MARKER Tree Symbols.
PENCIL Tree Symbols.
COLOR RENDERED WITH SOFTWARE (a) DynaSCAPE. (b) PRO Landscape®. (a) (b)
COLOR DEVELOPMENT WITH MARKER Sara A. Meier, Green Thumb SAM LLC.
COLOR DEVELOPMENT WITH MARKER Sara A. Meier, Green Thumb SAM LLC.
COLOR DEVELOPMENT WITH MARKER Sara A. Meier, Green Thumb SAM LLC.
COLOR DEVELOPMENT WITH MARKER AND PENCIL Marco A. Romani, RLA, Arrow Land + Structures.
COLOR DEVELOPMENT WITH MARKER AND PENCIL Marco A. Romani, RLA, Arrow Land + Structures.
COLOR DEVELOPMENT WITH MARKER AND PENCIL Marco A. Romani, RLA, Arrow Land + Structures Landscape Design Plan. COLOR DEVELOPMENT WITH DynaSCAPE COLOR SOFTWARE Matt Hiner, CLT, Hiner Landscapes.
Color 185 Color Development of the Ground Plane with Markers Wash Wash the area with a selected color. Start on one side and make steady, even strokes that allow the marker to bleed into the paper. If the stroke is too quick, it will show uneven, light color (Figure 8-12a). Do not allow the lines to dry before applying the next stroke. Each stroke should be made while previous strokes are still wet to blend them together and minimize striping. Striping also occurs when the solvent has evaporated from old markers, preventing the colors from effectively bleeding into the paper. Define the Perimeter Layering with the same marker after the area has dried can darken the value around the outline. Go around the perimeter in short strokes to increase the value. By feathering the end of the stroke, you can blend the perimeter nicely (Figure 8-12b). Additional Development The ground plane can also be further developed with other colors. To create an interesting abstract pattern in the area, use random strokes that are not blended with the underlying wash layer. Color Development of Symbols with Markers Color As mentioned in the section on color pencils, the number of greens used in a single drawing should be limited. Choose a green color to develop the symbol, but keep in mind that not all symbols have to be colored with a shade of green; other colors can be used to add some variation. This is especially appropriate for specimen plants with variegated foliage or the blooms of a particular plant. Figure 8-12 Ground Plane with Markers. (a) Begin by lightly washing the area with color. (b) Define perimeter with short strokes that blend with the wash. (a) (b)
186 Chapter 8 Wash Apply an even wash to the symbol (Figure 8-13a). Be careful to start the lines just inside of the symbol outline to allow for bleeding. Also, be sure to work continuously while the lines are wet so that bleeding can help blend the lines together. Once the wash is complete, go back over the symbol to develop a crescent shadow with a darker value (Figure 8-13b). After the symbol has dried, layering more color on the shadow side of the symbol will increase the darker values and lend a sculptural dimension to the symbol. Shadows The easiest approach to develop shadows is to use a gray marker to impart a darker value to the ground plane colors (Figure 8-13c). Avoid using intense black markers that will completely blot out the ground plane and obliterate the dimensionality of the drawing. Figure 8-13 Markers on Symbols. (a) Start with a wash of the entire symbol. (b) Layer the shaded portions of the symbol. (c) Outline the symbol with black after all the colors have dried to avoid bleeding into the symbol. (d) Shadows can be applied with the chisel tip of a gray marker to quickly lay down a good shape. (a) (b) (c) (d)
Color 187 Outline Outline the symbol with a black marker for definition (Figure 8-13d). Always wait until the colored area is completely dry before outlining with black so it does not bleed into the colored area of the symbol. Use a thicker outline to increase the definition in symbols for tree canopies and make them appear higher in the air. Highlights • Pencil Highlights. For pencil highlights, use color pencils over markers (Figure 8-14). Colored pencil can also be used to add detail. This works great for radial needle symbols. However, using markers over pencils does not work because markers will not cover the waxy line of a pencil. • Stippling Highlights. Another unique approach is to stipple the symbol for texture. Once the wash is complete, use one or two colors of green, and stipple the crescent shape of the shadow instead of shading (Figure 8-15). Coloring Techniques for Overhead Symbols When coloring a symbol layered over other symbols or with detail underneath, poor technique can make a mess. It is always best to keep your color development simple to avoid confusion. Color Only the Overhead Symbol One approach is to color only the overhead symbol and let the detail below read from the lines only (see color plate, Color on Overhead Symbols). Some color can be added, but too much can become a problem. Figure 8-14 Pencil Highlights. Pencil can be used over marker for an accent. Figure 8-15 Stippling Highlights. Use a marker to stipple over a wash for a different texture.
188 Chapter 8 Color Only the Detail Underneath The opposite approach is also effective—that is, do not color the overhead symbol, but instead develop the plan detail underneath with lighter colors (see color plate) to separate the overhead canopy from the surrounding areas. Color the ground-plane detail that falls within the border of the overhead symbol using a washed-out or flat technique without any range of detail, and in lighter shades than the corresponding areas outside the overhead symbol. The contrast of the lighter detail inside the canopy area with the darker detail outside makes the overhead symbol appear to lift off the ground plane. This effect reads as if the viewer is looking through the overhead canopy to see the ground plane. Summary Color rendering the plan drawing can make a more visually captivating presentation. Color on a copy of the plan drawing, never on the original. Color pencils and sticks are the easiest tools to use in the beginning, as well as the most economical. Starting with a set of 24 color pencils will be adequate; however, consider purchasing additional shades of green to have on hand. Color markers are another option for the beginning student. They are more difficult to use as well as much more expensive. It takes a lot of practice to learn how to blend effectively, so try out different techniques on separate sheets of paper. Markers and pencils can be combined to create interesting effects. With either technique, broadening the range of values (lightness or darkness) of a color will improve it. Key Words bleed the ink from a marker can creep away from the original line, which can be useful to blend lines together. blender a transparent marker containing only the alcohol carrier fluid in the markers, which is applied to layered colors to blend them together. color pencils drawing tools similar to pencils but fitted with a compressed wax stick permeated with colored pigment instead of graphite. color sticks woodless ¼″-thick square wax sticks of the same color material used in colorpencil leads. cool gray markers gray markers with a bluish tint. French gray markers gray markers with a slightly yellowish-red tint. layering the technique of going back over a base color with the same or a different color to deepen the color or blend the colors together. markers felt-tipped, usually alcohol-based, quick-drying drawing instruments with a chisel tip to make both wide and narrow lines; also available in fine-tip and professional double-ended models. moving line a drawing technique using a quick, slashing line struck across an area to lend motion and interest. pastels a drawing medium, most commonly a soft pastel stick with a high concentration of dry pigment, a gum or resin binder, and some chalky filler; hard pastel sticks contain more binder and less filler and do not crumble or break as easily and can also be compressed into a pastel pencil. Oil pastels have an oil or wax binder and do not blend as readily as soft pastels. pencil highlights a layering technique using color pencils over markers.
Color 189 Prismacolor Premier® a popular brand of color pencils, watercolor pencils, graphite pencils, markers, and pastels. rhythmic stroke a coloring technique that allows a hint of the shading direction to show. scratch paper absorbent paper placed underneath a drawing to absorb the ink from markers that bleeds through the drawing to avoid staining the desk. shade the darker, more intense values of a color. stipple a texturing technique rendered by using a marker to place numerous small dots over the base color of a symbol. tint the lighter color values made by blending a color into white. value the degree of darkness or lightness of a color. warm gray markers gray markers with a reddish tint. wash a light, even color value applied across an entire area.
191 Objectives • Understand the purpose of section drawing • Know how to locate a section drawing on the plan drawing • Learn to draw the elements of a section drawing • Learn to draw trees, shrubs, grass, and human figures in section drawings The plan drawing is useful for organizing space on the ground plane. Elements of the design with features in the vertical dimension are not portrayed, which limits visualization of the finished product. Anyone viewing the plan drawing will have difficulty picturing the design without comprehensive knowledge of plant material. Section drawings present a realistic view of the design by presenting a picture of it—horizontally and vertically. This allows anyone to see the vertical elements of the design that are difficult to perceive in the plan drawing. 9 Section Drawing
192 Chapter 9 Vertical Elements Objects with pronounced variations in height, such as retaining walls and fences, do not read well on the plan drawing. Section drawings illustrate how the vertical dimensions create balance and flow, much like the horizontal dimensions in the plan drawing (Figure 9-1). Plant Form Trees and shrubs are unique in their form and texture. Form can be described as the outline, or mass, of plants and objects. Section elevations illustrate plant variations by portraying characteristic canopy outlines, branching, and foliage. Spatial Relationships How is space experienced? Section drawings show areas of enclosure, open circulation, and resting. View A section drawing shows how a view is directed toward focal points, or it portrays the elements that frame and create favorable views. A section drawing also illustrates what is used to screen unsightly areas from view. Topography Section drawings illustrate the contour of the existing grade line or changes in grade elevation. Locating a Section Drawing on the Plan Drawing A section drawing is created from a plan drawing as if the plan were sliced open with a knife and viewed along that cut line from the side (see Figure 9-1). The section drawing is indicated on the plan drawing by the cut line (Figure 9-2), with arrows drawn at the ends of the cut line to indicate the viewing direction. When there is more than one section drawing, the cut line is identified with letters on both ends. For example, the first section may be identified as section A-A. Section drawings are used to illustrate architectural and construction details, but not necessarily landscapes. Some drawings can simply be labeled if they are easily recognizable. A true section drawing shows only what is located on the cut line and nothing beyond it (Figure 9-3).
Section Drawing 193 Figure 9-1 Vertical Elements and the Cut Line. (a) The section drawing shows the columnar form of trees and the weeping form of the ornamental grass, the steep grade change, and the wood construction of the arbor. (b) and (c) The cut line acts as if the plan were cut along that line and then viewed from the side. (a) (b) (c)
194 Chapter 9 Figure 9-2 Cut Line. (a) The arrows on the cut line show the direction of view. The cut line runs through the pond, (b) so the section view illustrates the ground line running under the water. (Plan drawing by Courtney Smith) (a) (b)
Section Drawing 195 Section-Elevation In a section-elevation, the illustrator will include some of objects that appear beyond the cut line to add a sense of depth (Figure 9-4) but not enough to clutter up the drawing. Figure 9-4 Section-Elevation. A section-elevation drawing includes the objects beyond the cut line. It is typically used to illustrate landscape designs. Figure 9-3 Section Drawing. A true section drawing shows only the elements directly intersected by the cut line. It is typically used to show construction details.
196 Chapter 9 Elements of the Section-Elevation Ground Line. The ground line indicates the ground surface. It is drawn with the heaviest line weight in the section drawing to create balance with a solid base. The ground line should be drawn with a 1/8″ to 1/4″ round tip or chisel point marker (Figure 9-5). The ground below should be hatched or visually defined with thinner lines to establish a base for the drawing and indicate the solid ground material beneath it. Scale. Draw all the objects to scale to give an accurate representation of the design (see Figures 9-1 and 9-6). This does not necessarily have to be the same scale as the plan drawing. Most drawings are going to be in the neighborhood of 1″ = 10′; however, the designer needs to adjust the scale appropriately to accommodate the amount of the design and the material. In sections that meticulously illustrate construction details, the scale may be much larger (1″ = 1′). A quick way to establish scale is to use the plan as a reference in the same scale (see Tip Box). Figure 9-5 Ground Line. The ground line indicates the ground surface, whether soil, turf, or concrete. It is clearly indicated with the heaviest line in the drawing. Figure 9-6 Scale. The objects in a section elevation are drawn to the same scale, regardless of how far away they appear. (a) The plan illustrates the cut line for the section-elevation. (b) In this drawing, the tree in the back is the same as the one in the front. It is drawn to the same scale, but lighter line weight and lack of detail cause it to appear farther back in the section-elevation. (a) (b)
Section Drawing 197 Tip Box: Quick Scaling of Section-Elevation An easy way to draw a quick section-elevation with an accurate property scale is to lay paper over the plan and to draw it directly following the symbol dimensions. Tip Box: Quick Perspective Sketch Perspective drawings are much more difficult to draw than section-elevations. A perspective involves vanishing points and depth of field, which require a lot of time to set up and draw adequately. One way to draw a quick perspective is to trace over a photo of the house, then add landscaping. Digital pictures work well because they can be printed at larger sizes to give sufficient detail.
198 Chapter 9 Drawing Vertical Elements. All vertical elements in the section-elevation are drawn to the same scale, regardless of how far away from the cut line they appear. To create a feeling of depth among close, midrange, and distant objects, they can be illustrated using various line weights and degrees of detail (see Figures 9-6 and 9-7). Both line weights and the degree of detail increase in objects that are closer to the viewer. • Close Objects. Objects appear closer if they are drawn with a heavier line weight, which will make objects more distinct and appear to “come forward” in the section drawing. Use ink or HB lead. More detail is added to close objects as well, such as additional foliage to trees or additional texture to rocks, tree trunks, and buildings. • Midrange and Distant Objects. Objects appear farther away if they are drawn with a lighter line weight and little to no detail. This causes objects to “recede.” Use a 2H lead and draw only general outlines. Plants. It is not necessary to create a realistic drawing of the plants, only to capture the form and texture of the plant accurately (Figure 9-8 through Figure 9-16). Portraying the branching patterns as well as the shape of the canopies creates a more accurate design. For example, some trees such as sweetgums have a strong central leader, as opposed to linden trees, that do not. Figure 9-7 Drawing Depth. Objects can be made to appear closer by drawing them with heavier line weight and more detail. Conversely, objects appear farther away if drawn with a lighter line weight and less detail.
Section Drawing 199 Figure 9-8 Drawing Trees. (a) Begin with a simple outline. (b) Every branch should extend to the canopy outline. (c) Foliage texture can be added, with some foliage outside of the canopy to simulate movement. (d) Trunk detail is added. (e) Heavy outline defines the object and brings it forward. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
200 Chapter 9 Figure 9-9 Tree Outlines.
Section Drawing 201 Figure 9-10 Trees with Branches.
202 Chapter 9 Figure 9-11 Tree Outlines with Branches.
Section Drawing 203 Figure 9-12 Tree Trunks. Figure 9-13 Shrubs.
204 Chapter 9 Figure 9-14 Ornamental Grasses. Figure 9-13 Shrubs. (continued)
Section Drawing 205 Figure 9-15 Palms. Figure 9-16 Boulders.
206 Chapter 9 People. Human figures provide a sense of scale. Although trees can vary from 10 to 100 feet tall, an average adult is typically about 5′ to 6′ tall. An observer can easily assimilate the size of the landscape design materials around the figures. The most important feature of any figure is the correct proportion relating to the head, torso, and legs (Figure 9-17). The amount of detail can vary from vaguely outlined forms to the portrayal of facial features and clothing. The following general guidelines can be used: Head • Size: The head should be about one-eighth the height of the entire body. • Shape: An oval shape appears more natural than a circle. Torso • Size: The torso to the navel should fill slightly less than half the entire body. • Shape: The form of the torso varies from a square block to wider shoulders tapering to a narrow waist; the arms should extend halfway down the thighs, with elbows located near the waist. Legs • Size: Legs and hips take up half the entire body. • Shape: A correctly formed leg tapers slightly from waist to feet. • Posing: Start by drawing figures that are facing forward, with hands on hips. Focus on the proportions and avoid details of clothing and facial features. After you become proficient with body proportions, try drawing figures in various positions. A natural appeal comes from figures assuming different postures and activities, such as talking or pointing. Observe pictures of people to get ideas for different poses. Figure 9-17 Human Proportions. The head is about one-eighth the entire body. The upper torso, in addition to the head, makes up about half the entire body, while the lower torso makes up the other half.
Section Drawing 207 Summary Plan drawings show the horizontal elements in the layout of the ground plan design, while section drawings illustrate the vertical elements of the design. Section drawings present views, topography, and forms that cannot otherwise be seen on the plan. They are created from a plan drawing as if the plan had been sliced, or sectioned, and viewed from the side. Sections are more accurately described as section-elevations because they illustrate objects that are beyond the cut line. All objects are drawn to scale, without the receding size of distant objects characteristic of a perspective drawing. Instead, the depth of the drawing is illustrated by drawing close objects with heavier line weight and more detail, while distant objects are drawn with lighter line weight and less detail. Human figures are generally included in section drawings to create a sense of scale. Because human figures are typically about 5 to 6 feet tall, elements around them can be viewed in comparison with the figure. Key Words cut line indicates where the section-elevation is located on the plan drawing and the direction in which it is viewed. form (outline) the total mass of a group of plants and objects. ground line the line representing the ground surface is drawn with the heaviest line weight in the drawing. section drawings a cross-sectional drawing of the plan view from a vertical viewpoint that clearly portrays the height relationship between objects located on the cut line; illustrates a side view of architectural and construction details, not necessarily landscapes. section elevation a vertical plan view somewhat similar to a section drawing but differing in that objects beyond the cut line are also portrayed. vertical dimensions much as the plan drawing illustrates the width, or horizontal dimension, of design elements, section drawings show the height, or vertical, characteristics.
209 Objectives • Learn the uses of imaging and plan drawing software in landscape design • Become familiar with basic techniques and tools of design software A Brief History of Computer Graphics Computer-aided design systems are referred to as CAD. AutoCAD is a software program that allows the user to draw lines, arcs, and circles. However, earlier versions of AutoCAD lacked a symbol library for landscape designers. Thus, LandCADD, released in 1984, evolved from AutoCAD to include numerous symbols and applications that related to landscape design, irrigation, estimation, and construction details. LandCADD features evolved to include landscape conceptual designs in 2D and 3D construction plans, perform site analysis, and produce schedules and cost estimates. More recently, Keysoft Solutions acquired the rights to LandCADD and released an expanded version of the software program called KeySCAPE LT. Landscape architecture, engineering, or commercial landscape companies commonly use software programs to develop a design. Each of these programs has advantages and disadvantages, whether dealing with the quality of the finished product, ease of learning, size of the image database, or cost. Although they vary in methodology and content, there are three basic components of landscape design software that will be discussed in this chapter: imaging, plan drawing, and cost estimator. Only high-quality design software should be purchased. The software sold for less than $50 is intended to aid DIY homeowners. Although inexpensive, these programs are limited in their applications, quality, versatility, and the size of the database of landscape design images. For a landscape designer, professional-grade software offers a wide range of applications and the ability to generate high-quality prints, in addition to program and database upgrades. 10 Computer Graphics
210 Chapter 10 This text does not intend to promote any of the products that are listed at the end of the chapter. They all have some outstanding qualities, although the actual execution of specific commands varies between products, as well as the extent of what each program can do. If you decide to invest in design software, they include access to tutorials that walk through the design process step-by-step. Many products offer additional training beyond the tutorials. However, there are several working techniques commonly used by each program, regardless of which product is used. This chapter will give you a general idea of what the programs can do, how to approach using design software, and what kind of finished products they create. When to Make the Switch to Computer Design The decision to trade in the pencil and paper for computer software is based on many factors. Although design skills are best learned when designs are drawn by hand, there comes a time when well-honed skills can be transferred to a digital platform. The best time to make that transition depends on the designer’s skill set and goals. Productivity and Efficiency Probably one of the most common reasons for designers to use computer software has to do with the volume of work being produced, which is weighed against the amount of time needed to draw landscape plans by hand versus the time it takes to generate design plans with landscape design software. Digital drawings are easily modified, which allows more flexibility in the design process. Small companies that complete only one or two designs a month may find the hand-drawing technique sufficient. Typically, these are companies with a steady income from landscaping operations other than project design, such as maintenance. However, many landscape contractors employ a skilled staff designer who completes a dozen jobs a month. This level of productivity is made possible by the designer’s ability to use professional landscape design software efficiently to develop custom designs. Digitally prepared designs can be converted to PDF files and e-mailed to clients or other team members, such as engineers. Economics While there are certain clientele that may be comfortable financially supporting the artistic renderings of landscape designs, many are satisfied with or even prefer the versatility of working with computer-generated plans. As business picks up, a designer may be losing money by spending large amounts of time to develop, revise, and submit hand-drawn plans. While hand-drawn designs are acceptable for many residential projects, commercial projects often require digital plats and electronic plan submissions. At some point, the designer’s work will become more profitable with efficient use of computer software. Skill and Cost Productivity and economics are not the only factors involved in a designer’s decision. Is it more likely for the designer to sell projects that are planned and managed with digital software? Will more projects be completed in a given amount of time? Careful analysis will determine whether the transition is worth the investment. The designer’s computer skills weigh heavily on this decision. A competent designer with poor computer skills may spend a significant amount of time and money on hardware, software, and training and still not be able to translate ideas effectively to the computer. In some cases, a lead designer may submit a plan to a computer-savvy graphic artist who will develop threedimensional renderings of his or her landscape concepts and ideas in digital format for a client presentation.
Computer Graphics 211 Advantages of Landscape Design Software There are many advantages of using landscape design software. Design Tool Some designers use imaging software to insert plants on a digital picture. In this way, a three-dimensional approach can be used to explore a variety of ideas in the process of developing the design. Efficiency One reason many designers make the move to using computer software is to save time. Once comfortable with software commands, a designer can quickly import a plat and lay out bedlines and symbols with a click of the mouse. In addition, changes can be made just as quickly by deleting and adding new symbols—no erasing, no redrawing. Presentation Tool Most clients cannot visualize a plan drawing because they are not familiar with reading plans and often do not know what various landscape materials look like. Before computer software was developed, the only tool available to a designer for developing a three-dimensional picture was an ability to draw. Here again, computer software can be used to develop a picture of the site design in a short amount of time and present two-dimensional ground plans as well as three-dimensional sections so the client can accurately visualize the design. 3D modeling and animation are powerful features that also aid visualization. Tip Box: Tablets and Phones for On-Site Presentations Some landscape design software products are available as an app on tablets and phones. This allows images of plants, pots, or other hardscapes to be dropped in and moved around on a photo taken on site for immediate visualization. Photo provided by Drafix Software/PRO Landscape.
212 Chapter 10 Cost If there a disadvantage to design software, it is the cost. Professional software can cost between $400 and $5000, not to mention the additional cost of a computer, peripherals, and fast, reliable internet service. Although this investment will be recouped over time, it is a significant expenditure compared with paper and pencil. Imaging Software There are many professional graphic programs now available, such as those bundled in Adobe’s Creative Cloud, a suite of graphic design programs that includes (among other things) the drawing program Illustrator (vector graphics and illustration), Photoshop (photo editing and compositing), and InDesign (page design and layout). A designer who is familiar with any graphic design software program will adapt to a landscape imaging program with relative ease. Imaging software has advanced to the point that realistic photos of proposed designs can be created easily. In addition to the ability to manipulate graphics, landscape design imaging programs also include a database of thousands of plant images. As a result, a much more versatile product is created that enables clients to see a tangible picture of what they are purchasing instead of an artist’s drawing. Rather than relying on descriptions and vague imagery to illustrate a design, a client sees what the actual plants and hardscape material will look like. What are some of the useful features of landscape design software? Manipulation of Digital Images Digital images of the site can be captured with a digital camera, tablet, or cell phone and downloaded to a computer. Some products have the option to design on a tablet. Imaging software opens the picture and site design begins as plant images from an extensive library are placed, sized, and arranged as needed. The digital image of a prepared design can be printed or e-mailed to the client. More Realistic Objects Large databases of high-resolution images include most plant materials as well as various objects and building materials. Outlines of new construction or hardscape materials can be drawn on the design to specific dimensions and embellished with textures that closely depict the desired appearance. Printers and Files High-quality color printers are affordable and high-quality paper creates an exceptionally good image of the design. In many cases, the project can be saved as a PDF or JPEG (see following section regarding file formats) to be e-mailed to client or displayed on tablet. Special Effects Applying certain graphics effects to objects helps blend them into the site photo. Two of these special effects are shadows and perspective. Shadows As objects are placed on the image, they can be rendered with shading and cast shadows on the ground to blend the images into the photo for a visually seamless, realistic appearance. Perspective Hardscape objects can be filled with an appropriate texture to an accurate depth. The perspective effect renders the surface texture progressively smaller with less detail as it recedes farther back in the image.
Computer Graphics 213 The Imaging Process and Techniques Because imaging is a simplified process used in the creation of the landscape design, the actual technique used depends on the product. A discussion of the basic process follows, which is summarized in the bulleted list below: • Acquire a digital image of the site • Open the image and adjust as needed • Use the image database or library to add landscape elements and objects to create a design • Move and manipulate objects to refine the design Acquire a Digital Image of the Site Take as many photos as possible while on site. Whatever photos you do not need can simply be deleted from the cell phone, tablet, or camera at a later time. The Most Important Viewpoint Clients are often most interested in improving the landscape design for the front of the house to boost curbside appeal. The most important photo is taken from the viewpoint of the road and captures the front of the house and most of the side yard. Digital Image File Formats There are various ways digital images are stored and read by the computer, which are designated by the suffix on the end of the file name after the period (e.g., JPEG, PDF, BMP, GIF, PNG, and TIFF). A list of the most commonly used digital formats follows, along with a description of their pros and cons. Select the best file format for saving an image based on its intended use. • JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group). The JPEG format is the most common default setting used on digital cameras for saving photo images. The format supports over 16 million colors and varying levels of compression. Accurately colored images are relatively small and easy to send over the internet. The JPEG format flattens layers in a working file so it cannot be reworked. • PDF (Portable Document Format). Invented by Adobe, this format allows many different types of files to be saved in PDF format, which preserves the original text and graphic data within a single file that can be reliably exchanged and viewed with any software, computer, or operating system. Large PDF files can be downsampled for sending as e-mail attachments. In addition, PDFs can be electronically signed, protected by a password, and processed to contain links, form fields, audio, and video. • BMP (Bitmap). Microsoft Windows’ native image format rasterizes data into a tiny grid of pixels without the advantage of data compression. Large, uncompressed BMP files can be unwieldy. BMP graphics at high resolution appear smooth in print, although lower resolutions appear to have jagged edges (larger pixels become apparent). This format will open in the Paint program, but is rarely supported outside of a Windows platform. • GIF (Graphics Interchange Format). Another pixilated format used for simple graphic images such as lettering or line drawings, although complex images may appear grainy and unrealistic. • PNG (Portable Network Graphic). The most widely used image format on the internet has largely replaced the GIF format. PNG is an openly available raster graphics format that utilizes lossless LZW compression to reduce file size.
214 Chapter 10 • TIFF (Tagged Image File Format). The standard format used in the digital publishing industry, TIFFs remain stable and intact over a series of various computer platforms. Like JPEGs, the format supports over 16 million colors. LZW compression reduces file size. File Size Smaller digital files can be transferred via e-mail more quickly and stored images take up less memory on a given device. Image files tend to be larger than text files, but can be compressed for portability. Open the Image of the Site Open the design imaging program and place the photo of the site on the workspace. Various tools can be used to render the design image. Cropping A cropping tool allows you to select a portion of the photo and delete the rest (Figure 10-1). For example, if there is too much sky, the upper part of the image can be trimmed off to focus on the important elements in the image. Cropping tools work by dragging a selection box over an area you want to keep. Left-click and drag the selection box to the desired size and then release to define the crop area. Adjust the boundaries around the selection as needed, then right-click to trim the area outside of the box. Viewing The whole image of the site may be large and easy to work with when importing trees and shrubs. However, there may be detail touchup work that requires zooming in on areas of the image for a closer look. This can be accomplished in most programs by using the zoom tool. One of the most convenient tools to use for touchup is the zoom box. This is used by dragging a selection box over an area. Whatever is inside the zoom box will increase in size. Unlike the cropping tool, the image is still intact and can be viewed by zooming out to display the whole image again. Figure 10-1 Cropping Tool. (a) The cropping tool will cut out part of the image. The box around the house will crop the image like a cookie cutter. (b) The image after it has been cropped. (Courtesy of Dorchester Habitat for Humanity.) (a) (b)
Computer Graphics 215 Cloning Cloning is a very useful tool that has endless applications for touchup. For example, it can be used to erase existing plants or other objects in the image (Figure 10-2). Cloning operates by “painting” over unwanted areas with textures copied from a selected area of the image itself. For example, this tool can be used to capture an area of the lawn and then apply the captured turf texture over existing objects. This is very effective because the cloned patch exactly matches the colors and textures that appear in the image. Figure 10-2 Cloning Tool and Zoom Box. (a) The family dog appears in the original site photo and needs to be erased from the image. (b) The cloning tool will copy the turf texture in the image and paste it over the dog. (c) First, the zoom box is used to zoom in around the dog to target a portion of the turf to paste over the dog. (d) Zooming back out to see the entire image, the dog has been completely hidden. (a) (b) (c) (d)
216 Chapter 10 Use the Image Database Most programs will have an image database of objects and textures, often referred to as a library (Figure 10-3). The library organizes these objects into categories, such as trees, shrubs, grass, sidewalks, and driveways. Images can be viewed, selected, and then placed onto the photo. These images are not just photos of plants. The background has been removed so that only the plant is placed in the project without clouds, walls or whatever else may have been behind it. An image database will contain a large number of objects in order to serve designers in all parts of the country. However, an individual designer will normally access only a limited number of the objects available in the entire library. To increase efficiency, a customized library can be created that collects the most frequently used objects and textures to avoid having to routinely search through long lists of rarely used images. Some programs allow users to add their own objects to the database. A picture of a texture or a plant can be downloaded and any extraneous details erased from the background of the image. Then the custom image can be used like any other object in the library. Figure 10-3 Image Database. An image database is an extensive library of landscape elements to select from to paste images of trees, shrubs, grass, and other items onto the design workspace.
Computer Graphics 217 Move and Manipulate Objects Objects can be moved and manipulated in a variety of ways. Typical commands include "Cut," "Copy," "Paste," "Mirror," "Scale," and "Rotate." Grab Grabbing an object refers to clicking and holding on an object in order to move it. When the left button is released, the object will be “dropped.” Once placed, it can always be selected and moved again. Size and Scale Once an object is placed on the workspace, it can be changed in size and proportion (Figure 10-4). A sizing box appears with handles on the top and sides of the object. Grabbing one of the corner handles and moving it will change the proportions of the object. For example, grabbing the top handle and pulling up will make the object taller but not wider. It is also possible to maintain proportional dimensions while scaling (enlarging or reducing) the size of an object. Distort A distort tool can be used to change the dimensions of the object (Figure 10-5). In this case, the sizing handles on the box margins move independently of each other. This function can be used to create oddshaped objects or to create perspective on ground plane objects. Duplicate, Reflect, and Mirror Once an object is sized and placed on the design, a duplication tool can be used to quickly copy and paste the object numerous times (Figure 10-6). In many cases, the object can be duplicated with each click. This is very useful when creating a mass of shrubs. It is also possible to reflect or create a mirror image of the object. Layers As objects are placed on the image, they stack up in individual layers, one on top of another (Figure 10-6c). This is a unique aspect of digital media that separates it from traditional hand-drawing techniques. Each object can be moved from back to front to appear either behind or in front of another object. Commands such as "Send to the Front" bring the selected object all the way to the front, while "Send to the Back" sends it all the way to the back. Naming and arranging layers and sublayers of the objects in a plan drawing creates an organized file that is easy to edit or manipulate for future use. Working files at different stages should be saved periodically in a format that will preserve the layers intact so the design can be further developed. Trim The trimming tool converts the cursor into an eraser that can be used to trim selected portions of an object by clicking and holding the cursor while moving it over the object (Figure 10-7). Trimming an object can be used to change the form of an object, such as trimming a tree to make it appear more vase-shaped and making shrubs appear more rounded. Use the trimming tool to make an object, such as a tree, appear behind a house (Figure 10-8). Place the tree at the corner of the house, then trim away the part of the tree image that overlaps the house so it appears as if it is behind the house.
218 Chapter 10 Figure 10-4 Sizing. (a) Objects can be resized by grabbing and moving the handles on the box that appears around an object. (b) Objects can be made proportionately larger by pulling out the corner handle or proportionately smaller if the corner handle is pushed in. (c) Objects can be made shorter by pushing down the top handle or taller if the top handle is pulled up. (d) Objects can be made narrower by pushing in the side handle or wider if the side handle is pulled out. (a) (b) (c) (d)
Computer Graphics 219 Figure 10-5 Distorting. In this mode, all the sizing handles move independently of each other on any object, such as a (a) tree or (b) sidewalk. (a) (b) Figure 10-6 Duplicating and Layers. (a) The green tree has been duplicated to create two green trees. Each object remains in a distinct layer that stacks on top of the others and can be moved from front to back. (b) The tree object in the center is in front of the other trees. (c) It can be moved to the back to appear behind the other trees, then resized for correct perspective or placed higher on the drawing to appear further back from the viewer. (a) (b) (c)
220 Chapter 10 Figure 10-7 Trim Tool. The trimming tool uses the cursor as an eraser to remove parts of an image. Figure 10-8 Trimming. (a) This tree can appear to be behind the house by (b) trimming away the overlapping parts of the tree so that (c) the house appears to be in front of the tree. (a) (b) (c)
Computer Graphics 221 Shadows As mentioned earlier in the chapter, one of the most effective tools for integrating objects into the site image is the use of shadows to lend a quality of mass to the object and create a sense of depth (Figure 10-9). Light shining on an object casts a shadow on the ground, which is skewed in proportion. A duplicate of the object can be colored to appear like a shadow and then distorted to appear on the ground. The following technique is effective for quickly creating realistic shadows. • Duplicate the Object. • Color with a Shadow Tone. Use the fill tool to color the object with a dark, neutral color. • Create Transparency. Use the transparency tool to make the solid fill color semitransparent. The transparency of the object can be changed to any degree, such as 10% transparent (still very dark) to 90% transparent (nearly invisible). Without the transparency, the shadow will blot out any detail on the ground, which is not realistic. Set the transparency in the range of 60% to 70%. • Place the Shadow. Now that the shadow has been created, it needs to be placed in correct perspective. First, rotate the shadow-object in the direction that the shadow will be falling. Second, adjust the proportions of the shadow-object with a transforming tool to flatten it and make it appear to be lying on the ground. Once the proper perspective is achieved, move the shadow-object so that the bottoms of the objects are aligned. To simulate the shadow cast by the sun at high noon, duplicate the object, recolor and apply transparency, then align the canopy of the shadow-object with the base of the tree. Use the trim tool to erase the trunk so only the cast shadow of the canopy appears at the base of the tree. Perspective Object perspective is an important aspect of creating a realistic photo. • Size. To get an idea of the size of an object relative to where it is located in the landscape, use references found in the original photo. Generally, windows are 3´ wide and driveways are about 10´ to 12´ wide for single-car garages. • Distance. Objects that are closer to the observer are larger. To get some sense of perspective, when using the same tree image both in the foreground and also farther back closer to the house, scale down the one farther away (Figure 10-10). • Detail. Objects farther away also have less detail than objects closer to the observer. Use the brightness/contrast tool to dull the image details of distant objects (Figure 10-10).
222 Chapter 10 Figure 10-9 Shadows. Creating a shadow for an object. (a) Duplicate the object and then fill it with black color. (b) Create a semitransparent object with the transparency tool. (c) Using a transform tool, rotate it, then (d) flatten it and (e) move it so that the bottoms of the objects meet. (f) By using the sizing tool, the shadow can be stretched for a low-sun effect or (g) placed under the tree and the trunk trimmed for a noon shadow. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)
Computer Graphics 223 Creating the Ground Plane with Imaging The ground plane consists of the lawn, driveway, sidewalk, and mulch beds, for example. Although other elements also may be created, these are typically the most common. Basically, there are three ways in which ground plane areas are created: • Define and fill areas with an appropriate texture • Add objects to the ground plane • Paint with texture Define and Fill Areas with an Appropriate Texture With the mouse, use a defining tool to enclose an area and fill with a selected texture (Figure 10-11). With an area selected, the fill tool is activated and the desired texture is selected. Textures in the image database typically include numerous examples of turf, pavers, concrete, and mulch. Some programs automatically create a perspective effect by rendering a finer appearance to the texture toward the top of the defined area, thus making it appear farther away. Figure 10-10 Object Perspective. As objects appear farther back in the image, reduce their size with the sizing tool and dampen the detail by lightening it with the brightness/contrast tool. Figure 10-11 Defining and Filling Area with Texture. (a) Outline the front yard to define the area. (b) Select the area and activate the fill tool with a turf texture. (a) (b)
224 Chapter 10 Add Ground Plane Objects Ground plane objects can be found in an image database just as trees and shrubs are. The library may be organized to contain a section of walks, driveways, and lawns. Let’s look at driveways as an example of how this works (Figure 10-12). There may be several different types of driveway materials and shapes that appear as objects. Like other objects, one is selected and loaded onto the design. If the driveway does not fit the design, use distort tool to move the corners of the driveway independently and adjust as needed to achieve the desired appearance. Figure 10-12 Ground Plane Objects. This example uses a driveway as a sample object. (a) The driveway object is selected from the library. (b) The object dimensions are manipulated to fit the area by using the distort tool. (c) The fill shape is formed and oriented to the intended design appearance. (a) (b) (c)
Computer Graphics 225 Ground Plane Perspective When objects such as a flagstone pathway are placed over the sidewalk, the image can appear flat because it is uniform in texture (Figure 10-13). Create a sense of perspective by pinching the top of the object (farther away from the observer), so that the texture is finer and coarser at the bottom (near the observer). Figure 10-13 Ground Plane Perspective. (a) Objects such as this flagstone can have perspective applied to them by (b) sizing them so that the top appears pinched and smaller. (c) In this example, the sized fill object is oriented beneath a defined area that acts as a cookie cutter (d) to fit the flagstone in the path. (Courtesy of Joe Gibson.) (a) (b) (c) (d)