Fixing Landscape_ A Techno-Poetic History of China’s Three

266 3. chinese l andscape 47. Igor Iwo Chabrowski argues that detailed charts of the Upper Yangzi appeared only in the late Qing in response to increased economic activity on the river; Igor Iwo Chabrowski, Singing on the River: Sichuan Boatmen and Their Work Songs, 1880s–1930s (Boston: Brill, 2015), chap. 1, especially 63–72. 48. For more on early charts of the river, see Julia Orell, “Picturing the Yangzi River in Southern Song China (1127–1279)” (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2011), 207–210, and Cordell Yee, “Cartography in China,” in The History of Cartography, vol. 2, book 2, Cartography in the Traditional East and Southeast Asian Societies, ed. J. B. Harley and David Woodward (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 160–166. 49. Liu Shengyuan 劉聲元, Xiajiang tanxian zhi 峽江灘險志 (Beijing: Heji yinshuaju, 1920). 50. There is confusion over whether this figure’s name is Guo Zhang or Jiang Guozhang 江國璋. I follow Lan Yong’s 藍勇 usage here, as he is one of the few scholars to have carried out extensive research on the topic; Lan Yong, Changjiang sanxia lishi dili 長江三峽歷史地理 (Chengdu: Sichuan renmin chubanshe, 2003), 435–440. Multiple editions of the Critical Chart were published between 1901 and 1926. Most consist of two volumes, each of which centers on a lithographic chart sandwiched between two textual stage guides. The guides list the location of landmarks, give distances between them, and provide navigational information. Combined, the lithographic charts depict the river as it runs from Yichang to Chongqing and back. According to available sources, the chart was first published in 1901 by Shanghai’s Xiuhai shanfang shuju 袖海山房書局, though I have not been able to locate a dated version from before 1916. There are four versions in the collection of the Harvard Yenching Library. The finest, Chuanxing bidu xiajiang tukao 川行必讀峽江圖考, is undated but may be the 1901 edition. There are three dated editions (1916, 1919, and 1926) of a version titled Xingchuan biyao tukao 行川必要圖考 published by the Wensheng shuju 文盛書局. 51. Lan Yong 藍勇, “Qingdai changjiang shangyou jiusheng hongchuanzhi chutan清代長江 上游救生紅船制初探,” Zhongguo shehui jingjishi yanjiu 中國社會經濟史研究 4 (1995): 37–43. For information on other philanthropic programs, see Kim, “River Control.” 52. Yang Baoshan 楊寶珊, comp., Chuanjiang tushuo jicheng 川江圖說集成 (Chongqing: Zhongxi shuju, 1923). 53. The Sichuan Yangzi Steam Navigation Company was founded in 1908 with funds provided by Qing officials, Sichuanese gentry, and merchants in order to maintain Chinese control over commercial steamships on the Upper Yangzi. Reinhardt, Navigating Semi-Colonialism, 185–186. 54. Yang, Chuanjiang tushuo, no page numbers. 55. Li, “Wanqing.” 56. Yee, “Cartography,” 128. 57. Yee, “Cartography,” 128.

3. chinese l andscape 267 58. For an example of Qing topographical painting, woodblock carving, and engraving, see Kangxi Emperor, Yu Shen, and Matteo Ripa, Thirty-six Views: The Kangxi Emperor’s Mountain Estate in Poetry and Prints, trans. Richard E. Strassberg (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 2016), and Lin Qing 麟慶 and Wang Chunquan 汪春泉, Hongxue yinyuan tuji 鴻雪因緣圖記 (Beijing: Guojia tushuguan chubanshe, 2011). 59. Laikwan Pang, The Distorting Mirror: Visual Modernity in China (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2007), 40. 60. Pang, The Distorting Mirror, 40–44. 61. For more on Woodhead, see Robert Bickers, Britain in China: Community, Culture and Colonialism, 1900–1949 (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2012), chap. 2. 62. For more on the American-owned Yangtsze Rapid Steamship Co., see Frederick B. Hoyt, “The Open Door Leads to Reluctant Intervention: The Case of the Yangtze Rapid Steamship Company,” Diplomatic History 1, no. 2 (1977): 155–169. 63. The Yangtsze and Its Problems reads as a caricature of orientalist ideas, but its focus on economic and infrastructural issues aligns it with some Chinese travel accounts of the period. According to Madeleine Yue Dong, Chinese accounts of inland and borderland travel from the 1920s and 1930s tended to focus on “the geography of these parts of the country . . . in terms of industrial capacity, conditions of transportation, and natural resources,” reproducing the strategic survey approach of foreign accounts in the context of national construction; Madeleine Yue Dong, “Shanghai’s China Traveler,” in Everyday Modernity in China, ed. Madeleine Yue Dong and Joshua L. Goldstein (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006), 212. The Minsheng Industrial Company (Minsheng shiye gongsi 民生事業公司), which included a Yangzi shipping concern, published numerous articles between 1936 and 1946 on the Three Gorges region in its journal A New World (Xin shijie 新世界). Most of these focus on industrial and commercial development, though the journal also printed scenic photographs and poetry and promoted tourism in the Gorges and other areas of Sichuan. Reinhardt, Navigating Semi-Colonialism, 283, 350n116. Chinese travel accounts of the Three Gorges appear in multiple tourism and lifestyle journals from the 1930s and early 1940s. These typically center on the same famous sites (shengji 勝跡) that Tang and Song travelers sought out. An essay from 1932 is typical: written in a slightly modernized classical Chinese, it is nearly identical in poetic tone and format to premodern travel essays and gazetteer entries in which famous landmarks are described by citing poetry by figures such as Du Fu, Li Bai, and Fan Chengda and geographical texts such as Li Daoyuan’s Commentary to the Classic of Rivers; Zhao Youwen 趙幼文, “Sanxia yiyou 三峽憶游” (A Three Gorges Journey Remembered), Lüxing zazhi 旅行雜誌 6, no. 6 (1932): 9–18. Another essay, from 1939, also cites Li’s Commentary, though it does so shortly after providing a capsule history of Little’s and Plant’s roles in introducing steamships on the Upper

268 3. chinese l andscape Yangzi; Fu Huanguang 傅煥光, “Sanxia ji 三峽記” (Three Gorges Diary), Lüxing zazhi 旅行雜誌 13, no. 2 (1939): 3–6. For additional travel essays from this period, see Wang Xiaoting 王小亭, “Sanxia jiyou 三峽紀遊,” Dazhong huabao 大眾畫報 1 (1933): 16–17; Gao Bochen 高伯琛, “Sanxia daoguan 三峽道觀,” Lüxing zazhi 旅行雜誌 10, no. 1 (1936): 103–112; and Jiang Zhonghai 江仲海, “Sanxia yipie 三峽一瞥,” Xin Zhonghua 新中華 5, no. 6 (1937): 82–89. For more on tourism between the late Qing and early years of the People’s Republic, see Mo Yajun, “Itineraries for a Republic: Tourism and Travel Culture in Modern China, 1866–1954” (PhD diss., University of California, Santa Cruz, 2011). 64. Woodhead, The Yangtsze, 4, 6–7. 65. Woodhead, The Yangtsze, 4. 66. Woodhead, The Yangtsze, 42. 67. Travelers encountered a great deal of writing carved into cliffs or mountainsides. Here is Isabella Bird’s description of a temple near Yunyang in the Gorges: “Nature and art have combined in a perfect picturesqueness. On the flat vertical surface of a noble cliff rising from the boulder-strewn shore of the Yangtze are four characters—and what can be more decorative than Chinese characters ‘writ large’?—which are translated ‘Ethereal bell, one thousand ages.’ ” Isabella Bird, The Yangtze Valley and Beyond (Boston: Beacon, 1985), 163. 68. Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 80. See also Andrea Bachner, Beyond Sinology: Chinese Writing and the Scripts of Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 2014), 95, and throughout. 69. Images of penetration have long been a central component of colonial discourse. See David Spurr, The Rhetoric of Empire: Colonial Discourse in Journalism, Travel Writing, and Imperial Administration (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993), 19. 70. Worster, Nature’s Economy, 379. 71. For more on “free trade imperialism,” see Lisa Lowe, The Intimacies of Four Continents (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2015), 74, 216n4, 216n7. 72. Worster, Nature’s Economy, 379. 73. For a critique of natural history as imperial project, see Pratt, Imperial Eyes, 37. 74. The Qing Dynasty was, of course, a major imperial power with extensive experience in exploiting natural resources from colonized regions such as Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang. What I am discussing here, however, is the embrace by the Qing and later Chinese governments of the modern scientific disciplines and technologies integral to resource imperialism as part of a discourse of national sovereignty. Perhaps the most relevant account of how the Qing and later Chinese governments reconceptualized resources and adopted the “underlying values” of Euro-American resource imperialism is Wu, Empires of Coal, 3. See also Grace Yen Shen, Unearthing the Nation: Modern Geology and

4. chinese l abor 269 Nationalism in Republican China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014), and Sakura Christmas, “The Cartographic Steppe: Spaces of Development in Northeast Asia, 1895–1945” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2016). 75. Bird, The Yangtze Valley, 147. 76. Blakiston describes the same phenomenon in Five Months, 139. 77. John Thomson, Illustrations of China and Its People (London: S. Low, Marston, Low, and Searle, 1873), Introduction. Volume 3 of Thomson’s book includes a ten-page account of his journey through the Gorges as well as one of the earliest photographic travelogues of the region. 78. Bird often refers to coal in The Yangtze Valley and Beyond. Archibald Little, who made his livelihood selling mining equipment, provides a lengthy account of a visit to a mining operation outside of Chongqing and comments throughout his narrative on the prospects for mining in Sichuan; Through the Yang-tse Gorges, 273–282. Much of the popular interest in coal can be traced to the writings of the German geologist Ferdinand von Richthofen, who studied China’s geology between 1868 and 1872. See Wu, Empires of Coal, chap. 2, and Shen, Unearthing the Nation, chap. 1. 79. Martin Heidegger, “The Question Concerning Technology,” in Basic Writings, trans. David Farrell Krell (New York: Harper Collins, 1993), 320. 80. Heidegger, “The Question Concerning Technology,” 320. 81. Heidegger, “The Question Concerning Technology,” 326. 4. Chinese Labor 1. “Women chuangongde shenghuo zhen beican 我們船工的生活真悲慘” (The life of us boatmen is tragic indeed), in Zhongguo geyao jicheng Chongqingshi juan 中國歌謠集 成重慶市卷, ed. Nie Yunyan 聶雲嵐 (Chongqing: Kexue jishu wenxian chubanshe, 1989), 24; Igor Iwo Chabrowski, Singing on the River: Sichuan Boatmen and Their Work Songs, 1880s–1930s (Boston: Brill, 2015), 183. 2. Archibald Little, Gleanings from Fifty Years in China (London: Sampson Low, Marston & Co., 1910), 42. 3. There are a range of Chinese word for trackers, including shuishou 水手, yeshou 曳手, chuanfu 船夫, and qianfu 縴夫. The last two are the most common. 4. Important exceptions include Du Fu’s “Ballad of the Most Skilled 最能行” (DSXZ 1286; Owen 15.19), which celebrates the skill of Yangzi boatmen, and Mi Fu’s 米芾 (1051–1107), “A Poem Written in a Boat on the Wu River 吳江舟中詩,” which describes trackers hauling a boat in windy weather. For a translation of the latter, see Peter Sturman, Mi Fu: Style and the Art of Calligraphy in Northern Song China (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997), 115–117. In addition to these relatively rare treatments of tracking, a number of folk songs and sayings attributed to Yangzi boatmen—including

270 4. chinese l abor the song about crying gibbons cited in Li Daoyuan’s Shuijing zhu—were taken up as conventionalized examples of local culture by literati poets. Boatmen also appear with some regularity in folk-song-inspired “bamboo branch lyrics” (zhuzhi ci 竹枝詞), the most famous of which were composed by the temporary Kuizhou resident Liu Yuxi 劉禹錫 (772–824). Later examples, especially from the Qing, sometimes describe the harsh conditions under which trackers and other boatmen worked, as well as the songs (haozi 號子) that they sang while working; Chabrowski, Singing, 107–113. Perhaps the most famous pictorial representation of river trackers is in Zhang Zeduan’s 張擇 端 (fl. twelfth century) Qingming shanghe tu 清明上河圖 (Along the River on the Qingming Festival), in the collection of the Palace Museum, Beijing. 5. Chabrowski, Singing, 63. 6. For examples of Chinese travel writing on the Three Gorges, see chapter 3, note 63. 7. Chinese woodblock artists may have been influenced in their depiction of trackers by Ilya Repin’s (1844–1930) famous painting Barge Haulers on the Volga River (1870–1873), which was reproduced in China at least as early as 1922; Xiaoshuo yuebao 小說月報 13, no. 4 (1922): 7. A 1932 painting of two trackers by the artist Wu Zuoren 吳作人 is especially evocative of Repin’s image; Wu’s work is reproduced in Guoli zhongyang daxue jiaoyu congkan 國立中央大學教育叢刊 3, no. 1 (1935): 1. For more on the reception of Repin’s image and for examples of trackers in Republican-era art and print culture, see Xiaobing Tang, Origins of the Chinese Avant-Garde (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), 177, 181. The tracker is now closely associated with the Gorges, thanks in part to his adoption in the post-Revolution era as a symbol of proletarian fortitude. Like the famous “rice sprout songs” (yangge 秧歌) of Northern China, boatmen’s haozi were repurposed as examples of revolutionary popular culture; Chabrowski, Singing, 23–25. 8. Donald Mennie, The Grandeur of the Gorges: Fifty Photographic Studies, with Descriptive Notes, of China’s Great Waterway, the Yangste Kiang, Including Twelve Hand-Coloured Prints (Shanghai: A. S. Watson, 1926), Preface. 9. H. G. W. Woodhead, The Yangtsze and Its Problems (Shanghai: Mercury Press of Shanghai, 1931), 30. Between 1898 and 1911, only twenty-five steamships reached Chongqing, but numbers began to increase steadily beginning in 1912. By 1922, 693 steamships dropped anchor in Chongqing. While the logistics of moving the Republican capital to Chongqing and provisioning it during the Japanese invasion led to a brief increase in junk traffic, their displacement by steamships was already well underway by the early 1920s. Zhou Yong 周勇, Chongqing tongshi 重慶通史 (Chongqing: Chongqing chubanshe, 2002), 400, cited in Chabrowski, Singing, 76. 10. Woodhead likens Chinese people to animals a number of times in The Yangtsze and Its Problems; see, for example, 84, 101.

4. chinese l abor 271 11. Woodhead, The Yangtsze and Its Problems, 30. 12. Richard White, The Organic Machine: The Remaking of the Columbia River (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995), 4. 13. Lyman P. Van Slyke, Yangtze: Nature, History, and the River (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1988), 125. 14. Ari Kelman, A River and Its City: The Nature of Landscape in New Orleans (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), 65. 15. For a variety of historical and economic reasons, traditional shipping methods persisted on the Yangzi (albeit on a small scale) well into the post-Revolution period (Chabrowski, Singing, 2, 20). 16. Chabrowski, Singing, 92. 17. Edward Parker, Up the Yang-tse (Hongkong: China Mail Office, 1891), 19. 18. Van Slyke, Yangtze, 125. 19. “Chinese Lack of Imagination” is a subject heading for a chapter on the gorges in Lawrence John Lumley Dundas’s A Wandering Student in the Far East (London: William Blackwood and Sons, 1908). For more on the history of the supposed failings of the Chinese imagination, see Nicholas R. Clifford, “A Truthful Impression of the Country”: British and American Travel Writing in China 1880–1949 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001), 56–57, chap. 2–3. 20. Dundas, A Wandering Student, 71. 21. Eric Hayot, The Hypothetical Mandarin: Sympathy, Modernity, and Chinese Pain (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 141; see also Colleen Lye, America’s Asia: Racial Form and American Literature, 1893–1945 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005). Hayot focuses on American “yellow peril” rhetoric, but similar beliefs are easy to find in British writings. 22. Hayot, The Hypothetical Mandarin, 141. 23. Hayot, The Hypothetical Mandarin, 168. For accounts of the coolie trade that linked Hong Kong with Latin America, see Lisa Lowe, The Intimacies of Four Continents (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2015), 21–41, chap. 4, and Evelyn Hu-Dehart, “Chinese Coolie Labor in Cuba and Peru in the Nineteenth Century: Free Labor or Neoslavery?,” Journal of Overseas Chinese Studies 2 (1992): 149–182. 24. Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity (New York: Basic Books, 1990), 46. 25. Rabinbach, The Human Motor, 2–3. 26. There is an extensive scholarly literature on the application of racial and physiological thought in colonial and national contexts. For examples, see Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1989), 292–318; Yuehtsen Juliette Chung, Struggle for National Survival: Eugenics in Sino-Japanese Contexts, 1896–1945 (New York: Routledge,

272 4. chinese l abor 2002); Frank Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China, 2d ed. (London: Hurst, 2015); Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, rev. ed. (New York: Norton, 1996); and Helen Tilley, Africa as a Living Laboratory: Empire, Development, and the Problem of Scientific Knowledge, 1870–1950 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011). For more on social Darwinism in China, see Andrew Jones, Developmental Fairy Tales: Evolutionary Thinking and Modern Chinese Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2011); James Pusey, China and Charles Darwin (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Asia Center, 1983); and James Pusey, Lu Xun and Evolution (Albany: State University of New York, 1998). 27. Archibald Little, Through the Yang-tse Gorges: or, Trade and Travel in Western China (London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington, 1888), 78. 28. Ari Larissa Heinrich’s The Afterlife of Images: Translating the Pathological Body Between China and the West (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2008) offers a compelling account of the representational tactics of missionary medicine, including an analysis of the collaboration between the missionary doctor Peter Parker and the Canton export painter Lam Qua. Hayot dedicates a chapter to the same topic in The Hypothetical Mandarin. 29. Hayot, The Hypothetical Mandarin, 145. 30. Lydia Liu, Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity—China, 1900–1937 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1995), 57. 31. Arthur H. Smith, Chinese Characteristics (Norwalk: EastBridge, 2002), 90. 32. Smith, Chinese Characteristics, 92. 33. Smith, Chinese Characteristics, 94. 34. Smith, Chinese Characteristics, 97. Most of Smith’s “characteristics” were centuries-old racial stereotypes. For more, see Hayot, The Hypothetical Mandarin, especially chap. 1. 35. Smith, Chinese Characteristics, 162–163. 36. Smith, Chinese Characteristics, 168. Smith cites two descriptions of Yangzi River trackers from travel accounts by Sir Alexander Hosie and Little. Isabella Bird provides an even more glowing report of the good-natured tracker: “These trackers may be the roughest class in China—for the work’s ‘inhuman’ and brutalizing—but, nevertheless, they are good-natured in their way, free on the whole from crimes of violence, full of antics, and frolic, clever at taking off foreigners, loving a joke, and with a keen sense of humor”; Isabella Bird, The Yangtze Valley and Beyond (Boston: Beacon, 1985), 215. 37. Smith, Chinese Characteristics, 170. 38. For more on haozi, see Igor Iwo Chabrowski’s Singing on the River, from which I have drawn my examples. Haozi emerged during the Republican period as important examples of laboring-class folk culture. In the early years of the People’s Republic of China, they were taken up as expressions of popular culture that could be recoded with class-conscious revolutionary content. During the Reform Period, they were

4. chinese l abor 273 recategorized as a form of “intangible cultural heritage” (feiwuzhi wenhua yichan 非物質 文化遺產); Chabrowski, Singing, 19, 25–26. 39. Little, Through the Yang-tse Gorges, 158. Bird claims that the noise of the river combined with the shouts of trackers pulling her boat over the Xintan affected her hearing for days; The Yangtze Valley, 142; Chabrowski, Singing, 106–107. R. Murray Schafer, The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World (Rochester, N.Y.: Destiny Books, 1994). 40. For more on haozi 號子 as “mnemonic tools created for remembering and navigating in space,” see Chabrowski, Singing, 137. 41. “Laoban dalai laoban ma 老闆打來老闆罵” (The boss beats us, the boss curses us) in Zhongguo geyao jicheng, 20; Chabrowski, Singing, 176. 42. “Yinian siji tanshang pa 一年四季灘上爬” (All year, every season we climb the rapids), Zhongguo geyao jicheng, 19; Chabrowski, Singing, 182. 43. “Women chuangongde shenghuo zhen beican 我們船工的生活真悲慘” (The life of us boatmen is tragic indeed), Zhongguo geyao jicheng, 24; Chabrowski, Singing, 183. 44. Chabrowski, Singing, 180–184. 45. David Strand, Rickshaw Beijing: City People and Politics in the 1920s (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Stephen Smith, Like Cattle and Horses: Nationalism and Labor in Shanghai, 1895–1927 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2002); Chabrowski, Singing, 264. 46. Rabinbach, The Human Motor, 4. 47. Rabinbach, The Human Motor, 63. 48. Bird, The Yangtze Valley, 138. 49. Bird, The Yangtze Valley, 142–143. 50. Smith’s casual observation obscures the by then already lengthy and controversial history of “dissection-based anatomy” in China. As Ari Larissa Heinrich has argued, over the course of the second half of the nineteenth century, Western medical missionaries “began to construct . . . still another ‘lack’ in Chinese tradition: the lack of willingness or ‘ability’ to perform autopsy because of what they saw as the cultural superstition that prevented it”; Heinrich, The Afterlife of Images, 118. Whatever lack there might have been was soon filled, not only by the absorption of Western anatomical knowledge but also by the development of an “aesthetics of anatomical realism” that made the figure of dissection central to modern Chinese literary production; Heinrich, The Afterlife of Images, 116. Thanks to Lydia Liu, it is a well-known irony that these realist techniques modeled on metaphors of dissection were deployed by Lu Xun against the very deficient Chinese characteristics cataloged by Smith. 51. Bird, The Yangtze Valley, 144–145. 52. David Spurr, The Rhetoric of Empire: Colonial Discourse in Journalism, Travel Writing, and Imperial Administration (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993), 170.

274 4. chinese l abor 53. For more on Bird’s politics, see Clifford, “A Truthful Impression,” and Susan Schoenbauer Thurin, Victorian Travelers and the Opening of China, 1842–1907 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1999), chap. 5. 54. Spurr, The Rhetoric of Empire, 175. 55. On her journey, Bird slept in a small cabin, a curtain the “only partition” separating her from the “half naked” trackers. Though she comments on their rough behavior, she decides in the end that they are not so bad, partly because they do not penetrate her space, even though it would have been as easy as pulling back her “cambric curtain”; Bird, The Yangtze Valley, 132. 56. Hayot, The Hypothetical Mandarin, 90. 57. Hayot, The Hypothetical Mandarin, 6. 58. Woodhead, The Yangtsze, 96. 59. I am indebted to Paola Iovene for encouraging me to reconsider the moral ambiguities of Bird’s sympathy in relation to our own sympathetic, artistic, and intellectual labors. 60. Woodhead, The Yangtsze, 147. 61. Woodhead, The Yangtsze, 148. 62. John Hersey, A Single Pebble (New York: Knopf, 1956), 107. 63. Hersey, A Single Pebble, 15. 64. For the history of geology as a modern scientific discipline in China, see Grace Shen, Modern Geology and Nationalism in Republican China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014). 65. Hersey, A Single Pebble, 6. 66. Hersey, A Single Pebble, 18. 67. Hersey, A Single Pebble, 15–16. 68. Little, Through the Yang-tse Gorges, 298, 318. 69. Hersey, A Single Pebble, 42–43. 70. This unnamed expert is cited by Eliza Scidmore in China: The Long-lived Empire (New York: Century, 1900), 456. See also Clifford, “A Truthful Impression,” 7. 71. As Julie Greene notes, the degrading effects of prolonged residence in colonial lands was a major concern around the turn of the twentieth century; Julie Greene, The Canal Builders: Making America’s Empire at the Panama Canal (New York: Penguin Press, 2009), 27. 72. E. M. Forster, A Passage to India (New York: Harcourt, 1924). 73. Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness and Other Tales (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008). 74. Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (New York: Routledge, 2008), 38. 75. Pratt, Imperial Eyes, chap. 4.

5. a record of the trace 275 76. Pratt, Imperial Eyes, 95. 77. Hersey, A Single Pebble, 180–181. 78. Hersey, A Single Pebble, 104. 79. Hersey, A Single Pebble, 103–104. 80. Little, Through the Yang-tse Gorges, 318. 81. The “Old” of Pebble’s name is presumably a “translation” of lao 老, which is commonly used as an honorific rather than to indicate age. Although “old” can have a similar flavor in English, it is used more consistently to refer to age. Hersey’s “translation” thus allows him to create a character who is simultaneously relatively young and old, an individual and a timeless type. 82. Little, Gleanings, 42, 178; Bird, The Yangtze Valley, 142. 83. Spurr, The Rhetoric of Empire, 22. 84. Hersey, A Single Pebble, 11. 85. Hersey, A Single Pebble, 4. 86. Sun Yat-sen 孫中山, Sanmin zhuyi 三民主義 (Taibei: Zhongyang wenwu gongyingshe, 1985), 272–275. 87. Sun Yat-sen, “Shang Li Hongzhang shu 上李鸿章书,” in Sun Zhongshan quanji 孫中 山全集 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1981), vol. 1, 8. 88. Rey Chow, Writing Diaspora: Tactics of Interventions in Contemporary Cultural Studies (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993), 7–8. 89. Hersey, A Single Pebble, 107. Passage iii. One Thousand Years 1. John Brinckerhoff Jackson, Discovering the Vernacular Landscape (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2009). 2. John Hersey, A Single Pebble (New York: Knopf, 1956), 82. 3. Hersey, A Single Pebble, 87. 4. Li Daoyuan 酈道元, Shuijing zhu jiaozheng 水經注校證, ed. Chen Qiaoyi 陳橋驛 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2007), 790. 5. A Record of the Trace 1. Andrew Chan and Jia Zhangke, “Online Exclusive Interview with Jia Zhangke,” Film Comment (March–April 2009), http://www.filmcomment.com/article/jia-zhangkeinterview. 2. Rey Chow, “China as Documentary: Some Basic Questions,” European Journal of Cultural Studies 17, no. 1 (2013): 23.

276 5. a record of the trace 3. The film’s Chinese title echoes Bertolt Brecht’s play The Good Person of Sichuan (Der gute Mensch von Sezuan). For a comparison of the two, see Haiping Yan, “Intermedial Moments: An Embodied Turn in Contemporary Chinese Cinema,” Journal of Chinese Cinema 7, no. 1 (2013), 52. 4. The first part of Dong centers on the creation of Liu Xiaodong’s 劉小東 Hotbed 1 熱床 (2005), a monumental oil painting that features the same local workers (and Han Sanming) Jia taps as amateur actors in Still Life. Liu’s Three Gorges paintings resemble Still Life in their combination of group portraiture and landscape, though Jia’s interest in painting predates these films. As a young man, Jia “studied painting a little” and attended art classes at Shanxi University; Jia Zhangke, Jia xiang 賈想 (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 2009), 48. Though some critics have noted the influence of traditional Chinese landscape painting on Still Life, the default artistic analogy for Jia’s work is usually “poetic.” Jia’s lyricism or “poetic conception” (shiyi 詩意) come up repeatedly in the panel discussion (which included Wang Hui, Li Tuo, and other eminent respondents) that followed a 2007 screening of Still Life; Li Tuo 李陀, Jia Zhangke 賈 樟柯, Wang Hui 汪暉, et al., “Sanxia haoren: guli, bianqian yu Jia Zhangke de xianshizhuyi 三峽好人: 故里, 變遷與賈章柯的現實主義,” Dushu 讀書 2 (2007): 3–31. For other poetic readings, see Jiwei Xiao, “The Quest for Memory: Documentary and Fiction in Jia Zhangke’s Films,” senses of cinema 59 (2011), and Jie Li, “Home and Nation Amid the Rubble: Fei Mu’s Spring in a Small Town and Jia Zhangke’s Still Life,” Modern Literature and Culture 21, no. 2 (fall 2009): 86–125. For more on Liu Xiaodong, see Liu Xiaodong and Jeff Kelley, The Three Gorges Project: Paintings by Liu Xiaodong (San Francisco: Asian Art Museum, 2006), and Wu Hung, ed., Displacement: The Three Gorges Dam and Contemporary Chinese Art (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008). Jason McGrath’s essay in this last volume, “The Cinema of Displacement: The Three Gorges in Feature Film and Video” (33–46), is the best overview of cinematic responses to the dam project. 5. Brooke Wilmsen, “Damming China’s Rivers to Expand Its Cities: The Urban Livelihoods of Rural People Displaced by the Three Gorges Dam,” Urban Geography 39, no. 3 (2018): 345–366. 6. Recently, there have been attempts to promote art produced by migrant workers and the rural and urban poor. For his Folk Memory Project (Minjian jiyi jihua 民間 記憶計畫), Wu Wenguang 吳文光 recruited filmmakers to produce documentaries based on oral histories of the Great Famine (1959–1961). For more, see Paul Pickowicz, ed., Filming the Everyday: Independent Documentaries in Twenty-First Century China (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2017), chap. 6, appendix. Qin Xiaoyu’s 秦曉宇 Wode shipian: dangdai gongren shidian 我的詩篇: 當代工人詩典 (Beijing: Zuojia chubanshe, 2015) collects a large number of poems by rural and migrant workers. In 2015, Qin and Wu Feiyue 吳飛躍 also produced a documentary film, Iron Moon (Wode shipian 我的詩篇), which follows a number of these worker-poets, including the Foxconn factory worker

5. a record of the trace 277 Xu Lizhi 許立志, who committed suicide in 2014. For an abbreviated translation of Qin’s collection, see Eleanor Goodman, trans., Iron Moon: An Anthology of Chinese Worker Poetry (Buffalo, N.Y.: White Pine Press, 2016). See also Maghiel van Crevel, “Iron Moon: An Anthology of Chinese Migrant Worker Poetry and Iron Moon (the film)” [review], Modern Chinese Literature and Culture Resource Center, February 2017, https://u.osu.edu/ mclc/book-reviews/vancrevel4/, esp. notes 1 and 3. 7. I am drawing here on Daniel Morgan’s adaptation of Stanley Cavell’s concept of “acknowledging”; Stanley Cavell, “Knowing and Acknowledging,” in Must We Mean What We Say? (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 238–266. Morgan uses Cavell to reassess André Bazin’s account of cinematic realism, arguing that realism for Bazin can include a variety of aesthetic styles so long as those styles “acknowledge” reality, giving it meaning and “turning it into facts,” which might relate to some specific “understanding of social reality”; Daniel Morgan, “Rethinking Bazin: Ontology and Realist Aesthetics,” Critical Inquiry 32, no. 3 (2006): 472. 8. A number of scholars have singled out portraiture as an important component of Still Life. For an example, see Esther Cheung, “Realisms within Conundrum: The Personal and Authentic Appeal in Jia Zhangke’s Accented Films,” China Perspectives 1 (2010): 18. Portraiture is also central to the structure of 24 City (Ershisi chengji 二十四城 記, 2008), the hybrid documentary-narrative film Jia made after Still Life. 9. For more on these “still life” objects, see Jie Li, “Home and Nation.” 10. A. Thirion, Jérémy Segay, and Jia Zhangke, “Festival de Hong-Kong par A. Thirion et Jérémy Segay + Entretien avec Jia Zhang-ke,” Cahiers du Cinéma 623 (May 2007); cited and translated in Dudley Andrew, What Cinema Is! Bazin’s Quest and Its Charge (Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell, 2010), 59. 11. I have explored the question of Jia’s realism in Corey Byrnes, “Specters of Realism and the Painter’s Gaze in Jia Zhangke’s Still Life,” Modern Chinese Literature and Culture 24, no. 2 (2012): 52–93, which is based on an early version of this chapter. For many scholars, Jia’s realism is beyond question. Esther Cheung, for example, writes that “the subject matter of social concern and Jia’s compassion for the ordinary people place him safely in the realist tradition of Chinese cinema”; Cheung, “Realisms within Conundrum,” 20. Similarly, Jiwei Xiao calls Jia “a die-hard realist”; Xiao, “The Quest for Memory.” For more on problems with approaching Jia’s work in this manner, see Sebastian Veg, “Introduction: Opening Public Spaces,” China Perspectives 1 (2010): 4–10. For general studies of Jia’s work, see Jason McGrath, “The Independent Cinema of Jia Zhangke: From Postsocialist Realism to a Transnational Aesthetic,” in The Urban Generation: Chinese Cinema and Society at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century, ed. Zhen Zhang (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2007), 81–114; Michael Berry, Jia Zhangke’s “Hometown Trilogy”: Xiaowu, Platform, Unknown Pleasures (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009); and Pheng Cheah, “World as Picture and Ruination: On Jia Zhangke’s Still Life

278 5. a record of the trace as World Cinema,” in The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Cinemas, ed. Carlos Rojas (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 190–208. 12. Robert Mitchell and Jacques Khalip, “Introduction: Release—(Non-)Origination—Concepts,” in Releasing the Image: From Literature to New Media, ed. Jacques Khalip and Robert Mitchell (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2011), 4. 13. Ning Ken 寧肯, “Modern China Is So Crazy It Needs a New Literary Genre,” trans. Thomas Moran, Literary Hub, June 23, 2016, http://lithub.com/modern-china-is -so-crazy-it-needs-a-new-literary-genre/. 14. Chow, “China as Documentary,” 27. 15. Ji 記 and the homophonous character ji 紀 can both refer to records and the act of recording. They can be used interchangeably, though the latter is typically used in the words jilu 紀錄 (document, record) and jilupian 紀錄片 (documentary film). 16. I am drawing here on Chow’s idea of “medial information”; Chow, “China as Documentary,” 12. 17. Judith Shapiro, Mao’s War Against Nature: Politics and the Environment in Revolutionary China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001). 18. This is only one of a number of scenes in Still Life that revolve around hard currency. Upon his arrival in Fengjie, Han is forced to attend a “magic show” in which a magician “transforms” pieces of paper (“U.S. dollars”) into euros and then renminbi 人民幣. When the men who run the scam ask him to pay a “school fee,” he claims to have no money and defends himself against their attempt to rob him with a wellhidden switchblade. Later, Han’s new friend Mage uses a piece of paper to imitate an image playing on the TV behind him of the Hong Kong film star Chow Yun-fat using a hundred-dollar bill to light a cigarette. 19. Andrew, What Cinema Is!, 75. For a history of this technique, see André Bazin, “The Evolution of the Language of Cinema,” in What Is Cinema?, trans. Hugh Gray (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004) vol. 1, 32–35. 20. David Bordwell singles out a technological shift occurring in the 1960s and 1970s—“filmmakers’ growing reliance on long lenses”—as facilitating the even greater extension of depth that allows for “planimetric composition.” Kristin Thompson and David Bordwell, “Observations on Film Art: Shot Consciousness,” David Bordwell’s Website on Cinema, January 16, 2007, http://www.davidbordwell.net/blog/2007/01/16 /shot-consciousness/. 21. For more on ruins, see Wu Hung, A Story of Ruins: Presence and Absence in Chinese Visual Culture (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2012); Transience: Chinese Experimental Art at the End of the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2005), 80–81; and “Ruins, Fragmentation, and the Chinese Modern/Postmodern,” in Inside Out: New Chinese Art, ed. Gao Minglu (San Francisco: San Francisco Museum of Modern Art and Asia Society Galleries 1998), 59–66. For a review of Wu’s A Story of Ruins, see

5. a record of the trace 279 Xavier Ortells-Nicolau, “A Story of Ruins: Presence and Absence in Chinese Art and Visual Culture,” China Quarterly 211 (September 2011): 879–881. Other notable studies of ruins include Li, “Home and Nation”; Xavier Ortells-Nicolau, “Urban Demolition and the Aesthetics of Recent Ruins in Experimental Photography from China” (PhD diss., Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 2015); and Sze-lan Deborah Sang, ed., “Special Issue: Ruinscapes in Modern Chinese Literature and Visual Culture,” Frontiers of Literary Studies in China 11, no. 2 (2017). See also Gastón Gordillo, Rubble: The Afterlife of Demolition (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2014). 22. Buildings in Still Life also function as analogs for the human body, a linkage with a long history in Western architectural theory. For more on the “bodily analogy in architecture,” see Anthony Vidler, The Architectural Uncanny: Essays in the Modern Unhomely (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1992), 70, and throughout. For a phenomenological approach to the relationship between moving bodies and buildings, see Paul Crowther, Phenomenology of the Visual Arts (Even the Frame) (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2009), chap. 10, especially 177–185. 23. Jay David Bolter and Richard Grusin, Remediation: Understanding New Media (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1999), 25. 24. This scene follows the sequence of modes that Bolter and Grusin have called “immediacy,” “hypermediacy,” and “remediation.” In their terms, immediacy demands a “transparent” medium through which a viewer looks onto a “presentation of the real”; hypermediacy refers to representations that draw attention to their own multimedia construction, at which a viewer is supposed to look; and remediation is the “representation of one medium in another”; Bolter and Grusin, Remediation, 21, 41, 45. Whereas various critics emphasize the immediacy of Jia’s work, what we find throughout Still Life is a pervading logic of hypermediacy and remediation. 25. Jia has singled out The Boys from Fengkuei as an especially important early influence on his filmmaking; Jia Zhangke, “Life in Film: Jia Zhangke,” Frieze, April 15, 2007, https://frieze.com/article/life-film-jia-zhangke. For more on Hou Hsiao-hsien’s influence on Jia, see Jason McGrath, Postsocialist Modernity: Chinese Cinema, Literature, and Criticism in the Market Age (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2008), 159, and Chan and Jia, “Online Exclusive Interview.” 26. James Tweedie, The Age of New Waves: Art Cinema and the Staging of Globalization (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 169. 27. Jason McGrath, “Cultural Revolution Model Opera Films and the Realist Tradition in Chinese Cinema,” in Opera Q 26, no. 2–3 (2010): 351. 28. Stephanie Donald, Public Secrets, Public Spaces: Cinema and Civility in China (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000), 62. 29. “The World Is Truly Changeable, like a Sea Become a Mulberry Field” is the final line of Mao’s 1949 poem commemorating the communist capture of Nanjing, “The People’s Liberation Army Occupies Nanjing 人民解放軍佔領南京.” For the Chinese

280 5. a record of the trace text as well as a translation, see Mao Zedong, The Poems of Mao Zedong, trans. Willis Barnstone (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), 74–75. 30. Ban Wang, The Sublime Figure of History: Aesthetics and Politics in Twentieth-Century China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997), 8. 31. Melissa Chiu and Zheng Shengtian, eds. Art and China’s Revolution (New York: Asia Society, 2008), 32, 34. 32. Landslides caused by the increased pressure of the reservoir have had a serious impact on water quality and the health of riverbank ecosystems and have also led to the relocation of large numbers of people. See Michael Wines, “Landslide Risk at Reservoir Cited in China,” New York Times, April 18, 2012, and Liu Qin, “Landslide Destroys Dam in the Three Gorges Region,” China Dialogue, September 22, 2014, www.chinadialogue .net/article/show/single/en/7333-Landslide-destroys-dam-in-Three-Gorges-region. 33. For more on the role of naked and nearly naked bodies in Still Life and Jia’s documentary film, Dong, see Corey Byrnes, “Men at Work: Independent Documentary and Male Bodies,” forthcoming. 34. The magical moments of Still Life, and this scene in particular, have attracted a great deal of scholarly attention. The monument as rocket even appears on the cover of Dudley Andrew’s What Cinema Is! For interpretations of Jia’s surrealism, see Andrew, What Cinema Is!, 59–61; McGrath, “The Cinema of Displacement,” 42–43; and Tweedie, The Age of New Waves, 298–299. Jie Li cites Jia’s own explanation of the surreal quality of Fengjie, which he links not only to the upheaval caused by the dam project but also to the older myths of Mt. Wu as a scene of fabulous transformation; Li, “Home and Nation,” 105. 35. McGrath, “The Cinema of Displacement,” 46n7. Jia might be commenting on the failed promises made to those displaced by the dam or on the money that the government was pouring into China’s manned space program around the time the film was being made. China’s primary spacecraft is known as the Shenzhou 神州 (Divine Land), another poetic name for China. 36. Karl Marx, “Manifesto of the Communist Party,” in The Portable Karl Marx, ed. Eugene K. Kamenka (New York: Penguin, 1983), 207. 37. Wu Hung argues that soon after Political Pop appeared on the scene, it “exhausted the source of its pictorial vocabulary,” thereby helping “to conclude post–Cultural Revolution Art and to usher in an important change in the Chinese art world beginning around the mid-nineties”; Wu, Transience, 23. While it is true that “many artists [have] finally bid farewell to the Cultural Revolution,” one wonders if the ghosts of such historical trauma can be so easily banished. The work of Jia and other artists suggests otherwise. 38. Though we do not hear the lyrics to Han Sanming’s ringtone, “May the Good Live Forever in Peace” focuses on the passage of the time, the distance of loved ones, and the sensation of continued closeness.

6. ink in the wound 281 39. Edward L. Davis, ed., Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture (New York: Routledge, 2005), 138. 40. It is Mage’s bravado that gets him killed. When Han calls his friend later in the film, he hears Yip’s voice emanating from the pile of rubble under which Mage’s body has been buried. For readings of this scene, see Yan, “Intermedial Moments,” 54–56, and Cheah, “World as Picture,” 198–203. Yan also identifies a third song that is tied to Shen Hong’s character; Yan, “Intermedial Moments,” 55. 41. Sebastian Veg, “Building a Public Consciousness: A Conversation with Jia Zhangke,” in China Perspectives 1 (2010): 59; McGrath, “The Independent Cinema of Jia Zhangke,” 97, 112n25. 42. In Still Life, popular songs are not only traces of their historical moments but also expressions of the different “structures of feeling” that define the main characters. Yan, “Intermedial Moments,” 54–55. 43. Li, “Home and Nation,” 102, 101. Li reads each line in Li Bai’s poem as having “subtle cinematic correspondences in Still Life”; Li, “Home and Nation,” 101. In addition to the structural parallels that she finds between the poem and the film, she also positions Li Bai’s unmediated poetic experience against the “ideological landscape” presented by the televisual propaganda; Li, “Home and Nation,” 102. 44. Ann Laura Stoler, Duress: Imperial Durabilities in Our Times (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2016), 21. 6. Ink in the Wound 1. Walter Benjamin, “Theses on the Philosophy of History,” in Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt, trans. Harry Zohn (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1968), 255. 2. Wu Hung and Yun-fei Ji, “A Conversation Between Yun-fei Ji and Wu Hung,” in Displacement: The Three Gorges Dam and Contemporary Chinese Art, ed. Wu Hung (Chicago: Smart Museum of Art, 2008), 103. 3. For representative examples of trauma-studies scholarship, see Cathy Caruth, Listening to Trauma: Conversations with Leaders in the Theory and Treatment of Catastrophic Experience (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014); Trauma: Explorations in Memory (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); and Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative, and History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Shoshana Felman and Dori Laub, Testimony: Crises of Witnessing in Literature, Psychoanalysis, and History (New York: Routledge, 1992); Dominick LaCapra, Writing History, Writing Trauma (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001); Ruth Leys, Trauma: A Genealogy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000); and Michael S. Roth, Memory, Trauma, and History: Essays on Living with the Past (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012).

282 6. ink in the wound 4. Paul K. Saint-Amour, Tense Future: Modernism, Total War, Encyclopedic Form (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 1. 5. Scholars in trauma studies have described (or promoted) various types of empathy, including Dominick LaCapra’s concept of “empathetic unsettlement,” Kaja Silverman’s “heteropathic identification,” and Jill Bennett’s “empathic vision.” LaCapra, Writing History, Writing Trauma; Kaja Silverman, Threshold of the Visible World (New York: Routledge, 1996); Jill Bennett, Empathic Vision: Affect, Trauma, and Contemporary Art (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2005). 6. Tan Lin, “Yun-fei Ji and the Unchanging Structures of History,” in Yun-fei Ji: The Empty City, ed. Shannon Fitzgerald (St. Louis: Contemporary Art Museum of St. Louis, 2004), 25. 7. Trauma has become a familiar topic in Chinese studies. See Michael Berry, A History of Pain: Trauma in Modern Chinese Literature and Film (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008); Xiaobing Tang, Chinese Modern: The Heroic and the Quotidian (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2000), especially chap. 1; Ban Wang, Illuminations from the Past: Trauma, Memory, and History in Modern China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2004); and David Der-wei Wang, The Monster That Is History: History, Violence, and Fictional Writing in Twentieth-Century China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004). 8. This phrase is used both by Richard McNally, Remembering Trauma (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 2003), 9, and by Leys, Trauma, 2. 9. Caruth, Trauma, 5; Roth, Memory, Trauma, and History, 82; Caruth, Unclaimed Experience, 7; LaCapra, Writing History, Writing Trauma, xi. Beginning in 1980, the psychiatric field has also sought to produce an acceptable clinical definition of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). McNally, Remembering Trauma, 8–13; Caruth, Trauma, 3–4. 10. For more on Freud’s concept (and Caruth’s adaptation) of Nachträglichkeit, see Leys, Trauma, 20–21, 270–271. 11. Leys, Trauma, 20. 12. Caruth, Trauma, 8. 13. As Gregory Volk notes, wind has its own set of cultural connotations in China. It is “a metaphor for the Emperor and all his whims and decisions, as well as being a metaphor for revolutionary force. When one ‘listens to the wind,’ one attempts to divine where policy might be headed and what its effects might be”; Gregory Volk, “The Empty City,” in Yun-fei Ji: The Empty City, ed. Shannon Fitzgerald (St. Louis: Contemporary Art Museum of St. Louis, 2004), 57. 14. Roth, Memory, Trauma, and History, chap. 1–3; Leys, Trauma, chap. 2–3. 15. The retrospective pull of trauma has long been offered up as a metaphor for historiography: to try to make sense of history is to be drawn ineluctably into narratives of both personal and collective trauma. Because it “appears to demand inclusion in any narrative of the development of the present yet makes any narrative seem painfully

6. ink in the wound 283 inadequate,” trauma inevitably returns to demand its right to a new narrative that will inevitably fail, thus requiring another attempt, and so on, ad infinitum. Roth, Memory, Trauma, and History, 82. 16. David L. Eng and David Kazanjian, Loss: The Politics of Mourning (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 4. 17. Eng and Kazanjian, Loss, 4. 18. Benjamin, “Theses,” 255. 19. Eng and Kazanjian explain this artistic tendency toward indeterminacy by arguing that the ego itself is the product of “the residues of its accumulated losses,” that it emerges from melancholy and the preservation of “abandoned object-cathexes”; Eng and Kazanjian, Loss, 4). Individual melancholic objects never exist in isolation because the ego is actually composed of the undifferentiated and accumulated traces of such objects. Hence, “the ability of the melancholic object to express multiple losses at once speaks to its flexibility as a signifier, endowing it with not only a multifaceted but also a certain palimpsest-like quality”; Eng and Kazanjian, Loss, 53. 20. Benjamin, “Theses,” 257. 21. Tan Lin’s analysis of Ji’s style is among the most sophisticated available, though he tends to emphasize its parodic rather than constructive qualities; Tan Lin, “Yun-fei Ji,” 26–29. 22. The most famous expression of this allegorical mode is an essay attributed to the Northern Song painter Guo Xi 郭熙 (ca. 1020–1090) and his son Guo Si 郭思 (active ca. 1070–after 1123), translated by Susan Bush and Hsiao-yen Shih in Early Chinese Texts on Painting, 2d ed. (Aberdeen, UK: Hong Kong University Press, 2012), 150–154. For more on this mode, see Martin Powers, “When Is a Landscape Like a Body?” in Landscape, Culture, and Power in Chinese Society, ed. Wen-hsin Yeh (Berkeley, Calif.: Institute of East Asian Studies, 1998), 1–22. 23. Melissa Chiu and Yun-fei Ji, “Ghosts, Three Gorges, and Ink: An Interview with Yun-fei Ji,” in Yun-fei Ji: The Empty City, ed. Shannon Fitzgerald (St. Louis: Contemporary Art Museum of St. Louis, 2004), 81. 24. Chiu and Yun-fei Ji, “Ghosts,” 80. The catalog to Ji’s exhibition at the Ullens Center for Contemporary Art in Beijing contains selections from Ji’s “field notes,” as well as photographs that he took as preparatory research; Paula Tsai, ed., Yun-fei Ji: Water Work (Beijing: UCCA Books, 2012), 91–92. 25. Ji’s debt to Republican-era artists, including Xu Beihong 徐悲鴻 (1859–1953) and Jiang Zhaohe 蔣兆和 (1904–1986), has received relatively little notice. As Stephen J. Goldberg notes, Ji’s Three Gorges Dam Migration scroll is especially reminiscent of Jiang’s long (78.5 x 1063 inches) handscroll Refugees 流民圖 (1943), which depicts the victims of the Japanese invasion; Stephen J. Goldberg, “The Fate of Place and Memory in the Art of Yun-fei Ji,” in Yun-fei Ji: The Intimate Universe, ed. Tracy Adler (New York: Prestel, 2016), 79.

284 6. ink in the wound 26. Valérie Malenfer Ortiz, Dreaming the Southern Song Landscape: The Power of Illusion in Chinese Painting (Boston: Brill, 1999). 27. Below the 143 Meter Watermark is almost exactly double the height of one of the most famous Song landscapes, Fan Kuan’s 范寬 (active ca. 1023–1031) Travelers Amid Streams and Mountains (Xishan xinglü 谿山行旅), in the collection of the National Palace Museum, Taibei. 28. Francine Prose, “Water Colored: Demons and Detritus in Yun-fei Ji’s Restive Landscape,” in Ji Yun-fei: Mistaking Each Other for Ghosts, ed. Jessica Lin Cox, Christopher Lawson, and Leo Xu (New York: James Cohen Gallery, 2010), 10. 29. John Hay, “Values and History in Chinese Painting, II: The Hierarchic Evolution of Structure,” Res: Anthropology and Aesthetics 7–8 (spring–autumn 1984), 112. 30. Wu, Displacement, 22. 31. Wu and Ji, “A Conversation,” 103. 32. Three Gorges Dam Migration Scroll is the English title provided by the Museum of Modern Art Library, which commissioned this image. A literal translation of the Chinese title, Sanxia kuqu yimin tu 三峽庫區移民圖, is Three Gorges Reservoir Zone Migrants Scroll. 33. Mao Zedong, “Strategic Problems in the Anti-Japanese Guerrilla War,” Collected Works, vol. 2 (Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 1967). 34. For more on water and the uncanny, see Jiayan Mi, “Framing Ambient Unheimlich: Ecoggedon, Ecological Unconscious, and Water Pathology in New Chinese Cinema,” in Chinese Ecocinema, ed. Sheldon Lu and Jiayan Mi (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2009), 21. 35. Both Wu Hung and Ronald Egan trace the origins of liumin tu 流民圖 to the story of Zheng Xia 鄭俠 (1041–1119), an official who served during the implementation of Wang Anshi’s 王安石 (1021–1086) controversial New Policies. In 1074, Zheng submitted a memorial that detailed negative effects of the policies and a painting that depicted the devastated peasantry. He was eventually arrested and exiled for his attack on Wang, but his act of pictorial remonstrance is seen as launching the genre of liumin tu 流民圖. Wu, Displacements, 20; Ronald Egan, Word, Image, and Deed in the Life of Su Shi (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994), 47–48. 36. Rey Chow, “China as Documentary: Some Basic Questions,” European Journal of Cultural Studies 17, no. 1 (2013): 26. 37. Benjamin, “Theses,” 255. 38. McNally, Remembering Trauma, 9; Caruth, Trauma, 5. 39. Wu and Ji, “A Conversation,” 103–104. 40. Many scholars have written specifically about the chai(-na) phenomenon (and demolition in general). See especially Yomi Braester, “Tracing the City’s Scars: Demolition and the Limits of the Documentary Impulse in the New Urban Cinema,” in The Urban Generation: Chinese Cinema and Society at the Turn of the Twenty-first Century, ed.

6. ink in the wound 285 Zhen Zhang (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2007), 161–180; Sheldon H. Lu, Chinese Modernity and Global Biopolitics: Studies in Literature and Visual Culture (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2007); Sheldon H. Lu, “Tear Down the City: Reconstructing Urban Space in Contemporary Chinese Popular Cinema and Avant-Garde Art,” in The Urban Generation, 137–160; and Wu Hung, A Story of Ruins: Presence and Absence in Chinese Visual Culture (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2012). 41. Chai works its magic so effectively because, on its own, the character lacks tense. Chinese is an uninflected language, and without additional temporal markers, there is no way to tell whether chai should be read in the past tense, as “demolished” or “has been demolished”; in the future tense, as “will be demolished” or “to be demolished”; or in the imperative, as “demolish!” For an alternative approach to chai, see Mi, “Framing Ambient Unheimlich,” 24–25. 42. See Chiu and Ji, “Ghosts, Three Gorges, and Ink,” 89. 43. A Monk’s Retreat (2002), The Move in Badong (2002), The Wait (2009), The Guest People (2009), and Autumn Colors (2003). 44. Last Days Before the Flood (2006) and Four People Leaving Badong (2009). 45. Isabella Bird, The Yangtze Valley and Beyond (Boston: Beacon Press, 1985), 145. 46. Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 21. The Body in Pain has been subjected to numerous critiques. Geoffrey Harpham, for example, has argued that Scarry’s tendency to hyperbole leads her to draw dubious conclusions. He understands Scarry as arguing that “regardless of the intentions of makers and consumers, material artifacts—including presumably, all the instruments at the torturer’s disposal and all the machines of war—have but one ‘absolute intention,’ to relieve sentient being of its pain”; Geoffrey Galt Harpham, “Elaine Scarry and the Dream of Pain,” Salmagundi, no. 130–131 (spring– summer 2001): 228. For an even stronger critique, see Peter Singer, “Unspeakable Acts,” New York Review of Books 33 (February 27, 1986): 27–30. While I acknowledge the idiosyncratic nature of Scarry’s argumentation, the almost speculative quality of her materialism offers valuable insights for analyzing how objects function in Yun-fei Ji’s artistic practice. 47. Scarry, The Body in Pain, 244. 48. Scarry, The Body in Pain, 262. 49. These men evoke not only early European anatomical renderings of the human form, but also their repetition in Luo Ping’s Ghost Amusements, a painting that includes figures copied directly from a 1630 Chinese copy (based on a 1605 German copy) of the De Humani Corporis Fabrica (1543), with illustrations by Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564). Jonathan D. Spence, “Specters of a Chinese Master,” New York Review of Books 56 (December 3, 2009): 14. For more on Luo Ping, see Kim Karlsson, Alfreda Murck, and Michele Matteini, eds., Eccentric Visions: The Worlds of Luo Ping (Zürich: Museum Reitberg Zürich, 2009).

286 pa ssage iv. part of the movement Passage iv. Part of the M ovement 1. Paul Carter, Dark Writing: Geography, Performance, Design (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2009), 7. 2. The best source on the history of developmental discourse in modern China is Andrew Jones, Developmental Fairytales: Evolutionary Thinking and Modern Chinese Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2011). 3. Patricia Yaeger, “Editor’s Column: Sea Trash, Dark Pools, and the Tragedy of the Commons,” PMLA 125, no. 3 (2010): 535. 4. Cherney’s Ten Thousand li of the Yangzi River can be seen online at http://www.qiumai.net/cjwlt/cjwlte.html. 5. From text of a public talk provided by the artist. 6. Carter, Dark Writing, 7.

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INDEX Page numbers in italic refer to figures. Thus 107f3.6 refers to figure 3.6 on page 107. 233ff6.20–621 refers to figure 6.20 and figure 6.21 on page 233. aesthetic systems: Albertian window of perspectival painting, 175; and how we see and act in the world, 168. See also Chinese aesthetic thought; inscriptional landscape tradition; ji (trace); landscape representation; racial landscape of the Three Gorges; Three Gorges as a literary landscape; ways of seeing “At Qutang Contemplating the Past” (Du Fu), 45–46, 50, 252n53 “At Qutang Yearning for the Past” (Du Fu), 48–49, 51 Autumn Colors (Ji), 224–25, 225f6.14, 226f6.15 “Autumn Stirrings” (Du Fu), 30–35, 249nn18–19; alternation between xu (empty, unfounded, imagined) and shi (real, substantive), 33–34; xing (stirring) in, 34–35, 250n31 Baidicheng: geographical location and status of, 2, 5, 8f1.2, 13f1.4, 46; labeled on The Shu River handscroll, 57, 58–59f2.1. See also “Setting Out at Dawn from Baidicheng”

310 index “Ballad of the Most Skilled” (Du Fu), 250n24, 269n4 Below the 143 Meter Watermark (Ji) 214, 215f6.8, 216, 224, 226, 284n27 Benjamin, Walter, 209, 211, 222 Bennett, Jill, 282n5 Bird, Isabella: on Chinese characters “writ large,” 268n67; on coal, 269n78; on the fear of the “ocular power” of the “Foreign Devil,” 126; sympathetic view of trackers, 143–47, 156, 168, 169, 201–2, 230, 274n59 Blakiston, Thomas Wright, 143, 148 Blakiston, Thomas Wright, charts of the Yangzi river by, 103, 104f3.4, 105–6, 127; Chinese charts compared with, 119–20; index chart foldout map produced by Arrowsmith, 105–7, 106f3.5, 107f3.6, 124; as prospective tools grounded in the imperial view of nature, 108, 121–22, 124–25. See also Five Months on the Yang-tsze Blakiston, Thomas Wright, scientific survey of the Upper Yangzi by, 101–2; and the fantastical China of massproduced willowware porcelain, 102– 3, 102f3.3, 121–22; and the realizing of the “physical features” of Chinese geography, 103, 110–11, 140 Bolter, Jay David, and Richard Grusin, 279n24 Bordwell, David, 173–74, 278n20 The Bund (Shanghai tan), theme song to, 190–93, 195–96, 281n40 Carter, Paul, 19, 55 Caruth, Cathy, 208 Casey, Edward, 245n28 Cavell, Stanley, 277n7 Chabrowski, Igor Iwo, 141, 266n47, 272–73n38 chai 拆 (to demolish): as the dark side of the Chinese dream, 223–24; in Jia Zhangke’s Still Life, 223f6.13; as a term, 285n41 Cherney, Michael (Qiumai 秋麥), 238–39fIV.1, 238–40 Chiang Kai-shek, xiv, 94 Chinese aesthetic thought: and chonggao (poetic sublime), 85, 181; and the experience of nonelite people, 168; and Jia Zhangke’s reimagining of what it means to see the Three Gorges as a “Chinese landscape,” 4, 168–71, 196–97; and liumin tu (tradition of paintings of refugees), 212, 221, 284n35. See also guji (ancient traces); handscrolls; inscriptional landscape tradition; ji (trace); ke (carve, inscribe); mists; shanshui; shi (real, substantive); shengji (landmarks, famous sites); shiyi (poetic intention); xing (stirring); xu (empty, unfounded, imagined) Chinese Characteristics (Smith): Chinese difference asserted in, 140–41; on dissection, 140, 145, 273n50; on trackers, 141, 142–43 Chou, Eva Shan, 55 Chow, Rey, 16, 222 Chow Yun-fat, 190, 278n18 Chunqiu zuozhuan zhengyi, 47 colonial discourse: and anti-conquest narratives, 153–54; and the discourse of adventure and grandeur associated with Three Gorges, 99, 101; and notions of Chinese racial difference, 142–43. See also Bird, Isabella;

index 311 Blakiston, Thomas Wright; imperial view of nature Confucianism: and Du Fu’s recognition as “historian poet” (shishi) and “poet sage” (shisheng), 29; Neo-Confucian belief in the correspondence between physical and human realms, 14; Neo-Confucian distinction between humans and spirits, 75; and Yun-fei Ji’s paintings, 198, 214; Yu the Great as a Confucian exemplar, 44, 251n33 Conrad, Joseph, 153 consumer goods: and Jia Zhangke’s Still Life, 167; and Yun-fei Ji’s artistic practice, 217, 226, 233–34, 285n46 Cosgrove, Denis, 17 Critical Chart (Guo Zhang), 115–19, 116f3.10, 120–21 Cultural Revolution: defacing of the Plant Memorial during, 40; Mao’s launching of, xiv–xv; and “Political Pop,” 188–89; and the television drama Yearning (Kewang), 190, 191; Yun-fei Ji as a witness to, 198–201, 203, 209; Yun-Fei Ji’s conflation of it with the Three Gorges Dam, 200–201, 206–7, 211–12 Deng Xiaoping: depicted with other Chinese leaders involved in the history of the dam, 2, 196, 196f5.25; economic reforms launched by, 167; and Liu Shaoqi depicted in Yun-Fei Ji’s The East Wind, 203, 205f6.4 Derrida, Jacques, 6, 246–47n41 difangzhi 地方誌 (gazetteers), 55, 57, 62, 65, 83, 114–15, 131, 256n22 Ding Guanpeng: illustration of the final couplet of Du Fu’s second “Autumn Stirrings” poem, 63–65, 64f2.3, 180, 256n20; text accompanying his painting on The Shu River handscroll, 65 dissection and vivisection: in orientalist and colonialist discourse, 140–41, 145, 156, 273n50; and Yun-fei Ji’s metaphorical connection between the body and its material trappings, 229–32 Dong, Madeleine Yue, 267n63 Du Fu: as a refugee in Kuizhou, 29–30; location of his homes in Chengdu and Kuizhou on The Shu River handscroll, 55–57, 60f2.2, 61–62, 64–65; recognition as “historian poet” (shishi) and “poet sage” (shisheng), 27–29; reconstruction of his home at Dongtun, 21, 65–73, 165, 235–36, 256–57n22 Du Fu’s poetry: and the inscriptional landscape tradition, 10–12, 51, 129; and the processes of decay and displacement, 21, 27, 31, 46–47, 51–52, 236, 254n73; Qiu Zhao’ao on, 49, 243n14, 252n53. See also “At Qutang Contemplating the Past”; “At Qutang Yearning for the Past”; “Autumn Stirrings”; “Ballad of the Most Skilled”; “Singing My Feelings on Traces of the Past”; “The Two Palisades of Qutang”; “Writing My Feelings While Travelling at Night”; “Yu’s Shrine” Du Fu Kuizhoushi xiandi yanjiu (A Study of the Current Locations of Sites in Du Fu’s Kuizhou Poetry) (Jian Jinsong): on the locations of Yang Terrace and the Palaces of Chu, 254n70; Tan Wenxing’s critique of, 62 Du Guangting, 75–76, 79–80, 260n60 Dundas, Lawrence John Lumley, 138–39

312 index The East Wind (Ji): conflation of the Cultural Revolution with the Three Gorges Dam, 206–7, 211–12; figure resembling Liu Shaoqi, 203, 205f6.4, 206; Red Guards (both human and dog-faced) in, 203–4, 204f6.2, 205f6.3, 206, 209, 211; ruined car, 209, 210f6.6; upside-down donkey, 203, 206f6.5 Eberhard, Wolfram, 253n59 Egan, Ronald, 284n35 Eng, David L., and David Kazanjian, 209, 211, 283n19 Essential Guide and Critical Chart (Luo Jinshen), 114f3.9, 115, 120–21 famous sites. See guji (ancient traces); shengji (landmarks, famous sites) Fan Chengda: poem in response to a poem inspired by a painting of Mt. Wu, 76–79; poetic landscapes in Du Fu’s poetry compared with their physical spaces by, 73–74; preface to Song Yu’s “Gaotang Rhapsody,” 74, 76; search for Du Fu’s Lofty Retreat, 65–66, 72, 73, 165; Wu Gorge painting commissioned by, 80, 83, 238–39, 262n75. See also youji (travel diary, essay); Wuchuan lu (Record of a Wu Boat) Fan Kuan, 213, 284n27 Five Months on the Yang-tsze (Blakiston), 269n76; frontispiece to, 99, 100f3.2, 101, 263n11; and the inscriptional landscape tradition, 99, 101, 129; “route books” produced by the military intelligence organs of the British imperial bureaucracy compared with, 103, 263n18 Folk Memory Project (Minjian jiyi jihua) (Wu Wenguang), 276n6 Foong, Ping, 15 Forster, E. M., 153 Four People Leaving Badong (Ji), 202, 203f6.1, 212, 220 Foxconn factory workers, 146–47, 276–77n6 Freudian model of trauma, 201, 207–8 “Gaotang Rhapsody” (Song Yu), and the goddess of Mt. Wu: and attempts to reform the goddess, 56, 74–76; and the Neo-Confucian distinction between humans and spirits, 75; traces of the divine made famous by, 54, 56; Yu Fen’s critique of, 261n65 gazetteers. See difangzhi Ghosh, Amitav, 20 Goldberg, Stephen J., 283n25 Greene, Julie, 274n71 guji 古跡 (ancient traces): and Du Fu’s “Singing My Feelings on Traces of the Past,” 49, 54–55; and Li Xiang’s reconstruction of Du Fu’s Dongtun lofty retreat, 69–71; and Qianlong’s inscription on The Shu River handscroll, 56–57, 61, 65; and shengji (landmarks, famous sites), 26, 61, 237 Guo Zhang, 115–19, 116f3.10, 120–21 handscrolls: the experience of viewing a traditional handscroll evoked by Jia Zhangke, 170, 189–90, 197; Jiang Zhaohe’s Refugees, 283n25; panoramic temporality of, 217. See also Three Gorges Dam Migration Scroll; The Shu River handscroll

index 313 haozi 號子 (work songs), 131, 141–42, 269–70n4, 272–73n38, 273n39. See also trackers Harpham, Geoffrey Galt, 285n46 Hayot, Eric, 138, 146 Heidegger, Martin, 127, 128, 158 Heinrich, Ari Larissa, 272n28, 273n50 Heise, Ursula, 20 Hersey, John. See A Single Pebble Hevia, James, 103, 263n18 Huang Tingjian, 69–70, 73–74 imperial view of nature: and images of penetration, 6, 124–25, 145–46, 148, 230, 268n69; as man’s extension of his power over nature, 125; and Mao’s war on nature, 42–43, 172; and natural resource development in the Yangzi region, 16–17, 95, 98, 124–27, 136, 149–50, 245n31, 246n32, 267n63, 268–69n74; and the socialist realist gaze, 180–81; and the sovereign gaze, 124, 148. See also colonial discourse inscriptional landscape tradition: and Du Fu’s poetry, 10–12, 49–53, 129; and the elongated Chinese character yan 言 on the Yangtsze Rapid Steamship Co. advertisement, 122, 123f3.14, 124; and ji (trace), 18, 26, 246–47n41; and Jia Zhangke’s Still Life, 183, 184f5.13; and ke (carve, inscribe), 26, 79–80; and Li Daoyuan’s Shujing zhu (Commentary to the Classic of Rivers), 129, 212, 267n63; and the “real world consequences” of literary tropes, 87; and reservoir-related markers preserved by the White Crane Ridge Underwater Museum, 40–42, 225; and tracks of birds (niaoji), 18; and “Yu’s traces” (Yuji), 18, 36, 37f1.1, 43, 79. See also ji (trace); landscape representation; The Shu River handscroll; “Swimming”; Three Gorges as a literary landscape ji 跡 (footprint, trace): as a hybrid concept, 26–27; and ancient carvings of fish and inscriptions at White Crane Ridge (Baiheliang), 40–42, 224; and Derridean thought, 246–47n41; and Du Fu’s Kuizhou poetry, 27, 30, 34–35, 49–50, 52–53, 62–63, 236, 240; and the figure of the Chinese tracker in the Yangtsze Rapid Steamship Co. advertisement, 123f3.14, 133, 135, 135f4.3, 158–59; and Jia Zhangke’s Still Life, 168–71, 171; and landscape as the product of overlapping and intersecting traces and acts of trace making, 19, 65, 84, 131–32, 168, 235–40; and Qianlong’s envisioning of Du Fu’s river pavilion, 63–65; “traces of Yu” (Yuji), 18. See also guji (ancient traces); shengji (landmarks, famous sites) ji 記 (to mark, record, document; record, document), 26, 79–80, 278n15. See also jilu (to mark, record, document) Ji, Yun-fei: absence of the region’s famous natural and manmade monuments from his work, 200; artistic influences on, 213, 283n25; consumer goods and domestic objects in his paintings, 217, 218ff6.10–6.11, 226, 233–34, 285n46; metaphorical connection between the body and its material trappings, 234; as witness to the Cultural

314 index Revolution, 198–202, 203, 209; qimo (energy arteries) employed by, 216, 226, 227; reimagining and reinscribing of the landscape of the Three Gorges as a site of trauma, 201–2, 206–8, 222–23, 230; as a secondary witness to contemporary events that he depicts, 201–2, 207, 208–9; spatiotemporal compression and erasure in his paintings, 222–23, 225–26; synthesis of traditional Chinese landscape painting styles, techniques, and media by, 211–14, 217, 284n27; the Three Gorges Dam as an invisible source of chaos, 200, 206, 224–26. See also Autumn Colors; Below the 143 Meter Watermark; The East Wind; Four People Leaving Badong; Last Days Before the Flood; Monk’s Retreat; Three Gorges Dam Migration Scroll Ji, Yun-fei, “Empty City” 2004 exhibition, and the Cultural Revolution, 207. See also The East Wind Ji, Yun-fei, “Mistaking Each Other for Ghosts” 2010 exhibition, 229 Ji, Yun-fei, “Old One Hundred Names” 2003 exhibition, 198; Four People Leaving Badong, 202, 203f6.1, 212, 220; Last Days Before the Flood, 225, 226, 228, 228f6.17; Monk’s Retreat, 209, 210f6.7, 229–30, 230–31f6.18, 231, 233ff6.20–6.21 Jia Zhangke: and Dong, 167, 276n4. See also Still Life Jia Zhangke, visual system of, 169–76; deep focus, 169, 172–74, 172ff5.2–5.3, 180; and the experience of viewing a handscroll, 170, 189–90, 197; framing, 176–77, 176f5.5, 177f5.6, 179ff5.8–5.9; multiplicity of apertures, 174–76, 175f5.4; and realist discourse, 170, 277n11; tracking and panning to make sensible the space-time between presence and erasure, 170, 172f5.5, 189–92, 191f5.18, 197 Jian Jinsong, 62, 250n70 Jiang Zemin: construction of the Three Gorges Dam project approved by, xv; speech marking the diversion of the Yangzi, 42–43; Three Gorges as a proving ground for the spirit of the Chinese people, 27 jilu 紀錄 (to mark, record, document), and Yun-fei Ji’s reinscription of the landscape of the Three Gorges as a site of trauma, 201–2, 221–22 ke 刻 (carve, inscribe), 26, 79–80 Kroll, Paul, 15, 51 Kuifu, 83, 238–39fIV.1, 239 Kuimen: Baidicheng in relation to, 46; depiction on a ten-yuan banknote, 13f1.4, 171–73, 172f5.3, 239; Kuizhou in relation to, 27, 29; in Michael Cherney’s Ten Thousand Li of the Yangzi River, 238–39fIV.1, 238–40; monumentality of, 10–12; Yanyu Rock, 251n39 labor power: Chinese labor as a cheaper machine for the work, 137–39, 146–47; Chinese labor as a threat to Western dominance, 138, 142, 156–57, 271n21; Chinese pilots on the Yangzi, 113–14; coolies, 132, 137, 142–43; factories as symbols of the modern Ji, Yun-fei (continued)

index 315 socialist state, 193, 194ff5.21–5.22; naturalization of, 140–41, 158–59; and the racial landscape of the Three Gorges, 104, 137–43, 155–56. See also trackers LaCapra, Dominick, 282n5 landscape representation: and Chinese cartography before the twentieth century, 120; and the context of European and American culture, 17; and landscape/shanshui, 14–15, 17–18, 120–21; as a means of reflecting on the status of tradition in contemporary China, 5–9, 247n42; as a powerful “material force” for historical change, 19–22, 236–40, 247n42; reimagining of the Three Gorges as a “Chinese landscape” in Jia Zhangke’s Still Life, 2, 168–71, 196–97; and tradition as a process of incremental reinvention, 5–6, 85–87, 129, 131–32; and youji (travel diary, essay), 55, 62, 67, 257nn24–25; Yun-fei Ji’s reimagining and reinscribing of the landscape of the Three Gorges as a site of trauma, 201–2, 206–8, 230. See also inscriptional landscape tradition; shanshui; techno-poetic landscape; Three Gorges as a literary landscape landscape representation, and the production of space, 16, 84, 105, 196; Cornell Plant’s charting of the Yangzi Gorges, 40, 109, 111, 112f3.8, 113–15; and the displacement of indigenous spatial knowledge, 113; Du Fu’s poetic map of empire and exile in “Autumn Stirrings,” 30–35; and the Qianlong emperor’s imaginary itinerary inspired by The Shu River, 57, 59–65, 71, 84, 238; and Qing and early Republican charts, 114–15, 119; reconstruction of Du Fu’s home at Dongtun, 53, 54–55, 62–63, 65–73, 165, 235–36, 256–57n22 landscape/shanshui. See inscriptional landscape tradition; landscape representation; racial landscape; shanshui; techno-poetic landscape; Three Gorges as a literary landscape Last Days Before the Flood (Ji), 225, 226, 228, 228f6.17 Ledderose, Lothar, 15 Lefebvre, Henri, 15 Lewis, Mark Edward, 48 Li Bai, and poetry: on the goddess of Mt. Wu in his “Moved by Poetic Images, Poem One,” 76, 260n63; and the inscriptional landscape tradition, 129; and tradition as a process of incremental reinvention, 5–6, 132. See also “Setting Out at Dawn from Baidicheng” Li Cheng, 213, 214 Li Daoyuan. See Shujing zhu (Commentary to the Classic of Rivers) Li He, 34; “How High Mt. Wu,” 77 Li, Jie, 196, 281n43 Lin, Tan, 283n21 Little, Archibald, 108–9, 119, 151–52, 155, 269n78. See also Through the Yang-tse Gorges Liu, Lydia H., 140, 273n50 Liu Shaoqi, 203, 205f6.4, 206 Liu, Xiaodong, 276n4 Liu Zongyuan, 257n25