheaves, such as that due to
hard drilling. Sudden unloading of line such
as hitting fluid with
Allowing rope to drag or rub v. Whipping off of rope. excessive speed. Improper
over pipe, sill, or any object w. Cutting in on drum. drilling motion or jar action.
during installation or Use of sheaves of too small
operation. It is recommended diameter or passing line
that a block with sheave around sharp bend.
diameter 16 times the nominal
wire-rope diameter, or larger, Running too loose.
be used during installation of
the line. Loose winding on drum.
Improper cutoff and moving
program for rotary drilling lines.
Improper or worn drum
grooving or line turn-back plate.

Capacity of drums

The capacity of wire line drums may be figured from the where (see below) M = rope capacity of drum, in.
following formula: A = depth of flange, in.
B = diameter of drum, in.
M = (A + B) ¥ A ¥ C ¥ K C = width of the drum between flanges,
in.
Rope Size K Rope Size K K = constant depending on rope size
shown below
3/8 1.86 1 .262
7/16 1.37 11/8 .207 Figure 1. Capacity of wire line
1/2 1.05 11/4 .167 drums.
9/16 13/8 .138
5/8 .828 11/2 .116
3/4 .672 15/8 .099
7/8 .465 13/4 .085
.342

BELTS AND SHAFTS

Determine length of a V-belt

Rule: To find the nominal length of a V-belt, lay the belt on two circles, in inches. The belt size is then twice this figure,
a table, and place within it a pair of circular objects of the plus 5.14 times the diameter of the circles. This value, for any
same diameter (flanges, tin cans, or whatever may be at hand). standard belt, should be a whole number of inches, which is
Pull them apart until the belt is fully extended without the belt size.
stretching. Then measure the shortest distance between the
V-belts are made in four standard sections, classified as A,

12 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

B, C, and D; the widths (at the widest part) are one-half, five- corresponds to the length which runs on the pulley diameter
eighths, seven-eighths and 11/8 inches respectively. The com- which determines the actual speed ratio—about half of the
plete designation of the belt is the letter showing the width, depth of the groove. Pitch lengths for A, B, C, and D belts
followed by the length in inches; thus, an A26 belt is one-half are greater than their nominal lengths by 1.3, 1.8, 2.9, and 3.3
inch wide, and 26 inches long on the inside edge. The pitch inches, respectively.
length of the belt is measured along a median section, and

Calculate stress in shaft key

The shear and compressive stresses in a key are calculated Example: Determine key stresses for these conditions. . . .
using the following equations: 300 hP @ 600 RPM; 3≤ dia. shaft, 3/4 ¥ 3/4 key, 4≤ key engage-
ment length.

Ss = 2T Sc = 2T T = Torque = HP ¥ 63,000 = 300 ¥ 63,000 = 31, 500 in.-lbs
d ¥ W ¥L d ¥ h1 ¥ L RPM 600

Ss = Shear stress in psi Ss = d ¥ 2T = 2 ¥ 31,500 = 7,000psi
Sc = Compressive stress in psi W ¥L 3¥3 4¥4
T = Shaft torque lb-in. or HP ¥ 63,000
Sc = d 2T = 2 ¥ 31,500 = 14,000 psi
RPM ¥ h1 ¥ L 3¥3 8¥4
d = shaft diameter-inches
(For taper shafts, use average diameter)

w = width key-inches
L = effective length of key-inches
h1 = height of key in the shaft or hub that bears against the

keyway—inches
h1 = h2 for square keys. For designs where unequal portions

of the key are in the hub or shaft, h1 is the minimum
portion.

Key material is usually AISI 1018 or AISI 1045 with the fol-
lowing allowable stresses:

Allowable Stresses—psi The AISI 1018 key should be used since it is within allow-
able stresses. NOTE: If shaft had been 2 3/4≤ dia. (4≤ long
Material Heat Shear Compressive hub), the key would be 5/8 ¥ 5/8 and Ss = 9,200 psi, Sc =
Treatment 18,400 psi, and a heat treated key—AISI 1045 would have
AISI 1018 7,500 15,000 been required.
AISI 1045 None 15,000 30,000
225–300 Bhn Reprinted with permission: The Falk Corporation

Calculate V-belt length using simple equation where L = Belt length, in.
D = Diameter of larger sheave, in.
Rule. d = Diameter of smaller sheave, in.
L = 1.57(D + d) + 2C C = Distance between sheave centers, in.

General Information 13

Estimate the horsepower that can be transmitted by a shaft

1. Where there are no stresses due to bending, weight of HP = D3N
the shaft, pulleys, gears, or sprockets, use: 125

HP = D3N Example. What horsepower can be transmitted to an
50 atmospheric cooling coil by a two-inch shaft turning at 1,800
revolutions per minute?
where D = diameter of shaft, in.
N = revolutions per minute HP = (2)3 (1,800)

2. For heavy duty service use: 125

= 115.2 horespower

MISCELLANEOUS

How to estimate length of material contained in roll

Where material of uniform thickness, like belting, is in a Example. A roll of belting contains 24 turns. The diame-
roll, the total length may be obtained by the following ter of the hole is two inches, and of the outside of the roll is
rule: 13 inches.

Measure the diameter of the hole in the center, and of (2 +13) ¥ 24 ¥ 0.13 = 46.8
the outside of the roll, both measurements in inches; count
the number of turns; multiply the sum of the two measured The roll contains 46.8 feet of belting.
diameters by the number of turns, and multiply this prod- Note: The rule can even be applied to materials as thin as
uct by 0.13; the result is the total length of the material in pipeline felt; counting the turns is not as difficult as might
feet. appear without a trial.

Convenient anti-freeze chart for winterizing cooling systems

14 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

This plot of water volume versus glycol volume at various represent 2, 20, 2,000, etc. Proceed along the 45° line from
conditions of temperature and percent of glycol in the system Point A to Point B at the intersection with the 16°F line.
makes winterizing field engines relatively easy. Then, move from Point B to Point C and read 160 on the
water volume axis. This is the amount of water the system
Example. Determine the amount of glycol to be used in should contain. Move from Point B to Point D on the glycol
a 200 gallon system for protection to 16°F. axis and read 40. This is the amount of glycol that must be
added to the system.
To use the chart, first find the total system capacity, 200
gallons, at Point A on the water volume axis. Point A also can

How to determine glycol requirements to bring a system to a desired temperature protection level

Solve the equation below to find the number of gallons of 1,200 gallon system to give protection to -10°F. Glycol in the
aqueous solution that must be removed and replaced with system determined by Hydrometer test is 28 percent (0.28
glycol. fraction). The published figure for -10°F protection is 519
gallons of glycol in the 1,200 gallon system.
d=D
B Then: Gallons of glycol in system
= 1,200 ¥ 0.28 = 336 gallons
where d = gallons of aqueous solution to be removed from
the system and replaced with equal number of D = 519 - 336 = 183 gallons difference
gallons of glycol and B = 1.0 - 0.28 = 0.72

D= total gallons of glycol required for protection at Thus: d = 183 = 254 gallons
desired temperature less gallons of glycol in 0.72
original system

B = 1.0 - fraction of glycol in system

Example. Find the number of gallons of existing aqueous Therefore 254 gallons of existing aqueous solution need to be
solution that must be removed and replaced with glycol in a removed and replaced with 254 gallons of glycol for the
desired protection to -10°F.

Weight in pounds of round steel shafting

Diameter LENGTH IN FEET Weight

of Shaft, Per

Inches 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 Inch

15/16 . . . . . 2 5 7 9 12 14 16 19 21 23 28 33 37 42 47 51 56 .195
13/16 . . . . 4 8 11 15 19 23 26 30 34 38 45 53 60 68 76 83 91 .314
17/16 . . . . 6 11 17 22 28 33 39 44 50 55 66 77 88 99 110 121 133 .460
111/16 . . . . 8 15 23 30 38 46 53 61 68 76 91 107 122 137 152 167 183 .634
115/16 . . . . 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 161 181 201 221 241 .835
23/16 . . . . 13 26 38 51 64 77 90 102 115 128 153 179 205 230 256 281 307 1.06
27/16 . . . . 16 32 48 63 79 95 111 127 143 159 190 222 254 286 317 349 381 1.32
211/16 . . . . 19 39 58 77 97 116 135 154 174 193 232 270 309 348 386 425 463 1.61
215/16 . . . . 23 46 69 92 115 138 161 184 208 231 277 323 369 415 461 507 553 1.92
33/16 . . . . 27 54 81 109 136 163 190 217 244 272 326 380 435 489 543 598 652 2.26
37/16 . . . . 32 63 95 126 158 189 221 253 284 316 379 442 505 568 631 695 758 2.63
311/16 . . . . 36 73 109 146 182 218 255 291 328 364 437 510 582 655 728 801 874 3.03
315/16 . . . . 41 83 124 166 207 248 290 331 373 414 497 580 662 745 828 911 994 3.45
47/16 . . . . 53 105 158 210 263 315 368 421 473 526 631 736 841 946 1052 1157 1262 4.38
415/16 . . . . 65 130 195 260 326 391 456 521 586 651 781 911 1041 1172 1302 1432 1562 5.43
5.56
5 . . . . . . 67 134 200 267 334 401 467 534 601 668 801 935 1068 1202 1335 1469 1602 6.58
6.73
57/16 . . . . 79 158 237 316 395 474 553 632 711 790 947 1105 1263 1421 1579 1737 1894 7.85
51/2 . . . . . 81 162 242 323 404 485 565 646 727 808 969 1131 1292 1454 1615 1777 1938 8.01
515/16 . . . . 94 188 282 377 471 565 659 753 847 941 1130 1318 1506 1695 1883 2071 2259 9.40
10.90
6 . . . . . . 96 192 288 385 481 577 673 769 865 961 1154 1346 1538 1731 1923 2115 2307 12.52
14.24
61/2 . . . . . 113 226 338 451 564 677 790 903 1015 1128 1354 1579 1805 2031 2256 2482 2708

7 . . . . . . 131 262 393 524 654 785 916 1047 1178 1309 1570 1832 2094 2355 2677 2878 3140

71/2 . . . . . 150 300 451 601 751 901 1051 1202 1352 1502 1803 2103 2403 2704 3004 3305 3605

8 . . . . . . 171 342 513 684 855 1024 1196 1367 1538 1709 2051 2303 2734 3076 3418 3760 4102

General Information 15

Properties of shafting

Diameter of Shaft, Inches Area Weight Weight SECTION MODULUS MOMENT OF INERTIA Radius
of per per Bending Torsion Bending Torsion of
15/16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inch Foot
13/16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shaft Gyration
17/16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.34
111/16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6903 .195 3.76 .0809 .1618 .0379 .0758 .2343
115/16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1075 .314 5.52 .1644 .3288 .0976 .1952 .2969
23/16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6230 .460 7.61 .2916 .5832 .2096 .4192 .3594
27/16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2365 .634 10.03 .4718 .9435 .3981 .7961 .4219
211/16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9483 .835 12.78 .7140 1.4281 .6971 1.3835 .4844
215/16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7583 1.06 15.86 1.0276 2.0553 1.1240 2.2480 .5469
33/16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6664 1.32 19.29 1.4218 2.8436 1.7328 3.4656 .6094
37/16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6727 1.61 23.04 1.9057 3.8113 2.5607 5.1215 .6719
311/16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7771 1.92 27.12 2.4885 4.9770 3.6549 7.3099 .7344
315/16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9798 2.26 31.56 3.1794 6.3589 5.0672 10.1345 .7969
47/16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2806 2.63 36.31 3.9878 7.9755 6.8539 13.7079 .8594
415/16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.680 3.03 41.40 4.9226 9.8452 9.0761 18.1521 .9219
5 ................... 12.177 3.45 52.58 5.9932 11.9865 11.7992 23.5984 .9844
57/16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.466 4.38 65.10 8.5786 17.1571 19.0337 38.0674 1.1094
51/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.147 5.43 66.76 11.8174 23.6348 29.1742 58.3483 1.2344
515/16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.635 5.56 78.96 12.2718 24.5437 30.6796 61.3592 1.2500
6 ................... 23.221 6.58 80.78 15.7833 31.5666 42.9108 85.8217 1.3594
61/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.758 6.73 94.14 16.3338 32.6677 44.9180 89.8361 1.3750
7 ................... 27.688 7.85 96.12 20.5499 41.0999 61.0077 122.0153 1.4844
71/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.274 8.01 112.82 21.2058 42.4115 63.6172 127.2345 1.5000
8 ................... 33.183 9.40 130.84 26.9612 53.9225 87.6240 175.2481 1.6250
38.485 10.90 150.21 33.6739 67.3479 117.8588 235.7176 1.7500
44.179 12.52 170.90 41.4175 82.8350 155.3155 310.6311 1.8750
50.265 14.24 50.2655 100.5310 201.0619 402.1239 2.0000

Steel shaft sizes calculated for strength

C.(H.P.)

Base Formula: d =
N

Base Fiber Stress = 60,000 lb. sq in.

Diameter of Shaft, Inches H.P. Diameter of Shaft, Inches H.P.
N N

Fractional Decimal C = 50 C = 75 C = 100 Fractional Decimal C = 50 C = 75 C = 100
Very Average Very Severe Very Average Very Severe
Little Conditions Conditions Little Conditions Conditions
Bending of Bending of Bending Bending of Bending of Bending
Fac. Saf. 9.4 Fac. Saf. 14.1 Fac. Saf. 18.8 Fac. Saf. 9.4 Fac. Saf. 14.1 Fac. Saf. 18.8

1/16 0.0625 0.000004883 0.000003256 0.000002492 11/16 0.6875 0.006500 0.004333 0.003250

1/8 0.125 0.00003905 0.00002604 0.00001953 3/4 0.75 0.008439 0.005626 0.004220

3/16 0.1875 0.0001318 0.00008788 0.00006592 13/16 0.8125 0.01074 0.007155 0.005367

1/4 0.25 0.0003124 0.0002083 0.0001563 7/8 0.875 0.01340 0.008932 0.006699

5/16 0.3125 0.0006105 0.0004070 0.0003053 15/16 0.9375 0.01647 0.01098 0.008235

3/8 0.375 0.001054 0.0007030 0.0005272 1 1. 0.02000 0.01333 0.01000

7/16 0.4375 0.001675 0.001116 0.0008375 11/16 1.0625 0.02396 0.01598 0.01199

1/2 0.5 0.002500 0.001666 0.001250 11/8 1.125 0.02846 0.01898 0.01423

9/16 0.5625 0.003558 0.002372 0.001779 13/16 1.1875 0.03353 0.02236 0.01677

5/8 0.625 0.004883 0.003256 0.002442 11/4 1.25 0.03905 0.02604 0.01953

(table continued on next page)

16 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

Diameter of Shaft, Inches H.P. Diameter of Shaft, Inches H.P.
N N

Fractional Decimal C = 50 C = 75 C = 100 Fractional Decimal C = 50 C = 75 C = 100
Very Average Very Severe Very Average Very Severe
Little Conditions Conditions Little Conditions Conditions
Bending of Bending of Bending Bending of Bending of Bending
Fac. Saf. 9.4 Fac. Saf. 14.1 Fac. Saf. 18.8 Fac. Saf. 9.4 Fac. Saf. 14.1 Fac. Saf. 18.8

15/16 1.3125 0.04519 0.03019 0.02259 33/16 3.1875 0.6479 0.4319 0.3240
31/4 3.25 0.6866 0.4577 0.3434
13/8 1.375 0.5199 0.03465 0.02599 35/16 3.3125 0.7266 0.4844 0.3634
33/8 3.375 0.7685 0.5123 0.3842
17/16 1.4375 0.05940 0.03960 0.02970 37/16 3.4375 0.8127 0.5418 0.4061

11/2 1.5 0.06750 0.04500 0.03375 31/2 3.5 0.8567 0.5718 0.4288
39/16 3.5625 0.9038 0.6026 0.4520
19/16 1.5625 0.07628 0.05086 0.03815 35/8 3.625 0.9526 0.6351 0.4763
311/16 3.6875 1.003 0.6688 0.5017
15/8 1.625 0.08578 0.05719 0.04289 33/4 3.75 1.054 0.7030 0.5272

111/16 1.6875 0.09524 0.06409 0.04807 313/16 3.8125 1.108 0.7382 0.5538
37/8 3.875 1.163 0.7759 0.5820
13/4 1.75 0.1072 0.07144 0.05358 315/16 3.9375 1.222 0.8143 0.6108
4 4. 1.280 0.8535 0.6401
113/16 1.8125 0.1191 0.07939 0.05955 41/16 4.0625 1.340 0.8933 0.6701

17/8 1.875 0.1318 0.08788 0.06592 41/8 4.125 1.404 0.9356 0.7018
43/16 4.1875 1.469 0.9792 0.7345
115/16 1.9375 0.1456 0.09707 0.07281 41/4 4.25 1.536 1.023 0.7678
45/16 4.3125 1.603 1.069 0.8019
2 2. 0.1600 0.1066 0.07998 43/8 4.375 1.675 1.116 0.8375

21/16 2.0625 0.1755 0.1169 0.08774 47/16 4.4375 1.748 1.165 0.8742
41/2 4.5 1.823 1.214 0.9111
21/8 2.125 0.1918 0.1278 0.09592 49/16 4.5625 1.900 1.266 0.9497
45/8 4.625 1.978 1.319 0.9893
23/16 2.1875 0.2095 0.1397 0.1048 411/16 4.6875 2.059 1.373 1.030

21/4 2.25 0.2278 0.1519 0.1140 43/4 4.75 2.143 1.429 1.072
413/16 4.8125 2.228 1.486 1.114
25/16 2.3125 0.2474 0.1649 0.1237 47/8 4.875 2.316 1.544 1.158
415/16 4.9375 2.407 1.604 1.203
23/8 2.375 0.2678 0.1785 0.1339 5 5. 2.500 1.666 1.250

27/16 2.4375 0.2897 0.1932 0.1449

21/2 2.5 0.3124 0.2083 0.1563

29/16 2.5625 0.3363 0.2243 0.1682

25/8 2.625 0.3616 0.2411 0.1808

211/16 2.6875 0.3884 0.2589 0.1942

23/4 2.75 0.4159 0.2772 0.2079

213/16 2.8125 0.4449 0.2966 0.2225

27/8 2.875 0.4754 0.3170 0.2378

215/16 2.9375 0.5074 0.3383 0.2537

3 3. 0.5399 0.3683 0.2700

31/16 3.0625 0.5742 0.3836 0.2871

31/8 3.125 0.6105 0.4070 0.3053

Haven-Swett “Treatise on Leather Belting,” American Leather Belting Association.

Tap drills and clearance drills for machine screws

Screw Size Coarse Thread Fine Thread Clearance

4 TPI Drill TPI Drill Drill
5
6 40 43 48 42 32
8 40 38 44 37 30
10 32 36 40 33 27
12 32 29 36 29 18
14 24 25 32 21
1/4 24 16 28 14 9
5/16 20 10 24 7 2
3/8 20 7 28 3 D
7/16 18 F 24 1 F
1/2 16 5/16 24 Q P
9/16 14 U 20 25/64 W
5/8 13 27/64 20 29/64 29/64
3/4 12 31/64 18 33/64 33/64
11 17/32 18 37/64 37/64
10 21/32 16 11/16 41/64
49/64

General Information 17

Common nails

Size Length Gauge Dia. Approx. Size Length Gauge Dia. Approx.
No. Head No./lb No. Head No./lb
2d 1.00 10d 3.00
3d 1.25 15 11/64 845 12d 3.25 9 5/16 65
4d 1.50 14 13/64 540 16d 3.50 9 5/16 60
5d 1.75 12.5 290 20d 4.00 8 11/32 45
6d 2.00 12.5 1/4 250 30d 4.50 6 13/32 30
7d 2.25 11.5 1/4 265 40d 5.00 5 7/16 20
8d 2.50 11.5 17/64 250 50d 5.50 4 15/32 17
9d 2.75 10.25 17/64 200 60d 6.00 3 1/2 13
10.25 9/32 2 17/32 10
9/32 90

Drill sizes for pipe taps

Tap Size TPI Drill Dia. Tap Size TPI Drill Dia.
(in.) (in.) (in.) (in.)
27 11-1/2
1/8 18 11/32 2 8 2-3/16
1/4 18 7/16 2-1/2 8 2-9/16
3/8 14 37/64 8 3-3/16
1/2 14 23/32 3 8 3-11/16
3/4 11-1/2 59/64 3-1/2 8 4-3/16
1 11-1/2 1-5/32 8 4-3/4
1-1/4 11-1/2 1-1/2 4 8 5-5/16
1-1/2 1-49/64 4-1/2 6-5/16

5
6

Carbon steel—color and approximate temperature

Color Temperature Color Temperature
(°F) (°F)
BLACK RED SALMON, FREE SCALING
DARK BLOOD RED 990 LIGHT SALMON 1650
DARK CHERRY RED 1050 YELLOW 1725
MEDIUM CHERRY RED 1175 LIGHT YELLOW 1825
LIGHT CHERRY, SCALING 1250 WHITE 1975
1550 2220

18 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

Bolting dimensions for raised face weld neck flanges

150 # ANSI 300 # ANSI 400 # ANSI

Nom. Stud Stud Stud
Pipe Quan Dia. Length
Size Quan Dia. Length Quan Dia. Length

2 4 5/8 3 1/4 8 5/8 3 1/2 Note 1 Notes:

4 4 5/8 3 3/4 8 3/4 4 1/4 8 7/8 5 1/2 1. For 3 1/2≤ and smaller,
use ANSI 600 Dim.
6 8 3/4 4 8 3/4 4 1/2 12 7/8 6
2. For 2 1/2≤ and smaller,
8 8 3/4 4 1/4 12 3/4 5 12 1 6 3/4 use ANSI 1500 Dim.

10 12 7/8 4 3/4 12 7/8 5 1/2 16 1 1/8 7 1/2

12 12 7/8 4 3/4 16 1 6 1/4 16 1 1/4 8

14 12 1 5 1/4 16 1 1/8 6 3/4 20 1 1/4 8 1/4

16 16 1 5 1/2 20 1 1/8 7 20 1 3/8 8 3/4

18 16 1 1/8 6 20 1 1/4 7 1/2 24 1 3/8 9

20 20 1 1/8 6 1/4 24 1 1/4 7 3/4 24 1 1/2 9 3/4

24 20 1 1/4 7 24 1 1/4 8 1/4 24 1 3/4 10 3/4

26 24 1 1/4 8 1/2 24 1 1/2 9 1/4 28 1 3/4 11 3/4

28 28 1 1/4 8 3/4 28 1 5/8 10 1/4 28 1 3/4 11 3/4

30 28 1 1/4 9 28 1 5/8 10 3/4 28 1 7/8 12 1/2

32 28 1 1/2 10 28 1 3/4 11 1/2 28 2 13 1/4

34 32 1 1/2 10 1/4 28 1 7/8 12 1/4 28 2 14

36 32 1 1/2 10 3/4 32 2 13 32 2 14 1/4

600 # ANSI 900 # ANSI 1500 # ANSI

Nom. Stud Stud Stud
Pipe Quan Dia. Length
Size Quan Dia. Length Quan Dia. Length

2 8 5/8 4 1/4 Note 2 8 7/8 6 1/4

3 8 3/4 5 8 7/8 5 3/4 8 1 1/8 7

4 8 7/8 5 3/4 8 1 1/8 6 3/4 8 3 3/4 7 3/4

6 12 1 6 3/4 12 1 1/8 7 3/4 12 1 3/8 10 1/4

8 12 1 1/8 7 3/4 12 1 3/8 8 3/4 12 1 5/8 11 1/2

10 16 1 1/4 8 1/2 16 1 3/8 8 3/4 12 1 7/8 13 1/2

12 20 1 1/4 8 3/4 20 1 3/8 10 16 2 15

14 20 1 3/8 9 1/4 20 1 1/2 10 3/4 16 2 1/4 16 1/4

16 20 1 1/2 10 20 1 5/8 11 1/4 16 2 1/2 17 3/4

18 20 1 5/8 10 3/4 20 1 7/8 12 3/4 16 2 3/4 19 1/2

20 24 1 5/8 11 1/2 20 2 13 1/2 16 3 21 1/4

24 24 1 7/8 13 20 2 1/2 17 1/4 16 3 1/2 24 1/4

26 28 1 7/8 13 1/2 20 2 3/4 17 3/4

28 28 2 14 20 3 18 1/2

30 28 2 14 1/4 20 3 19

32 28 2 1/4 15 20 3 1/4 20 1/4

34 28 2 1/4 15 1/4 20 3 1/2 21 1/4

36 28 2 1/2 16 20 3 1/2 12 3/4

General Information 19

Steel fitting dimensions

20 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

ANSI forged steel flanges

General Information 21

Color codes for locating underground utilities

Approximate angle of repose for sloping sides of excavations

Note: Clays, SIMs, Loams or Non-
Hemorporus Soils Require Shoring
and Bracing

The presence of ground water requires
special treatment.

Trench shoring—minimum requirements 22 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

Trench jacks may be used in lieu of, or in combination with cross braces. Shoring is not required in solid rock, hard shale, or hard slag. Where
desirable, steel sheet piling and bracing of equal strength may be substituted for wood.

Uprights Stringers Size & Spacing of Members

Depth of Kind Or Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Cross Braces Maximum
Trench Condition Dimensions Spacing Dimensions Spacing Spacing
of Earth Width of Trench
Feet Vertical Horizontal
Up to 3 3 to 6 6 to 9 9 to 12 12 to 15
Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet

Feet Inches Feet Inches Feet Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches Feet Feet

5 Hard, compact 3¥4 6 — — 2¥6 4¥4 4¥6 6¥6 6¥8 4 6
to or 2 ¥ 6
10
Likely to crack 3¥4 3 4¥6 4 2¥6 4¥4 4¥6 6¥6 6¥8 4 6
10 or 2 ¥ 6
to
15 Soft, sandy, 3¥4 Close 4¥6 4 4¥4 4¥6 6¥6 6¥8 8¥8 4 6
or filled or 2 ¥ 6 Sheeting
15
to Hydrostatic 3¥4 Close 4¥6 4 4¥4 4¥6 6¥6 6¥8 8¥8 4 6
20 pressure or 2 ¥ 6 Sheeting
Over
20 Hard 3¥4 4 4¥6 4 4¥4 4¥6 6¥6 6¥8 8¥8 4 6
or 2 ¥ 6

Likely to crack 3¥4 2 4¥4 4 4¥6 6¥6 6¥6 6¥8 8¥8 4 6
or 2 ¥ 6

Soft, sandy, 3¥4 Close 4¥6 4 4 ¥ 6 6 ¥ 6 6 ¥ 8 8 ¥ 8 8 ¥ 10 4 6
or filled or 2 ¥ 6 Sheeting

Hydrostatic 3¥6 Close 8 ¥ 10 4 4 ¥ 6 6 ¥ 6 6 ¥ 8 8 ¥ 8 8 ¥ 10 4 6
pressure Sheeting

All kinds or 3¥6 Close 4 ¥ 12 4 4 ¥ 12 6 ¥ 8 8 ¥ 8 8 ¥ 8 10 ¥ 10 4 6
conditions Sheeting

All kinds or 3¥6 Close 6¥8 4 4 ¥ 12 6 ¥ 8 8 ¥ 10 10 ¥ 10 10 ¥ 12 4 6
conditions Sheeting

General Information 23

Reuniting separated mercury in thermometers

The largest single cause for failure of precision thermome- immersion thermometers) provided only the bulb is immersed
ters is due to separated mercury columns. This can occur in in the CO2.
transit or in use. The mercury may be reunited by cooling the
thermometer in a solution of solid CO2 (Dry-Ice) and alcohol Caution: Do not touch the bulb until it has warmed suffi-
so that the mercury column retreats slowly into the bulb. Do ciently for the mercury to emerge from the bulb into the
not cool the stem or mercury column. Keep the bulb in the capillary.
solution until the main column, as well as the separated
portion retreats into the bulb. Remove and swing the ther- Never subject the stem or mercury column to the CO2 solu-
mometer in a short arc, forcing all of the mercury into the bulb. tion as it will freeze the mercury column in the capillary and
may cause the bulb to fracture.
Most mercury thermometers can be reunited using this
method regardless of range (with the exception of deep

Typical wire resistance

(Stranded Copper Conductors at 59°F)

Wire Size AWG Resistance (ohms/ft)

0000 0.00005
000 0.00006
00 0.00008
0 0.00010
1 0.00012
2 0.00016
4 0.00025
6 0.00039
8 0.00063
10 0.00098
12 0.00160

24 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

How to cut odd-angle long radius elbows

General Information 25

How to read land descriptions

A land description is a description of a tract of land, in
legally acceptable terms, that defines exactly where the tract
of land is located and how many acres it contains.

Table 1
Land Measurements

Linear Measure

1 inch 0.833 feet 16 1/2 feet 1 rod Figure 1
7.92 inches 1 link 5 1/2 yards 1 rod
12 inches 1 foot 4 rods 1 link The government lot number given to a piece of land is the
1 vara 33 inches 66 feet 1 chain legal description of that tract of land.
2 3/4 feet 1 vara 80 chains 1 mile
3 feet 1 yard 320 rods 1 mile How can you tell whether water is meandered or privately
25 links 16 1/2 feet 8000 links 1 mile owned? If you find government lots adjoining a body of water
25 links 1 rod 5280 feet 1 mile or stream, those waters are meandered. If there are no gov-
100 links 1 chain 1760 yards 1 mile ernment lots surrounding water, that water is privately owned;
the owner is paying taxes on the land under the water, and
Square Measure controls hunting, fishing, trapping rights, etc., on that water
within the regulations of State and Federal laws. Note that
144 sq. in. 1 sq. ft. 43560 sq. ft. 1 acre where such water is deemed navigable, other rulings may
9 sq. ft. 1 sq. yd. 640 acres 1 sq. mile sometimes pertain.
30 1/4 sq. yds 1 sq. rod 1 sq. mile 1 section
10 sq. rods 1 sq. chain 36 sq. miles 1 township As a generality, meandered water is public water that the
1 sq. rod 272 1/4 sq. ft. 6 miles sq. 1 township public may use for recreational purposes, fishing, hunting,
1 sq. chain 4356 sq. ft. 208 ft. 8 in sq. 1 acre trapping, etc., provided that the public can reach the waters
10 sq. chains 1 acre 80 rods sq. 40 acres without trespassing. There still is much litigation concerning
160 sq. rods 1 acre 160 rods sq. 160 acres this that will have to be settled in court.
4840 sq. yds 1 acre
Reading land descriptions
In non-rectangular land descriptions, distance is usually
described in terms of either feet or rods (this is especially true Descriptions of land always read first from either the north
in surveying today), while square measure is in terms of acres. or the south. In Figures 2, 3, 4 and 5, notice that they all start
Such descriptions are called Metes and Bounds descriptions with N (north), or S (south), such as NW, SE, etc. The are
and will be explained in detail later. In rectangular land never WN (west north), ES (east south) etc.
descriptions, square measure is again in terms of acres, and
the location of the land is in such terms as N 1/2 (north one- It is simple for anyone to understand a description. The
half), SE 1/4 (south east one-fourth or quarter), etc., as shown secret is to read or analyze the description from the rear, or
in Figures 2, 3, 4 and 5. backwards.

Meandered water & government lots Example: Under Figure 4, the first description reads E 1/2,
SE 1/4, SW 1/4, SW 1/4. The last part of the description reads
A meandered lake or stream is water, next to which the SW 1/4, which means that the tract of land we are looking for
adjoining land owner pays taxes on the land only. Such land is somewhere in that quarter (as shown in Figure 2). Next
is divided into divisions of land called government lots. The back, we find SW 1/4, which means the tract we are after is
location, acreage and lot number of each such tract of land somewhere in the SW 1/4 SW 1/4 (as shown in Figure 3). Next
was determined, surveyed and platted by the original gov- back, we find the SE 1/4, which means that the tract is in the
ernment surveyors. SE 1/4 SW 1/4 SW 1/4 (as shown in Figure 5). Next back and
the last part to look up, is the E 1/2 of the above, which is the
The original survey of your county (complete maps of each location of the tract described by the whole description (as
township, meandered lakes, government lots, etc.) is in your shown in Figure 4).
courthouse and is the basis for all land descriptions in your
country. See Figure 1.

26 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

Sample sections showing rectangular land
descriptions, acreages and distances

Figure 3

Figure 2

Figure 5

Figure 4

Metes and bounds descriptions IMPORTANT: To locate a tract of land from a metes and
bounds description, start from the point of beginning and
A metes and bounds description is a description of land follow it out (do not read backwards as in the case of a rec-
obtained by starting at a given point, running so many feet in tangular description).
a certain direction, so many feet in another direction, etc.,
back to the point of beginning. The small tract of land just located by the above metes and
bounds description could also be described as the SW 1/4 SW
Example: In Figure 1, notice the small tract of land outlined. 1/4 NE 1/4 of the section. In most cases, the same tract of land
A typical metes and bounds description of this tract of land may be described in different ways. The rectangular system of
would be as follows: “Begin at the center of the section, describing and locating land as shown in Figures 2, 3, 4 and 5
thence north 660 feet, thence east 660 feet, thence south 660 is the simplest and is almost always used when possible.
feet, thence west 660 feet, back to the point of beginning and
containing 10 acres, being a part of Section No. 2.” In land descriptions, degree readings are not a measure of
distance. They are combined with either north or south to
show the direction a line runs from a given point.

General Information 27

How to read descriptions that show of degrees, the direction north-west would read, north 45
directions in terms of degrees degrees west.

In Figure 6, the north-south line and the east-west line Notice the small tract of land in Figure 6. The following
divide the circle into 4 equal parts with each part containing metes and bounds description will locate this tract: “Begin at
90 degrees. Several different directions are shown in this the beginning point, thence N 20 degrees west—200 feet,
diagram with the number of degrees each varies east or west thence N 75 degrees east—1,320 feet, thence S 30 degrees
from the north and south starting points (remember that all east—240 feet, thence S 45 degrees west—420 feet, thence
descriptions read from the north or south). North-west is a west—900 feet back to the point of beginning, containing so
direction that is half-way between north and west. In terms many acres, etc.”

Figure 6. Land description in terms of degrees.

Size an air receiver for engine starting

Assume that the engine starter requires 16 standard cubic V = 53.5 ¥ 520 ¥ 36.624
feet per second, that 10 seconds is required for starting and
that you want to store enough air in the receiver for three 144 ¥ (215 -115)
starts. Assume the initial pressure in the receiver is 215 psia
and the final pressure is 115 psia. V = 70.76 cu. ft.

Where: Assume receiver is 30≤ or 2.5 feet inside diameter. Find the
height of the receiver.
V = Receiver volume, cu. ft.
R = 53.5 for air V = P ¥ ID2 ¥H
T = Temperature (assumed constant at 520°R) 4
M = Weight of air required to start the engine based on
Where:
density of air = 0.0763 pounds per cu. ft. V = Volume to be contained in receiver, cu. ft.
P = Pressure, pounds/sq. ft. ID = Inside diameter of the receiver, feet
H = Height of receiver, feet
Example: H = 14.4 feet

M = 16 cu. ft./sec. ¥ 10 sec./start ¥ 3 starts ¥ 0.0763 pounds Use two receivers, each 7.5 feet high.
per cu. ft.

= 36.624 pounds

Wind chill chart 28 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

Wind Speed Cooling Power of Wind Expressed as “Equivalent Chill Temperature”, °F
Knots MPH

Calm Calm 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45 -50 -55 -60

Equivalent Chill Temperature

3–6 5 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45 -50 -55 -65 -70

7–10 10 30 20 15 10 5 0 -10 -15 -20 -25 -35 -40 -45 -50 -60 -60 -70 -75 -80 -90 -95

11–15 15 30 15 10 0 -5 -10 -20 -25 -30 -40 -45 -50 -60 -65 -70 -80 -85 -90 -100 -105 -110

16–19 20 25 10 5 0 -10 -15 -25 -30 -35 -45 -50 -60 -65 -75 -80 -85 -95 -100 -110 -115 -120

20–32 25 20 10 0 -5 -20 -20 -30 -35 -45 -50 -60 -65 -75 -80 -90 -95 -105 -110 -120 -125 -135

24–28 30 15 5 0 -10 -25 -25 -30 -40 -50 -55 -65 -70 -80 -85 -95 -100 -110 -115 -125 -130 -140

29–32 35 10 5 -5 -10 -30 -30 -35 -40 -50 -60 -65 -75 -80 -90 -100 -105 -115 -120 -130 -135 -145

33–36 40 10 0 -5 -10 -20 -30 -35 -45 -55 -60 -70 -75 -85 -95 -100 -110 -115 -125 -130 -140 -150

Winds above Little Danger Increasing Danger Great Danger
40°F have (Flesh may freeze within (Flesh may freeze within 30 seconds)
little
additional 1 minute)
effect

General Information 29

PIPELINE PIGGING

Sizing plates

Often the debris-removal operation, after completion of When constructing offshore pipelines, the most likely place
construction, is combined with gauging to detect dents and for a buckle to occur during the lay operation is in the sag
buckles. This operation will prove that the pipeline has a cir- bend just before the pipe touches the bottom. A gauging pig
cular hole from end to end. Typically an aluminum disc with can be placed inside the pipe and pulled along the pipe. If
a diameter of 95% of the nominal inside diameter of the pipe the lay barge moves forward and the pig encounters a buckle
is attached to the front of a pig and is inspected for marks at or dent, the pull line will become taut. This indicates that it
the end of the run. The pig could also be equipped with a will be necessary to pick up and replace the dented section
transmitter to facilitate tracking the location of the pig. If the of pipe.
pig hangs, this will facilitate easy location of the pig to locate
the dent/buckle.

Caliper pigging

Caliper pigs are used to measure pipe internal geometry. Caliper pigs can be used to gauge the pipeline. The ability
Typically they have an array of levers mounted in one of the to pass constrictions such as a dent or buckle means that the
cups. The levers are connected to a recording device in the pig can be used to prove that the line is clear with minimum
body. As the pig travels through the pipeline the deflections risk of jamming. This is particularly useful on subsea pipelines
of the levers are recorded. The results can show up details and long landlines where it would be difficult and expensive
such as girth-weld penetration, pipe ovality, and dents. The to locate a stuck pig. The results of a caliper pig run also form
body is normally compact, about 60% of the internal diame- a baseline record for comparison with future similar surveys,
ter, which combined with flexible cups allows the pig to pass as discussed further below.
constrictions up to 15% of bore.

Cleaning after construction

After construction, the pipeline bore typically contains dirt, Therefore, most pipelines will require to be clean com-
rust, and millscale; for several reasons it is normal to clean missioning. Increasingly, operators are specifying that the
these off. The most obvious of these reasons is to prevent pipe should be sand blasted, coated with inhibitor and the
contamination of the product. Gas feeding into the domestic ends capped after traction in order to minimize the post-
grid, for example, must not be contaminated with particulate construction cleaning operation. A typical cleaning operation
matter, since it could block the jets in the burners down- would consist of sending through a train of pigs driven by
stream. A similar argument applies to most product lines, in water. The pigs would have wire brushes and would permit
that the fluid is devalued by contamination. some bypass flow of the water so that the rust and millscale
dislodged by the brushing would be flushed out in front of
A second reason for cleaning the pipeline after construction is the pigs and kept in suspension by the turbulent flow. The
to allow effective use of corrosion inhibitors during commis- pipeline would then be flushed and swept out by batching pigs
sioning and operation. If product fluid contains corrosive until the particulate matter in the flow has reduced to accept-
components such as hydrogen sulfide carbon dioxide, or the able levels.
pipeline has to be left full of water for some time before it can be
commissioned, one way of protecting against corrosive attack is Following brushing, the longer the pipeline the longer it
by introducing inhibitors into the pipeline. These are, however, will take to flush and sweep out the particles to an acceptable
less effective where the steel surface is already corroded or level. Gel slugs are used to pick up the debris into suspen-
covered with millscale, since the inhibitors do not come into inti- sion, cleaning the pipeline more efficiently. Gels are specially
mate contact with the surface they intended to protect. formulated viscous liquids that will wet the pipe surface, pick
up and hold particles in suspension. A slug of gel would be
Thirdly, the flow efficiency is improved by having a clean contained between two batching pigs and would be followed
line and keeping it clean. This applies particularly to longer by a slug of solvent to remove any traces of gel left behind.
pipelines where the effect is more noticeable.

30 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

Flooding for hydrotest

In order to demonstrate the strength and integrity of the high points. Even with a pig, in mountainous terrain with
the pipeline, it is filled with water and pressure tested. The steep downhill slopes, the weight of water behind the pig can
air must be removed so that the line can be pressurized effi- cause it to accelerate away leaving a low pressure zone at the
ciently because, if pockets of air remain, these will be com- hill crest. This would cause dissolved air to come out of solu-
pressed and absorb energy. It will also take longer to bring tion and form an air lock. A pig with a high pressure drop
the line up to pressure and will be more hazardous in the across it would be required to prevent this.
event of a rupture during the test. It is therefore necessary to
ensure that the line is properly flooded and all of the air is Alternatives to using a pig include flushing out the air or
displaced. installing vents at high point. For a long or large-diameter
pipeline achieving sufficient flushing velocity becomes
A batching pig driven ahead of the water forms an efficient impractical. Installing vents reduces the pipeline integrity and
interface. Without a pig, in downhill portions of the line, the should be avoided. So for flooding a pipeline, pigging is nor-
water will run down underneath the air trapping pockets at mally the best solution.

Dewatering and drying

After the hydrotest has been completed, the water is gen- required for chemical pipelines such as ethylene and propyl-
erally displaced by the product or by nitrogen. The same argu- ene pipelines since water will contaminate the material and
ments apply to dewatering as to flooding. A pig is used to make it unuseable. After dewatering the pipe walls will be
provide an interface between the hydrotest water and the damp and some water may remain trapped in valves and dead
displacing medium so that the water is swept out of all low legs. This problem is solved by designing dead legs to be self
points. A bidirectional batching pig may be used during draining and installing drain on valves.
hydrotest and left in the line during hydrotest and then
reversed to dewater the line. Refer to Chapter 5, Pipeline Drying, for a detailed dis-
cussing of pipeline drying methods.
In some cases, it may be necessary to dry the pipeline. This
is particularily so for gas pipelines where traces of water Reprinted with permission—Gulf Publishing Co. “Pipeline Pigging
may combine with the gas to form hydrates. Drying is also Technology 2nd Edition”

Estimate volume of onshore oil spill Figure 1

An irregular shape can be converted into a series of rec-
tangles that approximate the area of the irregular shape.
There will be about the same amount of spill area outside the
rectangle as there is dry area inside the rectangle. This can
be done by stretching a steel tape along the ground outside
the spill area. The area can then be quickly estimated by
multiplying the length of the sides. In Figure 1, the following
area is determined:

Area A = 70¢ ¥ 20¢ = 1400 square feet
Area B = 60¢ ¥ 10¢ = 600 square feet
Area C = 35¢ ¥ 20¢ = 700 square feet

Total = 2700 square feet

The more rectangles used, the more accurate the estimate
becomes.

General Information 31

The next task is to estimate the average depth of oil in each Walk around method
of the areas. The oil will vary from very shallow at the edge
to whatever depth the terrain is at the lowest point. This can If the pool of oil is roughly circular, you can estimate its
be determined by “gauging” with a stick if it is shallow or area by pacing around the pool and counting your paces. Walk
accessible. If the pool is wider, you can heave a large stone as close to the pool edge as possible. Try to make your paces
into the pool to confirm depth. A good estimate can usually three feet, or one yard long. If you counted 700 paces, the
be made by observing the slope of the ground around the pool circumference is 700 ¥ 3 or 2100 feet. The next step is to
and assuming that the slope continues under the surface of guess how much smaller the actual pool is, compared to the
the oil. circle you walked. If you were pretty close, deduct 10%.

If you estimate that the deepest point in Area “A” is 20≤ 2100 ¥ 0.9 = 1890 feet adjusted circumference.
and Area A has three boundaries of “shore”, divide the depth
figure by three to obtain average depth. If it has two “shore” The diameter of a circle is related to the circumference by
boundaries, like Area “B”, divide the depth by two to obtain the following equation:
average area depth.
C = PD
The irregular shaped area with unseen bottom has now Where P = 3.14186
been reduced to a familiar shape. The volume of free oil in
Area “A” is: D = diameter
C = circumference
Area “A” 70¢ ¥ 20¢ = 1400 square feet
Average depth = 20≤/3 = 7≤ or 0.6 feet D = 1890/P = 602 ft.
Area “A” volume = 1400 square feet ¥ 0.6 ft = 840 cu. ft. The radius of the pool is D/2 or 301 ft.
The total volume will be the sum of volumes for Areas “A”,
The area of the pool = Pr2
“B”, and “C”. A = 301 ¥ 3.14186 ¥ 301 ¥ 301
A = 284,487 sq. ft.
Next, convert 840 cu. ft. to barrels. Each cubic foot is
equivalent to 0.178 bbls. Now you can estimate the average depth by guessing
the maximum depth. Assume the depth from the exposed
Area “A” volume = 840 cu. ft. and therefore 840 ¥ 0.178 = slope to be 12≤ at the deepest part, divide by four
150 bbls. (four sloping sides) to estimate an average depth of 3≤ or 0.25
feet.
Determining how much additional oil has penetrated into
the soil can be accurately measured by taking a core sample The volume is:
of the oil covered soil; however, the following rule should
suffice for estimates of oil spilled. V = 284487 ¥ 0.25 = 71122 cu. ft.

For penetration allowance in normal sand or soil, add 5% Volume of oil = 71122 ¥ 0.178 = 12660 bbls.
to the total volume for every foot of average depth.
The average depth was 3≤ and therefore we need to
In the case of Area “A”, the average depth was 0.6 foot, add about 1% for penetration or 1.01 ¥ 12660 bbls =
therefore, 0.6 ¥ 5% = 3% to be added. 150 bbls ¥ 1.03 = 12,786 bbls.
154.5 bbls total volume spilled in Area “A”.
Average diameters
• Do not add a penetration allowance to areas with slopes
You can also estimate the area of an oval shaped pool by
that allow a reasonable flow rate. pacing off (3 ft. per step) the width of the short diameter and
the long diameter and averaging the diameters.
• Add an allowance for slow flowing areas.
• Reduce allowance by half if the area is wet from rain. Pace off the short diameter, but stop short to allow for the
irregular shape. Repeat the procedure for the long diameter.
If more precise determination is required, drive a clear Add the diameters together and divide by 2 to get the average
plastic tube, about 2≤ or larger in diameter to a depth of 6≤ diameter.
in the uncontaminated soil adjacent to the spill. Twist and
remove with soil core. Seal the bottom of the tube with plastic
and tape. Pour free oil into the tube to the depth of the oil in
the pool, mark the level and let it set for one hour. Measure
how much the oil level has dropped. Observe how deep the
oil has penetrated. Retain the model to observe increased
penetration with time.

32 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook Figure 2. Average Diameters.

Example:
Short diameter = 75 paces = 75 ¥ 3 = 225 feet
Long diameter = 120 paces = 120 ¥ 3 = 360 feet
Average diameter = (225 + 360)/2 = 292 feet
Radius = 292/2 = 146 feet

A = r2 = 3.14186 ¥ 146 ¥ 146 = 66971 sq. ft.
Average depth = 3≤ or 0.25 ft.
Volume = 66971 ¥ 0.25 = 16743 cu. ft.
Volume = 2980 bbls.

Estimating spill volume on water

When conditions permit, direct measurements of spill more conservative the first estimate of the spill volume, the
parameters are preferred over visual estimates. better the chances that response forces will arrive at the
spill site prepared with adequate and appropriate equipment.
A rough estimate of spill volume can be generated It is preferable to over-respond early rather than under-
from observations of the oil slick’s size and thickness. Figure respond and risk unpreparedness. To under-respond will
3 and Table 1 relate the appearance, thickness, as well as impede the effectiveness of spill control and cleanup
the light conditions. For example, slick thickness greater efforts. A slow or poorly prepared initial response can incur
than 0.08 inches cannot be determined by appearance more operational costs and increase the risk of damage
alone. to marine and shoreline resources and environments. There-
fore, properly planning the initial response is critical in a spill
Since oil slick spreading is influenced by the spill volume situation.
as well as physical forces, stopping the spill at its source is
critical in controlling the spread of a slick on water. The

Figure 3

General Information 33

Table 1
Estimating Spill Volume by Color and Coverage Area

Silvery Trace of Color Bright Bands of Colors Turning Dull
Sheen (Yellow, Bronze, Color (Brick Red, Turquoise,

Violet) (Purple, Blue to Pale Yellow)
Green) Gals
1.2
Width ¥ Sq. Ft Gals Gals Gals 2.5
Length 4.9
100 ¥ 500 50,000 0.1 0.2 0.4 9.9
100 ¥ 1,000 12.3
100 ¥ 2,000 100,000 0.2 0.4 0.7 24.7
200 ¥ 2,000 61.7
500 ¥ 1,000 200,000 0.4 0.7 1.5 123.4
200 ¥ 5,000
500 ¥ 5,000 400,000 0.7 1.5 3.0
500 ¥ 10,000
500,000 0.9 1.9 3.7

1,000,000 1.9 3.7 7.5

2,500,000 4.7 9.4 18.7

5,000,000 9.4 18.7 37.4

2: Construction

Project Scoping Data ............................................ 35 Determine length of a pipe bend ...................................................... 47
Length of pipe in arc subtended by any angle.................................. 47
Project scoping data worksheet for major facilities .......................... 35 Average pipelay table—Underground ............................................... 48
Average pipelay table—On supports ................................................. 49
Right-of-Way .......................................................... 36 Allowable pipe span between supports.............................................. 49
How engineers make pipe fit the ditch ............................................. 50
How to determine the crop acreage included in a right-of-way
strip .................................................................................................. 36 Pipe Lowering ....................................................... 53

Clearing and grading right-of-way: labor/equipment How to lower an existing pipeline that is still in service .................. 53
considerations .................................................................................. 36
Welding .................................................................. 56
Estimating manhours for removing trees .......................................... 37
Estimating manhours for removing tree stumps............................... 37 When should steel be preheated before welding?............................ 56
Clearing and grading right-of-way ..................................................... 38 Welding and brazing temperatures .................................................... 57
Mechanical properties of pipe welding rods ..................................... 57
Ditching ................................................................. 39 Lens shade selector............................................................................. 58

How many cubic yards of excavation in a mile of ditch? ................. 39 Pipeline Welding ................................................... 58
Shrinkage and expansion of excavated and compacted soil ............. 39
Ditching and trenching: labor/equipment considerations ................ 39 How many welds will the average welder make per hour?.............. 67
How much welding rod is required for a mile of schedule 40
Concrete Work ...................................................... 40
pipeline? .......................................................................................... 67
How to approximate sacks of cement needed to fill a form ............ 40 How many pounds of electrodes are required per weld on line
What you should know about mixing and finishing concrete........... 40
pipe?................................................................................................. 67
Pipe Laying............................................................ 40 Welding criteria permit safe and effective pipeline repair............... 68
Cross country pipeline—vertical down electrode consumption,
How to determine the degrees of bend in a pipe that must fit a
ditch calling for a bend in both horizontal and vertical planes.... 40 pounds of electrode per joint ......................................................... 74
Guidelines for a successful directional crossing bid package........... 74
How to bend pipe to fit ditch—sags, overbends and combination
bends................................................................................................ 41

Pipe bending computations made with hand-held calculator .......... 41
Calculate maximum bend on cold pipe ............................................. 46

34

Construction 35

PROJECT SCOPING DATA

Project scoping data worksheet for major facilities

1.0 Type of Contract Required 5.0 Piping

1.1 Describe the type of contract the project will be based 5.1 How will storm water, waste water, and sewage be dis-
on. posed of? If the facility is handling liquid petroleum,
will a petroleum-water separator be required?
1.2 What is the required completion date?
1.3 What type permits will be required and who will obtain 5.2 Are there any existing incoming and/or outgoing
pipelines that will require connecting to?
them?
1.4 Will an environmental impact statement be required? 5.3 Are there any facilities outside the job site which must
be given consideration in the development of a plot
2.0 General Engineering plan?

2.1 Does the client have engineering standards and speci- 5.4 What is the pressure rating for existing manifolds,
fications, or will it be necessary to develop these, or can suction lines, and outgoing lines?
the Engineering Contractor’s specifications and stan-
dards be used? 5.5 Any special requirements for isolating the facility?
5.6 Will scraper traps be required? Incoming or outgoing
2.2 Describe any existing above or underground obstruc-
tions at the job site. or both?
5.7 Will a fire water system be required?
2.3 Obtain copies of any applicable local codes dealing 5.8 Is a source of fire water available? If yes, what will limit
with air and/or water pollution, sanitary systems, elec-
trical systems, and structures. the amount of water available?
5.9 How many relief headers will be required?
2.4 Are any soil bearing data available? 5.10 Will incoming and/or outgoing relief valves be
2.5 Describe type of soil—sandy, rocky, caliche, etc.
2.6 Does the site drain naturally? Will fill material be required? If yes, where will they relieve to?

required for the foundations? If fill material will be 6.0 Electrical
required, what is the availability? Is sand-asphalt mix
available? 6.1 Is commercial power available?
Voltage?
3.0 Drafting Phase?
Frequency?
3.1 Will a registered engineer’s stamp or signature be System capacity?
required on the drawings?
6.2 Define approximate location where incoming power
3.2 Determine drawing forms to be used and type of draw- will enter job site.
ings.
6.3 If commercial power is available, will the utility furnish
3.3 Will client accept single line drawings or will double and install the substation?
line drawings be required?
6.4 What is the short circuit capacity of the utility?
4.0 Structural and Architectural 6.5 Will the utility permit across-the-line starting of large

4.1 Will all exposed structural steel need to be galvanized motors? What is the maximum hp they will allow to
or have other protective coating? start across the line?

4.2 Is sand, rock, cement, and ready-mixed concrete avail- 7.0 Instrumentation
able locally? Price?
7.1 Will a control panel be required? If yes, what type?
4.3 Requirements for building design: 7.2 What type of instruments does the client prefer?
Steel
Concrete/brick Pneumatic or electronic?
How much air conditioning? 7.3 Does the client have a preference for the type of final
Other
control element(s) and actuator(s) to be used?
7.4 Electrical classification for the control house.
7.5 Are communications facilities available? If yes, what

type?

36 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

8.0 Equipment 10.0 Special Considerations

8.1 Have any items of major equipment been placed on 10.1 If the site is in a remote location and is near the coast
order? List items and state delivery. line, are there any existing piers or natural facilities
available for unloading material?
8.2 Who will supply general equipment specifications?
8.3 List the design criteria for equipment sizing. 10.2 What is the local availability of heavy lifting equip-
8.4 What are the spare equipment requirements? ment? What are the lifting limitations?
8.5 What is the expected life of the facility?
8.6 Will secondary seals be required on storage tanks 10.3 What is the availability of local labor? Are they
organized?
equipped with floating roofs? Tank mixers?
10.4 If the site is in a foreign location, is there any limit on
9.0 Material Purchasing the use of expatriates?

9.1 Obtain a copy of a preferred vendor list if one is 10.5 Are any other contractors working in the area?
available. 10.6 What shop fabrication can be done locally?
10.7 What types of materials are available locally?
9.2 If not available, will it be necessary to develop a list for 10.8 If the site is in a foreign location, who will handle clear-
client’s approval?
ance of material through customs?
9.3 Describe any unusual conditions. 10.9 What are the general weather conditions?
9.4 Determine shipping address. 10.10 If foreign, will a construction camp be required?
9.5 Who will be responsible for receipt of material? 10.11 If a camp is required, what is the availability of local

catering?

RIGHT-OF-WAY

How to determine the crop acreage included in a right-of-way strip

Multiply the width of the strip in feet by the length in rods; 35 ¥ 14 2,640 = 0.18 acres, or almost one-fifth of an acre.
divide this by 2,640 to obtain the acreage. If the ends of the
strip are not parallel, use the length of the center line of the Example. A right-of-way 50 feet wide crosses a field for
right-of-way. 330 rods. How many acres of crop were destroyed?

Example. A right-of-way 35 feet wide crosses a cultivated 50 ¥ 330 2,640 = 6.25 acres.
field for a length of 14 rods; how many acres of crop were
destroyed? The rule is exact, not an approximation.

Clearing and grading right-of-way: labor/equipment considerations

To estimate labor crew and equipment spread for will not fall in any foreign material that might become
clearing and grading operations, the following items, as mixed with the excavated spoil.
they may apply to a given project, should be given 5. Cutting of merchantable timber into standard lengths
consideration: and stacked along the right-of-way for disposition by
others if specifically required by the right-of-way
1. Removal of trees, brush and stumps. agreement.
2. Grubbing and removal of stumps that are in the way of 6. Providing temporary walks, passageways, fences, or
other structures so as not to interfere with traffic.
the ditch. 7. Providing sufficient and proper lighting where
3. Disposal of all debris, including method of disposal and required.
8. Providing guards where required.
length of haul. 9. Preserving all trees, shrubs, hedges and lawns where
4. Clearing area spoil a sufficient distance from the ditch required.

line so that the spoil-bank from the ditching operations

10. Grading irregularities where required. Construction 37
11. Preserving topsoil for replacement, through all culti-
13. Protecting and preserving existing drainage facilities.
vated or improved fields and pastures, to its original 14. Protecting any existing structures or pipelines.
position. 15. Protecting any telephone or utility lines and keeping
12. Proper grading of the terrain so as to allow passage of
loaded trucks and equipment hauling materials and so them in service.
ditching operations can be properly performed. 16. Cutting through fences and hedges where required

and replacing these when necessary.
17. Installing gates and fences where required.

Estimating manhours for removing trees

NET MANHOURS—EACH

Softwood Trees Hardwood Trees Softwood Trees Hardwood Trees

Average Tree Open Congested Open Congested Average Tree Open Congested Open Congested
Diameter Diameter
in Inches Area Area Area Area in Inches Area Area Area Area

Cross-cut Saws 1.49 1.86 1.88 2.35 Chain Saws 0.37 0.46 0.47 0.59
4 2.26 2.83 2.82 3.53 4 0.57 0.71 0.71 0.89
6 3.24 4.02 4.00 4.96 6 0.81 1.00 1.00 1.24
8 4.10 5.08 5.00 6.20 8 1.03 1.28 1.25 1.55
10 4.98 6.18 6.00 7.44 10 1.25 1.55 1.50 1.86
12 6.39 7.86 7.70 9.47 12 1.60 1.97 1.93 2.37
14 7.39 9.09 8.80 10.82 14 1.85 2.28 2.20 2.71
16 8.32 10.23 9.90 12.18 16 2.08 2.56 2.48 3.05
18 10.58 12.91 12.60 15.37 18 2.65 3.23 3.15 3.84
20 12.71 15.51 15.12 18.45 20 3.18 3.88 3.78 4.61
24 17.09 20.85 20.10 24.52 24 4.28 5.22 5.03 6.14
30 20.50 25.01 24.12 29.43 30 5.13 6.26 6.03 7.36
36 36

Manhours include ax trimming, cutting down with cross- Manhours do not include hauling, piling and burning of
cut saws or chain saws, and cutting into four-feet lengths for trees or branches, or the removal of stumps.
the tree diameter sizes as listed above. Manhours are average
for various heights of trees.

Estimating manhours for removing tree stumps

NET MANHOURS—EACH NET MANHOURS—EACH

Item Oper. Powder Item Oper. Powder
Laborer Engr. Man Total Laborer Engr. Man Total

Grub & Removal by Hand 6.00 — — 6.00 Blast & Pull with Tractor .83 .11 1.50 2.44
8≤ to 12≤ diameter 7.50 — — 7.50 8≤ to 12≤ diameter 1.05 .23 2.33 3.61
14≤ to 18≤ diameter 9.00 — — 9.00 14≤ to 18≤ diameter 1.50 .30 3.38 5.18
20≤ to 24≤ diameter 11.20 — — 11.20 20≤ to 24≤ diameter 2.11 .42 4.76 7.29
26≤ to 36≤ diameter 26≤ to 36≤ diameter

Manhours include excavating and removing by hand or
blasting and removing with cables and tractors. Manhours do
not include burning or removal from premises.

38 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

Clearing and grading right-of-way

Equipment Spread Labor Crew

NUMBER OF UNITS FOR NUMBER OF MEN FOR

Equipment 50 Linear Feet 80 Linear Feet 100 Linear Feet Personnel 50 Linear Feet 80 Linear Feet 100 Linear Feet
Description Width Width Width Description Width Width Width

L M MH H L M MH H L M MH H L M MH H L M MH H L M MH H

D8 Tractor Foreman ..... 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 3 2 3 4 4
W/Dozer ... 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 3 Operator ..... 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 3 2 4 5 5
Mechanic .... 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
D7 Tractor Swamper .... 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 3 2 4 5 5
W/Dozer ... 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 Truck Driver 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
Laborer ....... 10 15 20 30 15 25 30 40 20 35 40 50
Truck—21/2 Total Crew .. 16 21 29 39 21 34 42 52 29 49 58 68
Ton Dump 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3

Truck—
Pick-up ..... 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 3 2 3 4 4

Ripper or
Brushrake 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2

Above equipment spread should be ample for clearing and Above total crew should be ample for clearing and grading
grading one mile of right-of-way per 10-hour day for the one mile of right-of-way per 10-hour day for the width and
width and conditions as are outlined. Haul trucks are based conditions outlined. Crew spread includes cutting, stacking or
on round trip haul of two miles. If brush and trees are to be piling, loading, and hauling a round-trip distance of two miles.
burned on site, omit above dump trucks. Small tools such as If burning is necessary or permitted, substitute fire tenders
saws, axes, etc., must be added as required for the individual for dump truck drivers. See Clearing and Grading equipment
job. spread for number of dump trucks.

Code description. Code description.

L = Light—light brush and grass, no trees. L = Light—light brush and grass, no trees.
M = Medium—considerable brush of larger size. M = Medium—considerable brush of larger size.
MH = Medium Heavy—large brush and small trees. MH = Medium Heavy—large brush and small trees.
H = Heavy—much small brush, many small trees, and H = Heavy—much small brush, many small trees, and

occasional large trees. occasional large trees.

Source

Page, J. S., Cost Estimating Man-Hour Manual for Pipelines
and Marine Structures, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston,
Texas, 1977.