Improving the Productivity of America's Schools - ASCD

Improving the
Productivity of
America's Schools

Syntheses of thousands of research studies
show the power of nine factors
influencing learning.

_ ~~~~~~IAl

Education may be our largest en- centralized control can be misleading. iIJII
terprise in terms of the numbers the differences are striking enough to
of people involved. the value of compel attention to our assumptions E
and practices.
human time required, and the capital I1
and operating expenditures budgeted Recent studies provide a grim picture
The value of education invested in the of U.S. achievement even in the ele- E
American labor force, for example. is mentanr grades. Stevenson (1983) found
now $815 billion compared to S65 bil- that in mathematics, U.S. students fell I
lion in 1900 (Walberg, 1983). farther behind the Japanese and Tai- J
wanese at each grade level; and. byv th E
In the last few decades, morcover. grade. the worst Asian classes in his
spending on schools and colleges accel- large sample exceeded the best Anmei- I
erated: it rose from $11 billion to $200 can class. Mv research and obsenrvations J
billion per year; from 3.4 to 6.8 percent in elementanr science classes in Japan E
of the gross national product. During corroborate his findings. Recent
the past half century, the inflation- achievement comparisons in high I
adjusted annual cost of public-school school mathematics also showed that J
education rose about five-fold from American high school students score on E
$490 to $2,500 per student (Walberg. average at the first or second percentile
1984). of Japanese norms (Walberg, 1983: I
Walberg, Hamisch. and Tsai, 1984). .,A
Education: A Declining Industry?
Even though costs have risen, the Na- Herbert 1. Walberg is Research Professor
tional Commission on Excellence in of Education, College of Education.
University of Illinois, Chicago.
Education (1983) and other groups re-
port that students appear to be learning Author's note: I thank Benjamin S.
less. For example, comparisons made a Bloom and Ralph W. Tyler for comn-
decade or two ago showed that Ameri- ments on a previous version of this paper;
can students did relatively poorly. Al- the opinions and remaining shortcom-
though comparing achievements of ings, however, are attributable to me.
U.S. students with those from countries
with more homogeneous populations,
national ministries of education, and

MAY 1984 19

Thus, by measurable standards, U S. variety of industries to increase the value 3) Motivation, or self-concept, as in-
educational productivity has not kept up dicated by personality tests or the stu-
even with that of U.S. smokestack in- of their output while simultaneously dent's willingness to persevere intensive-
reducing costs, thereby raising human
dustries such as steel, automobiles, and welfare. Although such thinking may ly on learning tasks.
consumer electronics-which them- seem alien to some educators, the pub- Instruction includes:
lic ranks research on educational pro- 4) The amount of time students en-
selves are declining as world-class com-
ductivity higher in priority than scien- gage in learning and
petitors in quality and costs. Of course, tific investigation in most other natural 5) The quality of the instructional
neither the costs of educational inputs, and social sciences (Gallup, 1983; Wal-
including human effort, nor the value of berg, 1983); and we educators may do experience, including psychological and
well to think more explicitly and unsen- curricular aspects.
outputs relevant to immediate and long- timentally about our business and to try
term goals are well measured. For that to found it on the emerging consensus Four environmental factors also con-
of scientific evidence.
reason it is difficult to arrive at definitive sistently affect learning: the educational-
conclusions about the causal relations of It should also be said, however, that ly stimulating, psychological climates of
educational investments, services, and we are far from being able to estimate
values beyond the narrow areas indicat- explicit costs and values. The prior 6) The home,
ed by objective achievement tests and problem, now being solved, is estimat- 7) The classroom social group,
reports of attitudes and behavior. Never- ing the magnitude of effects of educa- 8) The peer group outside the school,
theless, since 1975 my colleagues and I tional inputs on outputs, which primari- and
have tried to develop a comprehensive ly involves causal rather than value
framework for the analysis of productivi- 9) Use of out-of-school time (specif-
questions. cally, the amount of leisure-time televi-
ty and test it out in a variety of classroom sion viewing).
studies in the U.S. and other countries.
The first five aspects of student apti-
Research Approach A Theory of Educational Productivity tude and instruction are prominent in
Following the lead of early agricultural Nine factors require optimization to in- the educational models of Benjamin
experimentation, much educational re- crease affective, behavioral, and cogni- Bloom, Jerome Bruner, John Carrol,
search focuses on the relation of single tive learning (see Figure 1). Potent, Robert Glaser, and others (see Walberg,
causes and effects. Education, however, consistent, and widely generalizable,
obviously involves many means and these nine factors fall into three groups: 1984, for a comparative analysis); each
ends, each with an explicit or implicit
cost or value. The promotion of effi- Student aptitude includes: appears necessary for learning in school;
ciency requires the specification and 1) Ability or prior achievement, as without at least a small amount of each,
measurement of the' chief causes,
means, or "factors" of production. measured by the usual standardized the student can learn little. Large
tests, amounts of instruction and high degrees
Experiments and statistical studies of of ability, for example, may count for
productivity data together with cost and 2) Development, as indexed by chro- little if students are unmotivated or in-
value estimates have enabled a wide nological age or stage of maturation, struction is unsuitable.
and
These five essential factors, however,
"Since 1975 my colleagues
are only partly alterable by educators
and I have tried to develop a since, for example, the curriculum in
terms of lengths of time devoted to
comprehensive framework for various subjects and activities is partly
the analysis of productivity
and test it out in a variety of determined by diverse economic, politi-
classroom studies." cal, and social forces. Ability and moti-
vation, moreover, are influenced by

parents, by prior learning, and by the
students themselves. Thus educators are
unlikely to raise achievement substan-
tially by their own efforts alone.

Three of the remaining factors-the
psychological climate of the classroom
group; enduring affection and academic

stimulation from adults at home; and an
out-of-school peer group with learning
interests, goals, and activities--influ-
ence learning in two ways: students
learn from them directly, and these
factors indirectly benefit learning by
raising student ability, motivation, and
responsiveness to instruction. In addi-
tion, about ten (not the more typical 30)

20 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

weekly hours of television time seems

optimal for learning; more hours than

this displace homework and other edu-

cationally and developmentally con-

structive activities outside school. fre 1. Cmdl _mo m Sblmlum L-b__ik
As Figure I shows, the major causal

influences flow from aptitudes, instruc-

tion, and the psychological environ-

ment to learning. In addition, however,

these factors also influence one another,

and are influenced in turn by how

much students learn, since those who

begin well learn faster (Walberg,
19 84 a).

Other factors influence learning in

school but are less directly linked to

academic learning. For example, class

size, financial expenditures per student,

and private governance (independent or

sectarian in contrast to public control of

schools) correlate only weakly with

learning, especially if the initial abilities

of students are considered. Thus, im-

provements in the more direct and more

alterable factors hold the best hope for

increasing educational productivity

(Walberg and Shanahan, 1983).

,Ainpstitdc.uion, and the pywchdoll anvlonamn ae mqor die , dof
min(showimn doiUM OX, Y.andZ. Theq hduen~_aosnhen W n
Applied Research at ta, b, and,e and Mbin irdnnsluenad by on Maeod
Unlike other national studies of educa-
that 1tads plce (shown brolen auws).
tion that have relied on hearings and

testimony, our investigations of educa-

tional productivity followed applied re-

search in the natural sciences in several

respects (Walberg, 1983a). The theory disproof in part or whole by empirical Thus, from our view, school and

of educational productivity (discussed contradiction. district economic, political, and socio-

above) which guided the inquiry (Wal- In our investigations, we tried to fol- logical characteristics are less relevant to

berg, 1981) is sufficiently explicit to test; low three scientific canons-parsimony, learning because their influences are
and, using large bodies of national and replication, and generalizability. Parsi- less alterable, direct, and observable.

international data, a wide variety of mony means that the theory converges They are not substitutes for the nine

empirical studies of it were conducted. on the least number of factors that factors, but more distant forces that can

We published about two dozen of powerfully and consistently predict or support or interfere with them.
these empirical studies in research jour- explain cognitive, affective, and beha- More and less productive classes,
moreover, may be expected in the same
nals of the American Educational Re- viorial learning.

search Association and the American In this regard, the theory is reduction- school; and it issomewhat misleading to

Psychological Association that require ist and psychological: it fundamentally characterize a whole school or district as
review by referees as in other scientific assumes that academic learning is an effective-just as it is less accurate to

disciplines. Only after extensive obser- individual affective, behavioral, and speak of the optimal condition for plant
vation and some modifications of the cognitive activity that mainly takes place growth as being the average annual
theory (notably the addition of television in the social context of the classroom rainfall in a state rather than the amount

and peer group to the list of major group as well as in the home and peer of moisture reaching the roots of asingle
factors) were the implications drawn in groups. This isnot to deny the influence plant.
professional and policy journals such as
Educational Leadership and Daedalus. of Washington, the statehouse, the The educational productivity theory
community, superintendent, and prin-
itself is admittedly simplified because

Like other explicit scientific theories, cipal but to encourage examination of learning is clearly affected by school and
however, the theory of educational pro- their effects on the nine factors directly districtcharacteristics as well as by many

ductivity should be considered open to impinging on individual students. economic, sociological, and political

MAY 1984 21

forces at the school, communit., state. the folk adage, *what's good for the goose influences on cognitive. affecti-c. and
and national levels. Yet these character-
isgood for the gander. behavioral learning (see Figures 2
istics and forces-such as the sex, eth-
nicity, and socioeconomic status of the But there are exceptions to the results through 4). Many aspects of these fac-
student, the size and expenditure levels
of schools and districts, and their politi- reported below. The more powerful fac- tors can be altered or influenced bs
cal and sociological organization-are
less alterable in a democratic, pluralistic tors appear to benefit all students in all educators.
society; are less consistently and power-
fully linked to learning; and appear to conditions; but some students appear to The first five essential factors appear
operate mainly through the nine factors
in the determination of achievement. benefit somewhat more than others un- to substitute, compensate, or trade-off
Thus, we offer our theory not as a threat
to those concerned about these other der some conditions. In addition, some for one another at diminishing rates of

factors but as a friendly, collegial in ita- studies report larger effects than the return. Immense quantities of time, for
tion to demonstrate their effects on the
nine factors or directly on the outcomes averages given belo.w; others, of course, example, mav be required for a moder-
of schooling.
report smaller effccts than the average. ate amount of learning if motivation.
The canon of replication. means that
the findings in similarly designed studies The cited research should be consulted ability, or instructional quality is mini-
should reproduce one another fairly
closely. For example, reinforcement or for details. mal. Thus, no single essential factor
reward of learning has been implement-
ed in various forms such as candy, Methods of Research overwhelms the others, all appear im-
tokens, symbols, and social recognition; Since our concern was
it can be and usually is operationally productivity, Nwc portant. the other factors are con-
defined in various studies. The question Although
is whether these forms are the same or hoped that our own research would sistent correlates of academic learning,
different in their effects efficiently capitalize on previous inqui- they may directly supplement as well as
ry; and, under the support of the Na- indirectly influence the essential class-
To answer this question, the various tional Institute of Education and the room factors. In either case, the power-
implementations or strategies grouped National Science Foundation, our team ful influences of out-of-school factors.
under the same category may be more of investigators started by compiling re- especially the home environment, must
finely categorized and empirically com- views of the 1970s on the productive be considered.
pared in their effects on learning to see if factors in learning (Walberg, Schiller,
their magnitudes are the same or differ- and Haertel, 1979; Waxman and Wal- For example, the 12 years of 180 six-
ent. Simple rather than complicated, hour davs in elemcntarD and secondary
detailed classifications usually serve to berg, 1982). Next, quantitative svnthc- school add up to only about 13 percent
ses of all available studies of productive of the waking, potentially-educative
summarize the findings; and these rela- factors were conducted; syntheses of time during the first 18 years of life. If a
tively simple findings suggest education- nearly 3,000 investigations-summa- large fraction of the student's waking
al implications that are convenient and rized below-were compiled (see Wal-
practical to implement. berg, 1984c, for a more detailed ac- time nominally under the control of
count). Case studies of Japanese and
Ceneralizability means that studies American classes were carried out to parents that is spent outside school were
should yield similar results in national compare educational productivity in the to be spent in academically-stimulating
and international samples of students of conditions in the home and peer group,
different characteristics such as sex and two countries (Schiller and Walberg, then the total amount of the student's

age, in different subjects such as civics 1982; Walberg, 1983). total learning time would be dramatical-
and science, and using different re- The productive factors were further ly raised beyond the 13 percent of the
search methods such as surveys, case time in conventional American schools.
studies, and experiments (Walberg, probed for their significance in promot-
1983a). For example, the effects of mas- ing learning in three large sets of statisti- For instance, the mere four or five
tery learning on different types of stu- cal data on elementary and high school hours per week high school students
dents and in different school subjects students-the National Assessment of typically devote to homework might be
and grade levels may be estimated to Educational Progress, High School and supplemented by some of the 28 hours
determine the extent of their generality. Beyond, and the International Study of
per week they spend viewing television
What has been empirically found in Educational Achievement (Walberg, (Walberg and Shanahan, 1983). Euro-
thousands of studies isthat generally the 1984c; Walberg and Shanahan, 1983;
results are surprisingly robust. Echoing and Walberg, Harnisch, and Tsai, peans and Japanese believe homework
1984). Finally, large-scale studies were helps learning; empirical results of
made of the most effective ways of assist- American research summarized below

support their belief.

ing educators to bring about construc- Specific Effects
tive changes in schools (Walberg and Figures 2 through 4 show the numerical
Genova, 1982). results of syntheses of several thousand

Results studies of academic learning conducted

Collectively the various studies suggest during the past half century Interested

that the three groups of previously-de- readers and those who wish technical

fined nine factors are powerful and con- details may examine the findings and

sistent in influencing learning. Synthe- methods reported in the compilations of

ses of about 3,000 studies suggest that these syntheses (cited in the references),

these generalizable factors are the chief which in turn, contain references to the

22 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

original studies. (In several instances, Other Large Effects 1957, several svntheses of their evalua-
separate estimates of correlations and
effects are available for science and Several other instructional programs tions show that thev had moderate ef-
mathematics because the National Sci-
ence Foundation awarded grants for and methods have strong effects ranging fects on leaming.
special synthesis projects on these two from .3 to .8. These include coopera- High teacher expectations for student
subjects. The tables contain both effects
and correlations, and the correlations tive-team learning in which some au- performance also have a moderate ef-
assume a one-standard deviation rise in tonomy over the means and pace of fect. on average, as do advance organiz-
the independent variable).
learning is delegated to students who ers, which are "cognitive maps" show-
Student Aptitude help each other in small groups.
Figure 2 shows that IQ is a strong ing the relationship of material to be
correlate of general academic learning
but only a moderately strong correlate of learned in a lesson to concepts learned
science learning. A student's Piagetian
stage of development correlates moder- = W=sflpm5 2. A1111111i in previous lessons.
ately with both general and science Some highly touted programs have
learning. By comparison, motivation
and self concept are weaker correlates. tu la di- had small and even negative efects on
average (shown in the lower part of
Student aptitudes as a set may be less -Abs -- d Figure 3). Reduced class size, for exa-
alterable than instruction. Yet positive
home environments and good instruc- pie, has small positive effects but is
tion affect them (Figure 1); and, since
they are powerful correlates of learning, IQ .71 r (00001 expensive and draws money and effort
they deserve inclusion in theories of IQ mu~ece A^SxocX away from factors with large effects.
educational productivity.
(Japanese school classes often run
The Largest Instructional Effects
Figure 3 shows the effects of various ra J-l Bala o 2100 three times the current U.S. average of
aspects and methods of instruction. Of 17 students per class; yet thev consistent-
all the factors in the table, the psycho-
logical components of mastery learning scI 0km-'tU sudm h ly rank highest among nations com-
rank first and fourth in their effects on alSd~sde"u411:110 m .16 )DC pared in mathematics and science
educational outcomes: Skinnerian rein- achievement. With fixed or declining
forcement or reward for correct per-
formance has the largest overall average Nmoasses: lVhieeXtavXpdmk cln _lattloawas~s. budgets for U.S. education, we may
effect-1.1.7 standard deviations; in-
structional cues, engagement, and cor- dX face the trade-off of sharply increasing
rective feedback have effects equal to _ Acaedze-Wn~telabc~hers' salaries and incentives-wvhich
approximately one standard deviation. ,
Separate syntheses of mastery programs
in science show an average effect of .8. at . 0 may help the morale and productivity of

Acceleration programs, ranked sec- a smaller, elite worlfore--vems keep-
ond in effect, provide advanced activi-
ties to elementary and high school stu- ing class sizes far smaller than the aver-
dents with outstanding test scores.
Students in these programs gain much Personalized and adaptive instruc- ages of the first seven decades of Ameri-
more than comparable control groups. tion, tutoring, and diagnostic-prescrip-
tive methods also have strong effects. can education in this century.)
Reading training, ranked third in in- Personalized learning, sometimes called The effect reported for computer-as-
structional impact, refers to programs "the Keller Plan," is similar to mastery
that coach learners in adjusting reading learning in mainly eliminating lectures sisted instruction is deceptively small.
speed and techniques to purposes such and recitations but guiding each student Most of the research was conducted
as skimming, comprehension, and find- by entry tests and written lessons plus
ing answers to questions. The usual individual help. Adaptive instruction with drill-and-practice or "page-turn-
learning criterion in evaluating these ing" programs rather than the more
programs is learner adaptability to pur- uses similar techniques plus work in
pose. small groups and differentiated staffing psychologically sophisticated ones now
to increase learning. being developed. Because future pro-
MAY 1984
Tutoring and lesson prescriptions grams will be able to adapt to learner
interests and abilities, they are likely to
based on diagnosed individual needs are show large effects (Walberg , 1983).
similar ways to adapt instruction to
learners rather than batch-processing (However, educators may have to wait a
them. These related methods may attain decade or two before such effects are

their success by helping students to con- demonstrated. Accumulating closet

full of unused or usable computers to-
day may deter valid and efficient use of
much better ones later.)

centrate on the specific goals they indi-

vidually need to achieve, or by freeing Quantity and Intruction
them from the pervasive seatwork and Instructional time, as shown in the last
recitation in groups that may suit only line of Figure 3, has an overall correla-
the middle third of the students. tion ofabout .4 with learning outcomes.

Moderate and Small Effects of It is neither the chief detenninant nor a

Instruction weak correlate of learning; like the other

Although many schools no longer use essential factors, time appears to be a

the science and mathematics curricula necessary ingredient but insicient by

created in the decade after Sputnik in itself to produce learning.

23

For at least two reasons, time is a and cognitive learning. Morale refers to parison, homework that is merely as-
particularly interesting factor: first, sev- the cohesiveness, satisfaction, goal di-
eral national reports have called atten- rection, and related social-psychological signed has an effect comparable to SES.
tion to the need for lengthening the properties or climate of the classroom More than about 12 per weekly hours of
school day and year to the levels of other group perceived by students. By com- leisure-time television viewing, perhaps
countries, particularly Japan and West- parison, the influence of the peer-group because it displaces more educationally-
em Europe (National Commission, outside of school is moderate and com- constructive home activities, has a weak
1983; Walberg, 1983). negative or deleterious influence on
parable to the influence of the student's school learning.
Second, time is the only factor that socioeconomic status.(SES).
can be roughly measured on a ratio In addition to increasing supervised
scale with equal intervals between scale As also shown in Figure 4, homework homework and reducing television
points and a true zero point. Perhaps that is graded or commented upon has viewing, school-parent programs to im-
because it can be measured on an abso- three times the effect of SES. By corn- prove academic conditions in the home
lute scale resembling capital and labor
inputs to production processes in agri- Figure 3. Instructnal Quity and Time lects on Leaing
culture and industry, time has shown
diminishing returns (Frederick and Meihod Eled Size
Walberg, 1980): equal additions of XXVJ00MV=00
time, with other factors held fixed, yield Reinforcement 1.17
ever smaller gains in learning, which )0000000((X
suggests that neither time alone nor any Accenraton 1.00 X)000)(X)CO(
other factor by itself can solve the pro- Reading Training .97
ductivity problem. Cues and Feedback .97 XXX0000(
Sdcience Mastery Learning .81
It is also reasonable to think that zero CoTprative earning .76 XXXXXXXXXXXOX)OOX(
time results in zero learning no matter .60
what the level of the other factors, and, Readin _priments .57 XXXX
to generalize, that each of the other Personalized Instruction .45
essential factors, if well measured, Adaptve Instruction .40 XXX
would prove necessary but insufficient Tutoring .35 XXX
by itself and would show diminishing ndivrdualized Science .34 XXXOXXXXX
returns-thus the possible danger of Higher-Order Questions .33 XXX
concentrating on any one factor alone. Dianotic Prescriptive Methods .32 XXXXXXXXX
Indivdualized Instruction .32 -X.
Since the other factors are not mea- Individualiled Mathematics .31 XXW
sured as universally and precisely as New Science Curricula .28
time, this remains a matter of specula- Teacher Spectatlons .24
tion. But it can be concluded that learn- Computer Assisted Instruction .24
ing is produced jointly by several factors Sequenced Lessons .23
rather than any one by itself. A prelimi- Advance Organizers .18
nary estimate suggests that optimizing New Mathematics Curricula .16
all the factors simultaneously is associat- Inquiry lobey .10
ed with an effect of about 3.7, which is Homogeneous Groups .09
about three times the 1.2 effect of the -. 03
most powerful factor, reinforcement, by Class Size
itself and nearly 15 times the effect of Programmed Instruction -. 12
socioeconomic status (Horn and Wal- Mainstreaming
berg, 1984).
Instructional Time .38
Environments
Figure 4 shows the major results of Note: The X symbols represent the sizes of effects in tenths of standard deviations.
syntheses of the supportive or supple-
mentary factors. Ignored in several na- Figure 4. Home, Peer, Ca Moral, and Mefd Elecbt
tional reports and in instructional theo-
ries, these factors have strong influences Graded Homework Elect XXXXXX)OO
on learning. The psychological morale Cls Morale XXXXX
or climate of the classroom group, for Home Intventions .XXXxOxx
example, strongly predicts end-of- .60 X)OX
course measures of affective, behavioral, Home Evonment .50 XXX
Assid Hom k .37 XXX
SocIeconomic Status .28 XX
eer Goup .25 X.
Televsion .24
-.05

Note: The Xsymbos reprent t sim of eects In tenths of stndKld deviations or
corrMllos.

24 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

have an outstanding record of success in Open education has been dismissed i
promoting achievement. What might by many educators, but syntheses of
be called "the alterable curriculum of research now illuminate its beneficial "The 'alterable
the home" is twice as predictive of effects. From the start, open educators curriculum of the
academic learning as is family SES. tried to encourage educational out- home' is twice as
comes that reflect teacher, parent, stu- predictive of
This curriculum refers to informed dent, and school board goals such as academic learning
parent-child conversations about school cooperation, critical thinking, self reli- as is family
and everyday events; encouragement ance, constructive attitudes, life-long socioeconomic
and discussion of leisure reading; moni- learning, and other objectives that tech- status."
toring and joint critical analysis of tele- nially oriented psychometrists seldom
vision viewing and peer activities; defer- measure. Raven's (1981) summary of Although open education, like its
ral of immediate gratifications to surveys in Western countries, including precursors, faded from view, it was more
accomplish long-term human-capital England and the United States, shows massively researched bv dozens of inves-
goals; expressions of affection and inter- that, when given a choice, educators, tigators whose work goes little noted.
est in the child's academic and other parents, and students rank these goals Perhaps the syntheses of this research
progress as a person; and perhaps, above standardized test scores and may be useful to educators who want to
among such unremitting efforts, smiles, school marks. base practice on s nthesized knowledge
laughter, caprice, and serendipity. rather than on fads, or to those who will
Moreover, a synthesis of the relation evaluate future descendants of open
Cooperative efforts by parents and between grades and adult success shows education.
educators to modify these alterable aca- their slight association (Samson and
demic conditions in the home have others, 1984). Thirty-three post-1949 Hedges, Giaconia, and Gage (1981)
strong, beneficial effects on learning. In studies of the college and professional- synthesized 153 studies of open educa-
29 controlled studies of the past decade, school grades of physicians, engineers, ton, including 90 dissertations. The
91 percent of the comparisons favored civil servants, teachers, and other average effect was near zero for achieve-
children in such programs over non- groups show an average correlation of ment, locus of control, self concept
participant control groups. Although 1155 of these educational outcomes with and anxiety (which suggests no differ-
the average effect was twice that of SES, life-success indicators such as income; ence between open and control classes
some programs had effects ten times as self-rated happiness; work performance on these criteria); about .2 for adjust-
large; and the programs appear to bene- and output indexes; and self-, peer-, and ment, attitude toward schools and
fit older as well as younger students. supervisor-ratings of occupational effec- teachers, curiosity, and general mental
tiveness. ability; and about a moderate .3 for
Since few of the programs lasted more cooperativeness, creativity, and inde-
than a semester, the potential for those These results should challenge edu- pendence. Thus, students in open class-
sustained over the years of schooling is cators and researchers to seek a balance es do no worse in standardized achieve-
great. On the other hand, it should be between continuing autonomy, motiva- ment and slightly to moderately better
recognized that educators cannot carry tion, responsibility, and skills to learn on several outcomes that educators, par-
out these programs by themselves; they new tasks as an individual or group ents, and students hold to be of great
require the concerted cooperation of member on one hand and memoriza- value.
parents, students, and other agents in tion of teacher-chosen, textbook knowl-
the community. edge that may soon be obsolete or for- Unfortunately, the negative conclu-
gotten on the other. Perhaps since sion of Bennett's (1976) single stud--
Autonomous Learning Socrates, however, these views have re- introduced by a prominent psychologist,
Ifeducation proceeds by fads rather than mained so polarized that educators find published by Hanrvard University Press,
cumulative research, it will fail to make it difficult to stand firmly on the high
the great advances in productivity that middle ground of balanced or coopera-
have characterized agriculture and in- tive teacher-student determination of
dustry in this century. Syntheses of re- the goals, means, and evaluation of
search on the effects of open education learning.
illustrate the dangers of basing conclu-
sions, policies, and practices on single Progressive education, the Dalton
studies no matter how large or widely and Winnetka plans, team teaching,
publicized. They also illustrate the and the ungraded school, and other
strengths of replication and improved innovations in this century-all held
methods of synthesis, and a shortcom- forth this or a similar ideal but drifted
ing of some of the research discussed into authoritarianism, permissiveness,
above that employs grades and standard- or confusion. They were difficult to
ized achievement as the only outcome sustain as idealized.
of educaton.

MAY 1984 25

publicized by The New York Times and human welfare as doubts arose about plishments also result from sustained
by experts that take the press as their hard work, supportive parents, and
source-trumpeted the failure of open traditional, natural, and mystical prac- world-class standards and instruction.
education, even though the conclusion tices, as the widened measurement of
of the study was later retracted (Aitkin, results intensified, as experimental find- Psychological studies of the lives of emi-
Bennett, and Hesketh, 1981) because of ings were synthesized, and as their theo- nent painters, writers, musicians, phi-
obvious statistical flaws in the original retical and practical implications were losophers, scientists, and religious and
analysis (Aitkin, Anderson, and Hinde, coordinated and vigorously implement-
1981). ed and evaluated. Education is no less political leaders of past centuries as well
as prize-winning adolescents of today
Giaconia and Hedges (1982) took an- upen to humanistic and scientific inqui- reveal early, intense, and sustained con-
other recent and constructive step in the ry and no lower in priority since half the
synthesis of open education research. workers in modern nations are in knowl- centration as well as parents and teach-
From their prior synthesis, they identi- ers who sacrificed much to help them.
fied the studies with the largest positive edge industries, and the value of invest-
and negative effects on several outcomes ments in people is now more apparent World-class performance may require
to differentiate more and less effective than ever (Walberg, 1983). Although 70 hours of effective instruction and
program features. They found that pro- more and better research is required,
grams that are more effective in produc- synthesis points the way toward im- practice per week for adecade (Walberg,
ing the nonachievement outcomes- provements that seem likely to increase
attitude, creativity, and self concept- teaching effectiveness and educational 1983). It may take considerably more-
sacrificed academic achievement on productivity.
standardized measures. or perhaps less. The fact that we cannot
In addition, we educators can learn say shows how much more we need to
These programs were characterized more from our past successes and fail- know about investing in students-and
by emphasis on the role of the child in ures in using scarce resources, especially how much more seriously educators and
learning, use of diagnostic rather than human time, to meet competing goals.
norm-referenced evaluation, individ- Recent national reports may rightly call their allies might take the idea of im-
ualized instruction, and manipulative for more emphasis on academic subject
materials but not three other compo- matter, and the National Commission proving their productivity.OI
nents sometimes thought essential to on Excellence (1983) seems right in
open programs--multi-age grouping, emphasizing the need for more time in References
open space, and team teaching. Gia- school. But students should also be
conia and Hedges speculate that chil- employing more time in academic pur- Aitkin, M; Anderson, D., and Hindc. J.
dren in the most extreme open programs suits outside the school and using both "Modeling of Data on Teaching Styles (with
may do somewhat less well on conven- in-school and out-of-school time more Discussion)." Journal ofthe Royal Statistical
tional achievement tests because they Society, Series A 144 (1981): 419-461
have little experience with them. At any efficiently.
rate, it appears from the two most com- Synthesis of educational and psycho- Aitkin, M.; Bennett, S.N . and Hesketh,
prehensive syntheses of effects that open J. "Teaching Styles and Pupil Progress: A
classes on average enhance several non- logical research in ordinary schools Re-Analysis." British Joumal of Educational
standard outcomes without detracting shows that improving the amount and Psychology 51 (1984), in press.
from academic achievement unless they quality of instruction can result in vastly
are radically extreme. more effective and efficient academic Bennett, S.N. Teaching Styles and Pupil
learning. Educators can do even more Progress. London: Open Books, 1976.
Caveats and Conclusions by also enlisting families as partners and
Research workers and educators should engaging them directly and indirectly in Gallup, G.H. "The 15th Annual Gallup
retain both openmindedness and skepti- their efforts. Poll of the Public's Attitudes Toward the
cism about educational productivity and Schools." Phi Delta Kappan 65, 1 (1983):
syntheses of research. Yet the present The present overview of a vast 33-47.
does seem a period of quiet accomplish- amount of research cannot substitute for
ment. In a short time, research synthesis selectively reading some of the several Giaconia, R.M., and Hedges, L.V. Iden-
and other comprehensive approaches dozen syntheses and thousands of stud- tifying Features of Open Education. Stan-
helped sort what is known from what ies conducted in the past half century. ford, Calif.: Stanford Center for Educational
needs to be known about some impor- Since many details are omitted here, Research, 1982
tant means and ends of education. reading the original material might pro-
mote a more complete and critical un- Hedges, L.V; Giaconia, R.M.; and
Agriculture, engineering, and medi- derstanding of specific factors and meth- Gage, N. L. Meta-Analysis of the Effects of
cine made great strides in improving ods. For example, although the factors Open and Traditional Instruction Stanford,
that have large effects are robustly posi- Calif: Stanford University Program on
2266 tive, exceptional conditions can reduce Teaching Effectiveness, 1981.
their effectiveness.
Hom, A. and Walberg, H.J. "Achieve-
Finally, educational costs and goals ment and Attitude as Functions of Quantity
beyond immediate measurement are and Quality of Instruction. " Journal of Edu-
worth remembering. But great accom- cational Research (1984), in press.

National Commission on Excellence in
Education. A Nation at Risk. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
1983.

Raven, J. "The Most Important Problem
in Education is to Come to Terms With
Values." Oxford Review of Education 7
(1981): 253-272.

Samson, G.; Graue, M.E.; Weinstein,
T; and Walberg, H.J. "Academic and Oc-

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

cupational Performance: A Quantitatise Walberg, H.J. "Familics as Partnelrs in gWalberg. H.J.; Hamisch. D.; and Tsai.
Educational Productivit." Phi Delta Kap- S.-L "High School Productiits- in Tsrhve
Synthesis." American Educational Research pan (19 84a), in press.
Countries." Journalof EducationalResearch
lournal (1984, in press) Walberg. H.J. "Quantification Reconsid- (1984). in press.
Schiller. D P. and Walbcrg, H J. "Japan: ered " In Review of Research in Education.
Edited b! E. Gordon. Washington, D.C.: Walberg. H.I.; Schiller. D.P.; and Haer-
The Learning Socich-." Educational Leader- American Educational Research Associa- tel, G. D. "The Quiet Resoluton in Educa-
tion. 1984b.
ship 39 (March 19821 411-413. tional Research.' Phi Delta Kappan 61. g
Walberg, H.l. "Synthesis of Research on (1979): 179-182.
Stevenson, H Comparisons ot lapanese. Teaching." In Handbook of Research on
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Taiwanese, and Amencan Mathematics ington., DC.: American Educational Re- School Effects on Indiv-idual Students.
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Advanced Studs imtlhe Behaxioral Sciences. School, and Workshop Influences on
Kno-lcedge Use im Educational Impro-e- Relation of Teaching and Learning: A Re-
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1981

Walberg, 11J "Scientific litcrac! and
Econonlic Productiviht in Intcrinationial Per-

spcctic." DIaedalus 112 119831: 1-28.

A Guide to Educational Trouble-Shooting

Walberg's work shows that no single factor by itself
determines learning, but that a few key factors in
combination do. Educators can use this knowledge to

examine their own school programs.

RALPH W. TYLER

ans of us who arc concerned statistical significance with substantive from a relatively few factors or s-anriables
with teaching and learning or social significance; hc seeks to explain a numerical approximation to the many
havc had difficulty in making interactions among variables in com-
constructive use of reports of education- mon-sense terms; and he examines and particular quantities reported as data.
al research. particularly those dealing reports both macro studies and micro Earlv macro studies in the fields of
with large aggregates of data. Herbert studies. agricultural economics illustrate the na-
Walbcrg has done a superior intcrpreta- ture of macro studies in the social sci-
A macro study in the social sciences ences. The investigators sought to devel-
tion of one of the most massive collec- deals with large bodies of data aggregat-
tions of data on school learning. He ed over a large number and variety of op an equation that would produce an
avoids the common weaknesses of many phenomena. It seeks to develop a math- approximation to the actual reported
statistical reports; he recognizes the ematical equation that will produce
complexity of much human learning agricultural production in the leading
and does not trn to reduce it to a Ralph W. Tyler is Director Emeritus. Western nations. The original equation
simplistic model; he discusses the mean- Center for Advanced Study of the Behav- that was developed predicted the quanti-
ing of the data as well as indicating the ioral Sciences, Palo Alto, California. tv of a product produced by the nation
quantitative results; he does not confuse from the amount of land devoted to
producing the product, the number of
persons employed in the production.

MAY 1984

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Development. All rights reserved.