2021-01-01 Aviation History

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cubans over the congo: the CIA’s instant air force

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alaska’s
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bush pilots

wild ride
to mach 6.7
pete knight’s record x-15 run still
stands as the fastest flight ever

short fuzes: why bombs on aircraft exploded
prematurely over vietnam

lost flight mystery: a young pilot vanishes in

the amazon jungle JANUARY 2021

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JANUARY 2021 DEPARTMENTS

36 A U.S. Air Force F-105D 5 MAILBAG
Thunderchief flies a
mission over Vietnam 6 BRIEFING
on December 18, 1968.
10 AVIATORS

Dive-bomber pilot Dick
Best scored direct hits on
two Japanese carriers at
the Battle of Midway—
his ”sweet revenge for
Pearl Harbor.”

By Barrett Tillman

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Hundred of volunteers
have helped Seattle’s
Museum of Flight restore
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its former glory.

By Mark Carlson

features

26 Pete Knight’s Wild Rides

In 1967 the U.S. Air Force major streaked into the upper
stratosphere at Mach 6.7, scorching the X-15A-2 and setting
a speed record that stands to this day.

By Richard P. Hallion

44 36 The Expendables 14

Alaskan bush pilot Problems with bombs prematurely detonating and killing 16 EXTREMES
Joe Crosson. American aircrews in Vietnam were traced to faulty fuzes,
but more would die before solutions were found. Convair’s sleek 880 and
By John Lowery 990 airliners relied on a
market for speedy
44 Alaska’s Legendary medium-range jets that
Bush Pilots never materialized.

A colorful collection of intrepid airmen battled abysmal By Stephan Wilkinson
weather in frail aircraft to pioneer Alaskan bush flying during
the interwar years. 18 STYLE
By Mike Coppock
Showcasing
52 Lost Flight to Brazil products of
interest to
In 1927 Paul Redfern attempted a daring nonstop solo flight aviation
across the Caribbean Sea and Amazon jungle to Rio de enthusiasts
Janeiro…and disappeared without a trace. and pilots.
By Gregory P. Liefer
24 LETTER
60 Cubans Over the Congo FROM
AVIATION
Exiled Cuban pilots squared off against their Marxist HISTORY
countrymen and Simba tribesmen to help the CIA fight
communist expansion in 1960s Africa. 66 REVIEWS
By Don Hollway
70 FLIGHT
ON THE COVER: The North American X-15A-2 climbs over the desert and dry lakes near California’s Edwards Air Force Base. TEST
The black rocket plane would receive a white protective coating before U.S. Air Force Major William J. “Pete” Knight took it to
Mach 6.7 on October 3, 1967—to this day the fastest manned aircraft flight. Cover illustration: ©2020 Jack Fellows, ASAA. 72 AERO
ARTIFACT

2 AH J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1 CLOCKWISE FROM TOP LEFT: U.S. AIR FORCE; TED HUETTER/THE MUSEUM OF FLIGHT;
ROYAL AIR FORCE MUSEUM, HENDON; SAN DIEGO AIR & SPACE MUSEUM

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Major Robert MICHAEL A. REINSTEIN CHAIRMAN & PUBLISHER U.S. AIR FORCE
White emerges DAVID STEINHAFEL PUBLISHER
from an X-15. ALEX NEILL EDITOR IN CHIEF

OnlineAviation History AVIATION
HISTORY
You’ll find much more from Aviation History on
the web’s leading history resource: historynet.com JANUARY 2021 / VOL. 31, NO. 3

Across the Hypersonic Divide CARL VON WODTKE EDITOR
LARRY PORGES SENIOR EDITOR
On the morning of November 9, 1961, a broad JON GUTTMAN RESEARCH DIRECTOR
white contrail appeared in the sky over Nevada’s
dry Mud Lake. Soon the sudden boom and STEPHAN WILKINSON CONTRIBUTING EDITOR
crackling rumble of an igniting rocket engine filled ARTHUR H. SANFELICI EDITOR EMERITUS
the air, and U.S. Air Force test pilot Major Robert
White accelerated to become the first man to take STEPHEN KAMIFUJI CREATIVE DIRECTOR
an airplane to Mach 6. White’s North American BRIAN WALKER GROUP ART DIRECTOR
X-15 flew to speeds and altitudes never previously PAUL FISHER ART DIRECTOR
achieved by winged vehicles, paving the way for
manned spaceflight. MELISSA A. WINN DIRECTOR OF PHOTOGRAPHY
GUY ACETO PHOTO EDITOR
Why Pilots Loved the F-105 “Thud”
ROB WILKINS DIRECTOR OF PARTNERSHIP MARKETING
A fast mover designed to carry a nuclear weapon, TOM GRIFFITHS CORPORATE DEVELOPMENT
the Republic F-105 Thunderchief became the
Vietnam War’s most important conventional fighter- GRAYDON SHEINBERG CORPORATE DEVELOPMENT
bomber. Aircrews loved it: Thud pilot Vic Vizcarra SHAWN BYERS VP AUDIENCE DEVELOPMENT
called it “the Cadillac of the air.” Some of the JAMIE ELLIOTT PRODUCTION DIRECTOR
admiration probably wasn’t deserved, as the F-105
was the only aircraft in Air Force history that had to MORTON GREENBERG SVP ADVERTISING SALES [email protected]
be withdrawn from combat because nearly half the RICK GOWER REGIONAL SALES MANAGER [email protected]
fleet had been shot down or crashed.
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Midway’s Forgotten Marine
Defenders NANCY FORMAN / MEDIA PEOPLE
212-779-7172 EXT 224 [email protected]
On June 4, 1942, Midway Atoll’s air defense radar
detected a swarm of Japanese aircraft heading its © 2021 HISTORYNET, LLC
way, sending pilots of Marine Fighting Squadron SUBSCRIPTION INFORMATION: 800-435-0715 OR SHOP.HISTORYNET.COM
221 scrambling to their Brewster F2A-3 Buffalo and
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4 AH J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1

Mailbag

fisher XP-75 CRASH

The September of the pylon turn, side-firing the Tokyo area, thus causing
issue story about concept, which was far a blackout there from 11:05
the experimental older and involved much p.m. on August 14, 1945,
XP-75 [“Extremes”] more painstaking scientific until early the next morning.
brought back mem- research than is usually This blackout inhibited the
ories. It was a warm, acknowledged. Before the rogue Japanese unit that
clear summer morn- emergence of Captain Ron- had illegally taken over the
ing in 1944 when ald W. Terry, a truly leading palace grounds and pre-
my brothers and I individual, both civilians and vented them from keeping
looked up to see an Air Force personnel had the emperor from making
XP-75 heading north over our westside neighborhood worked on side-firing prob- the recording that ended
in Cleveland, Ohio. We were aware that the new ex- lems and reached a test of the war. The blackout, in ad-
perimental aircraft was being developed and tested at the concept using a Convair dition, kept the recordings
the Cleveland Municipal Airport not far from our home, C-131 aircraft in 1963. The from being found by the
and we knew it was an XP-75 because of the distinctive September article indicates rogue unit. I first learned of
sound created by the contrarotating propellers. > the “gunship program this attempted coup d’état
began in 1964” but the from the book Japan’s Lon-
NATIONAL MUSEUM OF THE U.S. AIR FORCE/VESELENAK PHOTOGRAPH COLLECTION > As we watched the aircraft As a youngster exposed concept and development, gest Day, compiled by the
cruise north, we noticed a to newsreels relating to our with the interplay of many Pacific War Research Society
thin trail of smoke coming country’s war efforts, to ac- individuals, predates that. in 1965 and translated into
from the tail. The smoke be- tually see a burning fighter I am always pleased to see English in 1968.
came thicker as the aircraft aircraft was something that information on the ongoing
banked to the west, the pilot has remained with me all evolution of the gunships Having been a prisoner
probably wanting to return these years. I am certain that but I hope we don’t lose myself of the Japanese in
to the Cleveland airport. As the loss of an XP-75 due to the deserved recognition the Philippines from age
the smoking aircraft began this accident helped to pull of some innovative and 11 to 14, when we were
to lose altitude, I ran up- the plug on the program dedicated individuals in the rescued by 11th Airborne
stairs in our home to better that October. beginning of the fixed-wing paratroops and a lot of
observe from the rooftop. gunship weapon system. other units, this story of the
Smoke was pouring from the Harry L. Geiger last 24 hours of the Pacific
tail and an active fire from Jacksonville, Fla. Lt. Col. Jack Stokes Ballard War sends chills up and
the rear engines behind the U.S. Air Force (ret.) down my spine. My e-mail
cockpit could be seen on That crash, of XP-75A serial address shows the date of
both sides of the fuselage. no. 44-32161, happened FINAL VENGEANCE our rescue. Free at last!
As I watched from my van- on August 5, 1944. Here’s a
tage point, I saw a parachute photo (above) showing the Great article by Barrett Lt. Col. George T.
open and almost immedi- remains of the empennage Tillman [“Last Air Battles of MacDonald
ately an explosion separated and gathered crowd. World War II,” September].
the empennage from the I learned a lot of new facts U.S. Air Force (ret.)
fuselage and the aircraft GUNSHIP ORIGINS about the end of the war
disappeared from view. with Japan, but from my VETERAN A-7E
Regarding “Gunship Evolu- knowledge I have to say, as
By this time the entire tion” [September], I was Paul Harvey did, “And now LTV A-7E Corsair no. 401,
neighborhood had seen the assigned to the Office of Air the rest of the story.” But for shown in the Gulf War
incident and our mother, Force History in Washington, quirks of fate, the war came article in your November
always an adventuresome D.C., in 1970 and tasked very close to continuing. A edition [“The Corsair’s Last
person, told my brothers and with writing the history of failed coup d’état was in Hurrah”], is now on display
me to get into our car to find fixed-wing gunships. After part foiled by the Tokyo area at the Tillamook Air Muse-
out where the aircraft had extensive research, includ- blackout caused by a 315th um in Tillamook, Ore. The
crashed. When we arrived ing many interviews of key Bomb Wing mission to take veteran aircraft appears to
at the site, along with many personnel and review of out Japan’s last oil refinery have been delivered to the
other Cleveland westsiders, numerous documents, I at Akita, 300 miles north museum in its unrestored,
we found that fortunately completed the official Air of Tokyo. The track of 140 original condition, making it
the aircraft had come down Force history, Development B-29Bs to and from the tar- a more accurate and educa-
in a large front yard, not and Employment of Fixed- get took them in trail over tional display.
hitting any structures. Only Wing Gunships 1962-1972.
the grass was disturbed and Following lengthy declassi- Jerry Sorrell
burned from the exploding fication, the book was pub- Kelso, Wash.
fuel. We viewed the empen- lished in 1982. It remains the
nage also on a lawn about major foundational work on SEND LETTERS TO:
a half-mile distant from the gunship history.
crash location. Aviation History Editor, HISTORYNET
In the opening chapter, I 901 North Glebe Road, 5th Floor, Arlington, VA 22203
carefully reviewed the origin
OR EMAIL TO [email protected]
(Letters may be edited)

J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1 AH 5

briefing

Indochina Invader
Flies Again
ADouglas A-26 Invader
French Connection that spent a year and NWZ \PM +WUUMUWZI\Q^M )QZ ZI\QWV *]\ \PM QVI]\PMV\QK
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the Sierra Hotel Sponsor .ZMVKP QV 1VLWKPQVI ;XWV[WZ /ZW]X IVL Q[ JI[ML Q\ KWUM[ \QUM \W KPWW[M I
Group’s A-26, which flew L]ZQVO ! IVL ¼ I\ /]\PZQM -LUWVL :MOQWVIT XZWXMZ UQTQ\IZa XIQV\ RWJ
for France in the 1950s, is PI[ PQ\ \PM IQZ IOIQV )QZXWZ\ QV 7STIPWUI
readied for its return to UISQVO Q\[ ÅZ[\ ÆQOP\ WV <PM JQOOM[\ KPITTMVOM
flight on November 1, 2020. 6W^MUJMZ IN\MZ <PM 1V^ILMZ Q[ K]ZZMV\Ta L]ZQVO \PM ZM\]ZV \W ÆQOP\
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6 AH J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1

OPPOSITE PHOTOS: COMMEMORATIVE AIR FORCE/SIERRA HOTEL SPONSOR GROUP; caretaker, the CAF squadron Pole vaulter Pole-to-Pole Peace
TOP & INSET: FLYINGTHROUGHLIFE.COM: BOTTOM: NATIONAL ARCHIVES QV 8QVM *T]‫) ٺ‬ZS IN\MZ IV Robert DeLaurentis (inset) Flight
W‫ ٺ‬Z]V_Ia M`K]Z[QWV ?PMV piloted his Gulfstream
\_W J]TTLWbMZ[ _MZM ][ML \W Turbine Commander 900 On September
tug on the mired main gear, (above) 26,000 miles over 21, 2020—the
\PM ]VM^MV NWZKM[ \ZIV[UQ\ both poles on a symbolic United Nations’
ted to the spar through the flight aimed at promoting International
TIVLQVO OMIZ I\\IKPUMV\ international peace. Day of Peace—an
XWQV\[ IXXIZMV\Ta KI][ML extensively modified
\PM LIUIOM “WHEN OLD DREAMS DIE, 1983 twin-engine
NEW ONES COME TO TAKE Gulfstream Turbine
;QMZZI 0W\MT _I[ TWWSQVO THEIR PLACE. GOD PITY A Commander 900
I\ I JQTT \W NIJZQKI\M christened Citizen of the World landed in San Diego,
I VM_ [XIZ KIX J]\ I [QT^MZ ONE-DREAM MAN.” bringing to a delayed close a remarkable 26,000-mile
\WVO]ML UMUJMZ WN \PM “Peace Flight” over both poles, 22 countries and six
OZW]X ÅVLQVO PQU[MTN WVM –ROBERT GODDARD, JULY 1969 continents by local pilot and retired naval officer Robert
M^MVQVO [Q\\QVO WV I JIZ[\WWT DeLaurentis. Behind the publicity gesture under the ban-
VM`\ \W I [MVQWZ *WMQVO ner of “Oneness for Humanity: One Planet, One People,
MVOQVMMZ OW\ \PM KWUXIVa One Plane,” DeLaurentis’ flight was the result of long and
\W NIJZQKI\M IVL LWVI\M NW]Z careful preparation to test new materials and technology
VM_ [XIZ KIX[ *WMQVO PIL for NASA. The flight, which began on November 16, 2019,
ZMKMV\Ta JW]OP\ 5K,WV VMTT was not without unexpected tests of the pilot’s fortitude,
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\W [PW_ Q\[ ZM[XMK\ NWZ \PM
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a planned five-month series of flights to a total of nine
Lil Twister Q[ I U]\\ 1V months. Although the flight over the South Pole was
! ! \PM IQZXTIVM _I[ X]Z notable mainly for its 17½ -hour duration, the other end
KPI[ML Ja \PM :WKS 1[TIVL of the Earth produced some unpleasant surprises in mid-
7QT :MÅVQVO +WUXIVa July when the GPS and autopilot failed. Unable to use
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Stephan Wilkinson

J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1 AH 7

BRIEFING

Jimmy Stewart’s
Cessna on a Stick

BM[QLM[ \PM WLL ÅTU[ QV _PQKP PM IXXMIZML Local hero
0WTTa_WWL QKWV 2IUM[ 5 ;\M_IZ\ PIL I XIZITTMT Above: Jimmy Stewart’s Cessna
aviation career, including service in the U.S. Army 310 now resides at the airport
)QZ +WZX[ )ZUa )QZ .WZKM[ IVL )QZ .WZKM :M[MZ^M entrance in the actor’s hometown
JM\_MMV ! IVL ! 1V \PI\ UQTQM] PM Q[ JM[\ of Indiana, Pa. Left: Stewart and
ZMUMUJMZML NWZ ÆaQVO UQ[[QWV[ QV +WV[WTQLI\ML his family pose with the Cessna.
* [ NWZ _PQKP PM ZMKMQ^ML \PM
,Q[\QVO]Q[PML .TaQVO +ZW[[ )QZ established for the purpose, the project took 6,500 hours over
5MLIT IVL \PM .ZMVKP Croix de û aMIZ[ \W KWUXTM\M <PM +M[[VI ZM[\[ I\WX I XaTWV W^MZ Q\[
Guerre 0M IT[W ÆM_ *WMQVO * [ NWZUMZ W_VMZ¼[ PWUM IQZXWZ\ IVL XTIV[ IZM ]VLMZ_Ia \W J]QTL
over Vietnam before retiring as a I XTIaOZW]VL ]VLMZVMI\P /MWZOM *IQTMa IVL +TIZMVKM _W]TL
brigadier general. undoubtedly approve.

2QUUa ;\M_IZ\¼[ ÆaQVO _I[
PIZLTa TQUQ\ML \W JWUJMZ[ PW_
ever, and in September 2020
WVM WN PQ[ XMZ[WVIT IQZKZIN\ _I[
]V^MQTML I[ I UWV]UMV\ I\ 1VLQIVI
+W]V\a 2QUUa ;\M_IZ\ )QZXWZ\
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Pa. Discovered derelict at Dallas
-`MK]\Q^M )QZXWZ\ QV ;\M_IZ\¼[
NWZUMZ XZQ^I\M XTIVM +M[[VI . 6 @ _I[ UQ[[QVO JW\P
MVOQVM[ IVL XZWXMTTMZ[ ITWVO _Q\P W\PMZ KWUXWVMV\[ 1V KTI[[QK
It’s A Wonderful Life NI[PQWV PW_M^MZ TWKIT +PIX\MZ !! WN \PM
Experimental Aircraft Association, led by Harold Wood, set
IJW]\ ZM[\WZQVO Q\ \W Q\[ NWZUMZ OTIUWZ .]VLML Ja I VWVXZWÅ\

MILESTONES Cross-country relay
DH-4Bs in Salt Lake City, Utah, await their turn to
special shuttle mail across the U.S. on February 22, 1921.
Delivery

A century ago, on February 22, 1921, in prearranged spots, a sort of Pony Express of the air. FROM TOP: EAA CHAPTER 993; JIMMY STEWART MUSEUM; LIBRARY OF CONGRESS; OPPOSITE TOP (BOTH):
the U.S. Postal Service set out to prove ) [VW_[\WZU \P_IZ\ML \PM _M[\JW]VL ÆQMZ[ IVL WVTa WVM WN COURTESY OF OHIO AIR & SPACE; OPPOSITE BOTTOM (BOTH): MUSA SALGEREYEV/TASS VIA GETTY IMAGES
that airplanes could deliver mail
across the continent faster than trains. \PM \_W IQZXTIVM[ OW\ M^MV I[ NIZ I[ +PQKIOW JMNWZM \PM M‫ٺ‬WZ\
Transcontinental airmail actually began _I[ IJIVLWVML 7N \PM \_W XTIVM[ \PI\ TMN\ ;IV .ZIVKQ[KW
in the United States a year earlier, in 1920, WVM KZI[PML QV 6M^ILI SQTTQVO \PM XQTW\ <PM W\PMZ ,0
\PW]OP XTIVM[ WVTa ÆM_ L]ZQVO \PM LIa PW_M^MZ UILM Q\ \PZW]OP \PM [VW_[\WZU \W +PQKIOW _PMZM
At nightfall they transferred their cargo to I ZMTQMN XQTW\ ÆM_ \PM ZM[\ WN \PM _Ia \W 6M_ AWZS <PM MV\QZM
_IQ\QVO TWKWUW\Q^M[ _PQKP I\M ]X UQTMIOM trip took 33 hours and 20 minutes, more than three days faster
\Z]VLTQVO W^MZVQOP\ \W IQZKZIN\ _IQ\QVO NWZ than a transcontinental crossing by rail.
\PM UWZVQVO ÆQOP\[ <PZW]OP \PQ[ \IO \MIU
system, a package took 78 hours to cross the <PQ[ \QUM 0IZLQVO _I[ QUXZM[[ML 0M IOZMML \W ILLQ\QWVIT
KW]V\Za ) \ZIQV WV Q\[ W_V \WWS PW]Z[ funding, and regular overnight airmail service began in the
= ; WV 2]Ta !
8ZM[QLMV\ ?IZZMV / 0IZLQVO LQLV¼\ NMMT \PI\ PW]Z \QUM
[I^QVO[ _I[ MVW]OP \W _IZZIV\ \PM OW^MZVUMV\ QV^M[\QVO QV
the more expensive airmail service. So the postmaster general
decided to improve upon airmail’s performance numbers. At
I U WV ?I[PQVO\WV¼[ JQZ\PLIa ! \_W XQTW\[ \WWS W‫ ٺ‬QV
LM 0I^QTTIVL ,0 JQXTIVM[ NZWU 6M_ AWZS PMILQVO \W ;IV
.ZIVKQ[KW 7VM PW]Z TI\MZ \_W XQTW\[ TMN\ ;IV .ZIVKQ[KW QV \PM
opposite direction.

<PM OWIT _I[ \W Æa \PZW]OPW]\ \PM VQOP\ WV _PI\ _I[ PWXML
to be the start of overnight airmail service in the U.S. To make
\PM VQOP\ ÆQOP\[ XW[[QJTM \PM 8W[\IT ;MZ^QKM [M\ ]X JWVÅZM[
ITWVO \PM ZW]\M \W IQL QV VI^QOI\QWV :MTIa XTIVM[ _MZM ZMILQML

8 AH J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1

VSeinttfaogrePOrheisoeTrevramtiionnal

Alocally neglected jewel LWTTIZ N]VLZIQ[QVO M‫ٺ‬WZ\ Ja Art Deco dreams
of aviation architecture, OAS, which has an initial goal Ohio’s 1929 Port Columbus
the 1929 air terminal in of raising another $550,000 air terminal (above) is being
Port Columbus, Ohio, to double the matching funds reimagined as the Ohio Air
Q[ \PM JMVMÅKQIZa WN required by the state to release and Space Hall of Fame (left).
more than half a the grant.”
million dollars in matching
funds for restoration. The The terminal will house the state’s air and space hall of
historic art deco terminal NIUM ITWVO _Q\P M`PQJQ\[ IVL ML]KI\QWVIT NIKQTQ\QM[ JI[ML WV
building was erected on a site the STEAM concept, an evolved program that goes one step
chosen by Charles Lindbergh on behalf of Transcontinental further than earlier STEM education by adding the arts into
)QZ <ZIV[XWZ\ 1\ _I[ J]QT\ I[ XIZ\ WN IV IUJQ\QW][ XTIV \W W‫ٺ‬MZ \PM [KQMVKM \MKPVWTWOa MVOQVMMZQVO IVL UI\P UQ` 7PQW PI[
coast-to-coast travel in the then-fast span of 48 hours, with a wealth of resident air and space luminaries to honor, ranging
trains bringing passengers from New York to Port Columbus, from the Wright brothers to Eddie Rickenbacker, John Glenn
where Ford Tri-Motors carried them in daylight to Oklahoma and Neil Armstrong.
NWZ IVW\PMZ _M[\JW]VL VQOP\ \ZIQV \ZQX NWTTW_ML Ja I ÅVIT LIa-
TQOP\ ÆQOP\ \W +ITQNWZVQI Frederick A. Johnsen

In late September 2020, the Ohio Air and Space Hall of
Fame signed a long-term lease with the Columbus Regional
Airport Authority for use of the vintage art deco terminal. An
Ohio state grant for $550,000 puts the project about a quarter
of the way to the estimated $2 million cost of renovating the
[Y]IZM NWW\ NIKQTQ\a )KKWZLQVO \W :WV 3IXTIV M`MK-
utive director of the Ohio Air and Space Hall of Fame and
Museum, “The lease-signing is integral to a multimillion-

Abandoned Ekranoplan Finds a Home
F or nearly 30 years a colossal
hybrid vehicle locally known abandonment in the 1990s.
as the “Caspian Sea Monster” In July 2020, however, three tugs
has lain abandoned to the
elements at the Kaspiysk naval and two escort vessels arrived with
base in the Russian Republic rubber pontoons to convey the
of Dagestan. Although it has rusting Lun (inset and below) on
wings, the International Maritime a 14-hour journey 62 miles down
Organization classes it as a ship. the Caspian coast to Derbent, the
=VTQSM I ÆaQVO JWI\ PW_M^MZ oldest continuously inhabited city
\PM MSZIVWXTIV WZ OZW]VL M‫ٺ‬MK\ on Russian soil. There it will be
^MPQKTM Q[ UW[\ I\ PWUM WVM \W Å^M restored and preserved at Patriot
meters (three to 16 feet) above the Park, a projected museum of his-
water. The culmination of Soviet toric military artifacts.
OZW]VL M‫ٺ‬MK\ M`XMZQUMV\[ \PM
\WV ¹4]Vº MV\MZML [MZ^QKM QV ! I[ \PM ÅZ[\ WN I VM_ )T\PW]OP Q\ Q[ M`XMK\ML \W JM I
KTI[[ WN VI^IT _MIXWV[ KIXIJTM WN [SQUUQVO \PM [MI _Q\P [Q` valuable tourist attraction, Lun
anti-ship missiles, borne by eight turbofan engines at 340 mph. may not necessarily spend posterity
<PM M‫ٺ‬WZ\ OW\ VW N]Z\PMZ \PIV \PQ[ ÅZ[\ M`IUXTM JMNWZM \PM inspiring amusement as well as awe. Singapore, Russia, China
collapse of the Soviet Union led to the project’s, and the ship’s, and the United States are working on more civil applications
WN OZW]VL M‫ٺ‬MK\ NWZ I VM_ OMVMZI\QWV WN KIZOW IVL XI[[MVOMZ
carriers. If they succeed, the Lun ekranoplan may serve as a
developmental artifact rather than a freakish dead end.

AvIATORS

The Best Dive Bomber

SEEKING PAYBACK FOR PEARL HARBOR, DIVE-BOMBER
PILOT DICK BEST HAD A HAND IN SINKING TWO
JAPANESE CARRIERS DURING THE BATTLE OF MIDWAY

BY BARRETT TILLMAN date with destiny thirst for vengeance. He ABOVE: ©ROBERT PERRY; INSET: U.S. NAVY
Diving his Douglas SBD on recalled seeing the Big E’s
In the age of industrial warfare, individual combatants sel- the Japanese carrier Akagi “number one” battle flag
dom make a difference in a battle’s outcome. Richard H. (above), Dick Best (right) hoisted, “My most memora-
Best was an exception. But he spent a decade en route to his helped turn the tide at the ble sight of the war.”
rendezvous with destiny at the Battle of Midway. June 1942 Battle of Midway.
Appointed to the U.S. Naval Academy from his native New As VB-6 executive officer,
Jersey, Best graduated in the class of 1932. Enamored of avia- Squadron 6 (VB-6) in June. Best flew in each of Enter-
tion, Ensign Best served the obligatory two years at sea before He became flight operations prise’s subsequent opera-
beginning flight training in Pensacola, Fla. An excellent stu- officer—third in seniority— tions: hit-and-run strikes
dent, he pinned on his golden wings in December 1935. and cultivated his consid- on Kwajalein Atoll, Wake
erable dive-bombing skills. Island and Marcus Island in
Best’s Pensacola grades earned him the most prestigious As he candidly admitted, “I February and March 1942.
seat possible: Fighting Squadron 2, the “Flying Chiefs.” intended to become the best At Kwajalein he was jumped
Staffed largely with noncommissioned pilots, VF-2 was widely bomber in the Pacific Fleet.” by Japanese fighters, which
regarded as the most professional unit in naval aviation. For Certainly he had ample
the next two years Best flew Grumman F3F biplanes from opportunity: In late 1941 he
USS Lexington. logged as many as 90 hours
per month.
After 2½ years aboard “Lex,” Best was offered patrol planes
or instructing at Pensacola. He chose the latter, and used the On the morning of Decem-
time well. As he recalled, “The best way to learn a subject is to ber 7, Enterprise’s Douglas
teach it, and that’s what I tried to do.” SBD Dauntlesses were
caught in the Japanese attack
In the spring of 1940 Best was ready to return to the fleet, on Pearl Harbor. Several of
and he surprised colleagues by requesting dive bombers. As Best’s shipmates were killed,
an astute professional, he recognized that naval fighters were leaving him with an abiding
inherently defensive while bombers were offensive. “I knew that
we would become involved in the war,” he said, “and I thought
I could make the best contribution by flying bombers.”

Assigned to the carrier Enterprise, Best joined Bombing

1 0 AH J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1

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AvIATORS

ready for action deploy in response to a dire TBD torpedo planes and 10 flow from the newly damaged TOP: U.S. NAVAL HISTORY AND HERITAGE COMMAND; BOTTOM: R.G. SMITH
SBD Dauntlesses of VB-6 threat—Japan’s effort to seize Grumman F4F fighters. But Yorktown. That afternoon he
line up for takeoff from USS Midway Atoll, barely 1,100 it took time, and at length made his second dive of the
Enterprise to attack Wake miles from Honolulu. the air group commander, day, scoring his second hit.
Island on February 24, 1942. Wade McClusky, headed All four Japanese carriers
The battle shaped up as outbound with his two were destroyed, and the battle
put holes in his SBD’s tail. His a mismatch: Enterprise and Dauntless squadrons. Finding ended with Yorktown’s loss on
evasive maneuvers were effec- Hornet operating together no Japanese at the briefed the 7th.
tive: “Not enough deflection,” plus Yorktown in its own task intercept point, McClusky
he observed with Olympian force versus four veteran began a box search and It was also the end of Dick
detachment. When flying Japanese carriers. However, struck gold. Following the Best’s career. That night he
with VF-2 he had towed the U.S. aircraft based on path of an enemy destroyer, began coughing blood, the
banner target for gunnery Midway evened the odds. he arrived over Admiral result of caustic soda in his
practice, “and I knew what a Chuichi Nagumo’s four car- oxygen rebreather system that
good run looked like.” On the eve of Midway riers. Midway-based planes activated latent tuberculosis.
Best was a thorough profes- and the task force’s three
In May the Enterprise task sional with 2,700 flight hours torpedo squadrons drew the Medically retired in 1944,
force sped south during the and more than 300 carrier attention of the Zeros, leaving Best spent the next several
world’s first carrier engage- landings. Newly promoted the SBDs a clear shot. years recovering, then
ment, the Battle of the Coral to command VB-6, he was entered civilian life. He was
Sea, but the Big E was too confident of his squadron and Historians still argue an analyst for the RAND
late to participate. Lexington himself. Of the night of June whether McClusky ordered corporation until retiring in
was sunk and Yorktown 3, he said, “I slept like a baby.” a proper attack, but 30 1975. He died in 2001 but
damaged in exchange for a Dauntlesses followed him always said, “Midway was
Japanese flattop, so the U.S. On the third call to man down on the nearest carrier, revenge, sweet revenge for
carriers were recalled to aircraft Best told his radio- Kaga. Best, narrowly avoiding Pearl Harbor.”
Pearl. In a frantic three days man-gunner, Chief James collisions with the plunging
“Yorky” was fit enough to Murray, “Well, this is it!” SBDs, regrouped his two At the end of the 2019 film
wingmen and went for the Midway, a what-happened-
Enterprise lofted a full deck- next target, Nagumo’s flag- to-them montage notes that
load: 34 SBDs, 14 Douglas ship Akagi. Attacking broad Best was one of two pilots to
on the port beam, Best put his score hits on multiple ships
half-ton bomb into its hangar in the battle. The other was
deck, igniting fuel and ord- his shipmate, Lt. (j.g.) Jack
nance. His wingmen scored “Dusty” Kleiss, who hit Kaga
very near misses, and Akagi and Hiryu on June 4 and the
was doomed. So was Kaga. cruiser Mikuma two days later.
Although Best is portrayed
And, incredibly, so was as a hotdog in the movie,
Soryu, victim of Yorktown’s attempting an impossible
just-arrived strike. feat (an intentional deadstick
carrier landing with no flaps
But the battle remained from a steep dive directly
in the balance. When the overhead), British actor Ed
remaining enemy carrier, Skrein captures his intense
Hiryu, was located, Best led focus on winning his part of
his VB-6 survivors with over- the war.

the turning point
R.G. Smith’s painting shows
Best and his squadron mates
leveling off after hitting the
carriers Akagi and Kaga.

1 2 AH J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1



RESTORED

T Square 54 During the Cold War the Museum quality
veteran bomber was sent Top: The Boeing B-29
THE SEATTLE MUSEUM OF FLIGHT’S back to Boeing’s Wichita Superfortress shines on static
METICULOUS B-29 RESTORATION plant for conversion as a display at Seattle’s Museum
HAS RETURNED MOST OF THE KB-29 aerial tanker. At Biggs of Flight. Above: T Square 54
VETERAN BOMBER’S CONTROLS Air Force Base in Texas, drops its payload during one
TO WORKING ORDER no. 729 was part of Strategic of 37 combat missions it flew
Air Command’s 95th Bomb over Japan in 1945.
BY MARK CARLSON ?QVO ÆaQVO UQ[[QWV[ \W
the UK. In 1956, after 11 Superfortresses left, ordered
Given its location on historic Boeing Field, it’s not sur- aMIZ[ WN [MZ^QKM Q\ _I[ ÅVITTa a stop to using them as
prising that Seattle’s Museum of Flight exhibits a retired from the Air Force \IZOM\[ *a \PM MIZTa ! [
wide variety of Boeing aircraft. Among its latest resto- and given to the Navy. 729 was among the last
rations is another Boeing product, a combat-veteran salvageable wartime B-29s
B-29 Superfortress. The shiny new bomber, serial no. Transported to the Weap- left. In 1986 the dilapidated
44-69729, rolled out of the Boeing plant in Wichita, Kan., on ons Testing Center at Naval bomber was trucked in pieces
New Year’s Day 1945. Accepted by the U.S. Army Air Forces Air Station China Lake, high to Lowry Air Force Base in
on January 4, the new Superfortress had its “address” prom- in the California desert, 729 Colorado, where it under-
inently displayed on the broad, tall vertical stabilizer: a black joined several other B-29s _MV\ Q\[ ÅZ[\ ZM[\WZI\QWV
“T” for the 498th Bombardment Group (Very Heavy) above as bombing targets for naval
a square for the 73rd Bomb Wing and the number 54 as the aviators. They had little luck In 1993, with Lowry
54th aircraft assigned to the 875th Squadron. in hitting the old veteran. designated for closure, the
1V \PM ! [ \PM )QZ .WZKM Museum of Flight began
< ;Y]IZM ¼[ ÅZ[\ UQ[[QWV WV \PM VQOP\ WN 5IZKP ! realizing there were few negotiations aimed at restor-
was a low-level incendiary raid on Tokyo that burned 16
square miles of the city and marked a change in tactics for the
Twentieth Air Force bombers. Over the next several weeks
< ÆM_ UQ[[QWV[ W^MZ 7[ISI 3WJM IVL 6IOWaI \W UIZS \IZ-
gets in advance of the main bomber stream and participated
in attacks. During a May 23 night raid, an anti-aircraft shell
[M\ \PM VW MVOQVM WV ÅZM J]\ \PM * ! UILM Q\ JIKS WV \PM
W\PMZ \PZMM 7V )]O][\ _PQTM \PM ZILQWIK\Q^M ÅZM[ _MZM [\QTT
J]ZVQVO QV 0QZW[PQUI < ÆM_ Q\[ \P IVL ÅVIT UQ[[QWV \W
industrial targets in Yawata.

1 4 AH J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1

OPPOSITE TOP: DEAN SHAW; ALL OTHER PHOTOS: THE MUSEUM OF FLIGHT ing 729 to its original appear- good as new Syd Baker built bomb racks proudly noted. “We invited
ance. Retired AT&T engi- Clockwise from above: from scratch in his garage. a B-29 gunner to come on
neer Dale Thompson eventu- Jimmy, a mannequin ground All the instrument panels and board. He settled into his
ally oversaw the project. crewman, works on one of labels are there, and their sur- old seat at the gunsight and
the engine cowlings; a view faces have been done with the [IQL »1 _Q[P 1 KW]TL ÅZM \PM[M
Thompson said the of the command pilot’s XZWXMZ JTIKS ÅVQ[P 1\ TWWS[ babies again.’ So I told him,
bomber was in bad shape position and working Norden absolutely new. ‘Go ahead. It works.’ This
_PMV 4W_Za ÅZ[\ ZMKMQ^ML bombsight; and a closeup of guy takes the handgrips and
it. “The aluminum skin was the flight engineer’s station, “The control cabling has twists it around. The turret
very weathered, some of the which is situated just aft of been replaced,” continued turns and the guns elevate.
windows were broken, so the copilot facing backward. Thompson. “The pulleys and He was overjoyed, just like a
the desert dust had blown in guides are perfect and they SQL <PMV 1 \WTL PQU \W ÅZM
and covered everything,” he and interphone systems. operate the control surfaces. the guns. He did, and this
VW\ML ¹<PM \QZM[ _MZM ITT ÆI\ Several hundred volunteers The command radios do chattering roar made him
and cracked. The engines work. Some licensed ham jump,” Thompson laughed.
were frozen, with pools of gave their time to the old operators were on the team. “We had this recorded sound
solid oil in the nacelles. All bomber. “We had ex-USAF We had two wartime pilots in WN \PM [ ÅZQVO _PMV PM
the wiring and cabling was personnel, people who the B-17 and B-29 and told pulled the trigger. He was
gone or degraded. The war- worked at Boeing and a lot them to talk and simulate a smiling from ear to ear.”
time bombing equipment WN NWTS[ _PW R][\ W‫ٺ‬MZML \PMQZ mission. They were so happy
was gone, replaced by the \QUM IVL M‫ٺ‬WZ\ º ZMXWZ\ML to use those radios again.” Today the revitalized vet-
air tanker gear. The control Thompson. Boeing opened eran bomber is on display
surfaces are fabric over an their archives to the project, Thompson said the team in the museum’s Aviation
aluminum frame, and after allowing the team to copy any worked a deal with Travis Pavilion. You can take a
all those years sitting in the drawings, diagrams and pho- Air Force Base to wrangle up 360-degree virtual tour of the
sun at China Lake they were tos they needed. some critical parts. “It’s the B-29’s immaculate interior at
nothing more than shreds.” only B-29 in the world where U][M]UW‫ټ‬QOP\ WZO
“The cockpit is about ITT Å^M \]ZZM\[ _WZS º PM
Lowry restored the exte- 90 percent complete,” said
rior and repaired the dam- Thompson. “During the
age, but what Thompson and war the inner skin was just
his team faced was far more bare aluminum, but at all the
daunting. The Superfortress crew stations it was insulated
_I[ QV M‫ٺ‬MK\ I P]OM UM\IT and covered with cotton
jigsaw puzzle with dozens fabric. All the cotton fabric
of missing pieces, some of is in place now. The tunnel
which no longer existed. through the bomb bay is lined
Rare wartime armament, too. We have the Norden
radar, navigation, com- bombsight and it actually
munications and bombing works. We had it running
equipment had to be found and even an hour after it was
or machined from original \]ZVML W‫\ ٺ‬PM OaZW[ _MZM [\QTT
! [XMKQÅKI\QWV[ )TT NW]Z spinning. Beautiful machin-
engines had to be stripped ery. It looks brand-new.
down and rebuilt, along with
the hydraulics, instruments, “We had machinists who
ÆQOP\ KWV\ZWT[ IVL W`aOMV custom-made parts from
original Boeing drawings.

J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1 AH 15

EXTREMES

Golden Arrow Misses Mark

CONVAIR’S 880 AND 990 AIRLINERS
DEMONSTRATED THAT FASTER
WASN’T ALWAYS BETTER WHEN IT
CAME TO PASSENGER TRANSPORT

BY STEPHAN WILKINSON built for speed Force. The 880/990 project
The Convair 990 (top) was a cost GD a $185 million loss
I n the early 1960s I was an editor at the travel magazine sleeker and faster version of (more than $1.5 billion in
Holiday. As a geeky young aviation enthusiast, I was the 880 (above), which could today’s dollars), though some
assigned all the dog-and-pony shows that had anything to still cruise at 615 mph. estimates are far higher. The
do with airplanes. So one day my boss said, “Show up at LMUW ÆQOP\ 1 \WWS _I[ I LM[-
Idlewild [as New York’s JFK was called in those days] tomor- airplanes that promptly put perate attempt by Convair to
row morning for this thing,” tossing me an invitation to take Convair owner General remind travel writers of the
a ride in an airliner. Dynamics out of the airline need for speed, but by that
business and sent it packing time nobody cared. Boeing
The airplane turned out to be a Convair 990, essentially to its previous specialty: bet the farm on the 707 and
I [\ZM\KPML IVL ]X MVOQVML ?M \WWS W‫ ٺ‬IVL KTQUJML building delta-wing wonders won. General Dynamics bet
to altitude, then turned around, crossed the airport going like the F-106 and B-58 on the 880/990 and lost.
like Billy-be-damned and headed for Boston, 190 miles to Hustler for the U.S. Air
the northeast. Convair had imagined

?M RW]ZVITQ[\[ _MZM [Q\\QVO ]X NZWV\ QV \PM ÅZ[\ KTI[[ [MK-
tion, and in those pre-9/11 days the cockpit door was open. I
ZMUMUJMZ PMIZQVO \PM 5IKP W^MZ[XMML JMTT OWQVO W‫[ ٺ‬M^MZIT
times as the crew nudged the slim, four-engine jet up against
forbidden territory (a 990’s VNE—never-exceed speed—was
Mach .94, or 721 mph). Fifteen minutes later, with the help
of a tailwind, we streaked over Boston Logan Airport aboard
what to this day was the fastest commercial jet ever to carry
XI[[MVOMZ[ W\PMZ \PIV \PM +WVKWZLM IVL JZQMÆa \PM <]XWTM^
Tu-144. Fifteen minutes to cover a stretch that I had driven
V]UJMZTM[[ \QUM[ JM\_MMV KWTTMOM IVL PWUM QV Å^M PW]Z[

Yet this and its more numerous 880 sister ships were the

1 6 AH J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1

ALL PHOTOS: SAN DIEGO AIR & SPACE MUSEUM a niche in the jet airliner front office engines were not injected— Aerodynamic carrots
market where none existed: A look at a Garuda Indonesia they simply had badly Anti-shock pods called
a narrower and shorter, 990’s flight deck. In 1963 the LM[QOVML J]ZVMZ KIV[ .WZ \PM Küchemann carrots or
medium-range four-engine airline launched a Hong Kong !! \PM +2 [ _MZM \]ZVML Whitcomb bodies cut down
jet that would be faster than route with the Golden Arrow. into turbofans, through the on wave drag at transonic
the Boeing 707 and Douglas ]V][]IT LM^QKM WN UW]V\QVO speeds and helped give
DC-8, thanks to a fuselage Ja \PM ;W^QM\ UIV]NIK\]ZMZ the bypass-air fan at the back the 990 a speed edge.
cross section that held just <]XWTM^ 4QSM :QKPIZL of the engine, downstream
Å^M [MI\[ IVL IV IQ[TM .]MT ?PQ\KWUJ¼[ )ZMI :]TM \PMa from the hot section, rather Lisa Marie remains on
was cheap in those days, K]\ LW_V WV _I^M LZIO I\ \PIV I\ \PM ^MZa NZWV\ display at Graceland, in
and at the cost of some extra transonic speeds and made 6I[P^QTTM LM[XQ\M I\ TMI[\
SMZW[MVM QUXI\QMV\ \ZI^MTMZ[ the thirsty airplanes a bit <PM UW[\ KMTMJZI\ML WN WVM I\\MUX\ \W I]K\QWV Q\ W‫ ٺ‬
KW]TL \aXQKITTa [I^M UQV- UWZM M‫ٻ‬KQMV\ ITT +WV^IQZ [ _I[ -T^Q[ It is one of only two intact
]\M[ WV [WUM \ZQX[ Presley’s Lisa Marie, an +WV^IQZ [ TMN\ QV \PM
<PM ¼[ /MVMZIT -TMK\ZQK ex-Delta transport that the _WZTL <PM W\PMZ Q[ XIZSML
+WV^IQZ PIL _IV\ML \W +2 MVOQVM[ _MZM KQ^QT King added to his eclectic I\ 5WRI^M +ITQN W_VML Ja
call the airliner the Skylark, ^MZ[QWV[ WN \PM 2 ![ \PI\ ÆMM\ QV ! :MVW^I\ML _Q\P a company that supplies the
until somebody reminded XW_MZML * [ . [ IVL _PI\ QV \PI\ XZM <Z]UX MZI ÅTU QVL][\Za _Q\P I^QI\QWV
them there was already a sin- . [ UQV][ \PM IN\MZJ]ZVMZ was considered extreme— UWKS]X[ IVL IQZKZIN\ 7VTa
gle-engine Cessna with that <PMa _MZM VW\QKMIJTa TW]L including gold-plated [ _MZM UIV]NIK\]ZML
VIUM <PMV I\ \PM JMPM[\ WN IVL XIZ\QK]TIZTa WV \ISMW‫ ٺ‬ \WQTM\ Å`\]ZM[¸8ZM[TMa¼[ QV IV MZI _PMV IQZTQVMZ
Howard Hughes, they chose I[ [UWSa I[ I *WTQ^QIV J][ +WV^IQZ [MZ^ML ITWVO[QLM PQ[ units was considered the
Golden Arrow and consid- Many assumed this was due 4WKSPMML 2M\;\IZ IVL .ITKWV JZMIS M^MV XWQV\ ITWVO _Q\P
ered anodizing the entire to water injection, and some <PM 2M\;\IZ _I[ VW\ML !! [
IQZXTIVM OWTL .QVITTa \W [\Ia tower controllers called NWZ PI^QVO I[ Q\[ KPQMN XQTW\ \PM
_Q\PQV \PM I^QI\QWV \ZILQ\QWV IX\Ta VIUML 5QTW 0QOP <PM +WV^IQZ ¼[ UW[\
of alphanumeric designators, [ _I\MZ _IOWV[ *]\ \PM important contribution to
some slipstick-happy engi- I^QI\QWV UIa PI^M JMMV \PI\
neer came up with 880: the it was largely responsible
number of feet per second NWZ \PM .MLMZIT )^QI\QWV
\PM IQZXTIVM \ZI^MTML I\ Q\[ Administration deciding that
UI` KZ]Q[M WN UXP IQZTQVM ÆQOP\ \ZIQVQVO [PW]TL
be carried out in simulators
Hughes had ordered 880s ZI\PMZ \PIV IQZXTIVM[ 1V
NWZ <?) \PM IQZTQVM \PI\ 5Ia ! I ,MT\I WV
he controlled, and the air- I \ZIQVQVO ÆQOP\ \W \aXM ZI\M
plane became his downfall two new captains crashed
I[ _MTT 0M JW]OP\ \PMU NWZ WV \ISMW‫ ٺ‬NZWU )\TIV\I
\PM 0]OPM[ <WWT +WUXIVa Municipal Airport, killing all
his fortune-creating manu- NW]Z KZM_UMV )V .)) KPMKS
facturer of oil-drilling bits, pilot had zero-thrusted both
and then leased them back left engines after rotation,
\W <?) I\ I [Sa PQOP XZQKM and the airplane became
) [\WKSPWTLMZ ZM^WT\ X]\ IV ]VZMKW^MZIJTM
MVL \W \PI\ ÅLLTM I[ _MTT I[ \W
0]OPM[¼ KWV\ZWT WN \PM IQZTQVM

<PM IQZXTIVM¼[ [XMML _I[
in part due to its thin, fast
wings and their substantial
[_MMX WN ITUW[\ LMOZMM[
Boeing 707 wings were swept
LMOZMM[ IVL ,+ [ [\IaML
I\ I KWV[MZ^I\Q^M LMOZMM[
(making the Doug 20 mph
[TW_MZ \PIV \PM *WMQVO <PM
990 took the wings’ aerody-
namics a step further with
the addition of anti-shock
bodies—four large pods like
upside-down canoes stretch-
ing well past the trailing edge
WN MIKP _QVO ,MXMVLQVO WV
which aerodynamicist you
fancied, they were called
MQ\PMZ ?PQ\KWUJ JWLQM[ WZ
Küchemann carrots, but they
in fact had been pioneered

J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1 AH 17

STYLE COURTESY OF JESSICA AMBATS

We focus our
attention on
Jessica Ambats’
spectacular
air-to-air
photographs,
a Jetsons-
style jet pack
and the new
Nat Geo series
about the
Mercury Seven
astronauts

Sean D. Tucker goes inverted in his Oracle Challenger
alongside son Eric Tucker in the Wolf Pitts Pro.

1 8 AH J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1

J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1 AH 19

STYLE

20 AH J A N U a r Y 2 0 2 1

STYLE

PHOTOS: COURTESY OF JESSICA AMBATS PHOTOGRAPHY

Opposite: Yak-50s fly over Malibu Beach (top); U.S. Navy Blue Angels over Big Sur (bottom). Shutter Speed

Top: Rob Holland flies inverted in his MXS-RH over Nicolas Ivanoff in his Zivko Edge 540. Photographer/pilot
Above: A P-51D Mustang passes the Freedom Tower, then under construction in New York City. Jessica Ambats faces the

challenges of air-to-air
photography with a set
plan. Before takeoff, Am-
bats and her team brief
about takeoff/landing,
frequencies, altitudes,

airspeeds, photo ma-
neuvers and emergency

procedures. Weather
permitting, they launch.
For the next hour or so,

with doors off, under
cold, noisy and uncom-

fortable conditions,
Ambats radios directions

to the formation pilot,
at times flying only 20
feet away. She aims her
camera armed with an
image-stabilized lens and
captures the moment.
Ambats shares one photo
shoot that still haunts
her. “We were setting up
for a particular shot, and
it became apparent that
the pilot in the subject
plane was maneuvering
to fly an opposing pass
right at us,” she recalls.
“It was quickly called off.
I now only work with
highly experienced and
skilled formation pilots.”
Ambats’ photo book of

owner-flown jets, Jet
Dreams, is due out soon.

jessicaambats.com

J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1 AH 21

STYLE Richard Browning with his patented Gravity Jet Suit.

INNOVATION

Rocket Man

During a 2017 TED
Talk, in front of a
screen showing
himself flying in a
suit powered by five
mini jet engines,
Richard Browning
set the stage: “The
starting hypothesis
is that the human
mind and body,
when given the
right chance, can
do some really
cool stuff…like our
brain’s capacity to
retune balance.”
What’s his inspira-
tion for his ground-
breaking invention?
“The sheer power
of having an idea
and learning by
doing, learning from
failure. That’s the in-
spiration behind this
journey.” His com-
pany, Gravity, based
in London, has built
five Jet Suits, which
carry a pricetag of
$440,000. For more
info visit gravity.co.

Gravity Jet Suit Specifications Dual Jet Suits fly at the Farnborough Air Show in 2018.
First launch: April 2017
Turbines: 5
Fuel: Jet A1 Kerosene, Premium Diesel
Engine: 1,050 hp, 144 kg
Thrust: 317 lbs.
Fight Time: Up to 4 minutes
Speed: 85.6 mph (World Record)
Max Altitude: 12,000 ft., but limited for safety reasons

22 AH j a n U A R Y 2 0 2 1

STYLE

TELEVISION

Lucky Seven

New from Nat Geo,
“The Right Stuff” is
an inspirational tele-
vision series based

on Tom Wolfe’s
1979 bestseller by
the same name. The
series tells the story
of NASA’s Mercury
Seven astronauts.
At the height of the
Cold War in 1959,
the Soviet Union
leads the space race,
and newly formed
NASA is tasked with
sending a man into
space, not within

two decades as
predicted by the
engineers, but in
two years. Project
Mercury trains sev-
en astronauts from
a selection of the
military’s best pilots,
who instantly be-
come heroes before
they realize a single
heroic action. The
series is streaming
now on Disney+.

OPPOSITE TOP: DPPHOTOS; LEFT: RICH COOPER PHOTOGRAPHY; RIGHT IMAGES: DISNEY

j a n U A R Y 2 0 2 1 AH 23

LETTER FROM AvIATION HISTORY

HYPERSONIC BARRIERS

hyper-x plane BY CARL VON WODTKE QV I[ I NWTTW_ WV \W \PM @ IVL ÅZ[\ ÆW_V NASA
NASA’s B-52B mother hypersonic in May 2010, made its last and fastest
ship carries a Pegasus In March 2006 maverick aerospace engineer ÆQOP\ WV 5Ia _PMV Q\ TI]VKPML NZWU I
booster rocket tipped Burt Rutan told Professional Pilot magazine: “In B-52 and reached a peak speed of Mach 5.1.
with the third X-43A a relatively short period of time—maybe 15 to
on November 16, aMIZ[¸1 JMTQM^M _M¼ZM OWQVO \W Æa PaXMZ- In the preface to his book X-15: Extending the
2004. The X-43A sonic....We’ll bounce across the top of the Frontiers of Flight, Dennis R. Jenkins wrote that “If
hypersonic research I\UW[XPMZM I\ 5IKP WZ LW []JWZJQ\IT TWJ[ Æa- the Air Force and NASA were trying to develop
plane reached Mach ing weightless. Travel time may be reduced to as the X-15 today, Congress would cancel it long
9.6 (about 7,300 mph) little as 60 minutes anywhere on Earth.” So, Burt, JMNWZM \PM ÅZ[\ ÆQOP\ º 2MVSQV[ VW\ML ¹<PM UQT-
that day, a record for it’s 15 years later—why are there no signs we’ll be itary and NACA initiated and funded the X-15
unmanned aircraft. ÆaQVO PaXMZ[WVQK IVa\QUM [WWV' program without congressional approval or over-
sight” and “there was little second-guessing from
Aside from Rutan’s well-known tendency to- the politicians.” When the second X-15 crashed
ward hyperbole, the main answer lies in the chal- during an emergency landing in November
lenges surrounding hypersonic (above Mach 5) ! ¸I LQ[I[\MZ \PI\ \WLIa _W]TL TQSMTa ZM[]T\
ÆQOP\¸Q\¼[ VW\WZQW][Ta LQ‫ٻ‬K]T\ ZMY]QZQVO \MKP- in the program’s cancellation—the decision was
nological leaps in materials and propulsion. But made to rebuild it as a more capable aircraft, one
government interference and red tape have also that ultimately set the manned speed record. “In
played a role. today’s environment, the system will not allow
programs to have problems,” he wrote.
To date the only manned hypersonic aircraft
were the three X-15s built by North American 2MVSQV[ Y]W\M[ 6WZ\P )UMZQKIV MVOQVMMZ
)^QI\QWV IVL ÅZ[\ ÆW_V QV ! ! <PM X]ZM ZM Harrison Storms from an early meeting about
[MIZKP XZWOZIU IKPQM^ML [QOVQÅKIV\ UQTM[\WVM[ the X-15, noting he must have had a crystal ball:
for winged aircraft, including a record speed ¹C<EPMZM Q[ I ^MZa ÅVM TQVM JM\_MMV [\WXXQVO XZWO-
of 4,520 mph (story, P. 26) and record altitude ress and being reckless....The answer, in my opin-
of 354,200 feet. By the time the program was ion, is what I refer to as ‘thoughtful courage.’ If
KIVKMTTML QV ! Q\ PIL I\\IQVML ITT Q\[ LM[QOV you don’t have that, you will very easily fall into
goals, albeit at the cost of pilot Mike Adams’ life the habit of ‘fearful safety’ and end up with a very
and the third X-15’s destruction. long and tedious-type solution at the hands of
some committee. This can very well end up giving
Progress in hypersonic aircraft research has fal- a test program a disease commonly referred to as
tered in the U.S. since the X-15s’ retirement. The ‘cancelitis,’ which results in little or no progress.”
WVTa UIRWZ IKKWUXTQ[PUMV\[ QV PaXMZ[WVQK ÆQOP\
since then came from NASA’s X-43A and the Air As for Rutan, in the same 2006 interview he
Force’s X-51A Waverider supersonic combus- predicted, “Within 25 years, virtual reality meet-
tion ramjet (scramjet) technology demonstrators. ings will be essentially transparent to being there
Developed under the eight-year, $230 million in person.” Nice try, Burt, but you should have
Hyper-X program, the X-43As made two success- gone with 15 years for that one—with the pan-
N]T ÆQOP\[ _Q\P \PM PMTX WN 8MOI[][ JWW[\MZ ZWKSM\[ demic’s help, we’re already there.
ZMIKPQVO 5IKP QV 5IZKP IVL I ZMKWZL
5IKP ! \PI\ 6W^MUJMZ <PM @ ) KWVKMQ^ML

2 4 AH J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1





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Titles are published 6 times per year except Military History Quarterly, which is published 4 times per year

PETE KNIGHT’S
WILD RIDES

PILOTING X-15S TO A RECORD MACH 6.7 AND THE
FRINGES OF SPACE, THE U.S. AIR FORCE MAJOR
EARNED THE HARMON TROPHY AND NICKNAME
“SPEEDY PETE” BY RICHARD P. HALLION

beyond the blue horizon
U.S. Air Force Major William J.
“Pete” Knight pilots the North
American X-15A-2 on a research
flight, in a Jack Fellows illustration.

J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1 AH 27

BY LATE 1962, NORTH earthward, the X-15 still retained some resid- PREVIOUS SPREAD: ©2020 JACK FELLOWS, ASAA; ABOVE: NASA; INSET: AIR FORCE FLIGHT TEST CENTER;
AMERICAN AVIATION’S ual propellants. Then its flaps wouldn’t deflect. OPPOSITE TOP LEFT: JFK PRESIDENTIAL LIBRARY AND MUSEUM; ALL OTHER PHOTOS THIS SPREAD: NASA
THREE X-15S SEEMINGLY Sinking fast, it slammed down at more than 290
HAD DONE IT ALL. mph. A strong down-load imposed by its deflected
They had flown past Mach 6 and nearly 60 miles horizontal stabilizer did the rest.
highs and lows high, launching from two modified Boeing B-52s
Above: On September and propelled by 57,000-pound-thrust rocket Investigators reported: “The left main-gear strut
12, 1961, the Boeing engines burning nearly nine tons of anhydrous collapsed; the ventral fin struck the ground and was
NB-52B mother ship ammonia and liquid oxygen in less than 90 sec- torn to bits; the left stabilizer dug into the ground
overflies the second onds. Their pilots held the Harmon and Collier and was torn off; the nosewheels failed at the hubs;
X-15, which NASA’s trophies, and America’s charismatic young presi- the airplane skidded for about 1,400-ft on the left
Joe Walker had just dent, John F. Kennedy, hailed their heroism. They wing tip, the right main-gear skid, and the nose-
flown to Mach 5.21. had their own motion picture, X-15, featuring wheel strut; the airplane gradually turned toward
Inset: The NB-52B Charles Bronson, Mary Tyler Moore and the the left, and finally turned over when the right wing
carries the second twangy narration of ex–B-24 combat commander tip dug into the ground.”
X-15 in 1961. Opposite Jimmy Stewart.
bottom: That X-15 lies McKay was trapped in a smoking, rumbling
wrecked on Mud Lake But when the second X-15 launched on the hulk leaking propellants and venting gases. As a
after Jack McKay’s morning of November 9, 1962, for a Mach 5-plus twin-rotor Piasecki H-21B helicopter blew ammo-
emergency landing on stability investigation, the rocket plane’s Thiokol nia fumes away from the cockpit, rescuers ignored
November 9, 1962. LR99 engine sputtered at just 30 percent thrust, the risks and freed McKay who, though suffering
forcing NASA Flight Research Center pilot Jack a cracked vertebra, recovered to fly again.
McKay to make an emergency landing on the
baked clay of Nevada’s Mud Lake. As it glided So, too, did the second X-15. North American

2 8 AH J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1

suggested, and the U.S. Air Force agreed, to rebuild ing year. Awarded a degree rocket men
it as a faster, more capable aircraft. It returned to in aeronautical engineering Top left: President
Edwards Air Force Base in mid-February 1964 from the Air Force Institute of John F. Kennedy (left)
with numerous changes and a new designation: Technology in 1958, he then presents the 1961
X-15A-2. It had jettisonable external tanks, one attended the prestigious Test Collier Trophy to the
for liquid oxygen and the other for anhydrous Pilot School at the Air Force first four X-15 pilots.
ammonia, boosting engine burn-time to more Flight Test Center (AFFTC), From left are Scott
than 141 seconds, sufficient to exceed Mach 7. A graduating in April 1959. Crossfield, Bob White,
stub pylon for a scramjet (supersonic combustion Joe Walker and
ramjet) could replace its ventral fin, and the fuse- Knight was assigned to Ed- Forrest Petersen.
lage had a plug for liquid hydrogen tanks to fuel it. wards’ legendary Test Ops, Top right: The second
A helium tank for propellant pressurization nes- flying the early “Century Series” fighters and group of X-15 pilots
tled behind the vertical fin. Extended fairings held other aircraft. In 1960 he flew chase for Scott included (from left)
additional hydrogen peroxide for two auxiliary Crossfield during the X-15’s proving flights. Then Joe Engle, Bob
power units (APUs). Its landing gear was stronger the USAF picked him to pilot Boeing’s X-20 Rushworth, McKay,
and longer. The canopy had heat-resistant three- Dyna-Soar orbital boost-glider. After Secretary of Knight, Milt Thompson
layer elliptical windshields, replacing crack-prone Defense Robert McNamara cancelled the project and Bill Dana. Above:
two-layer trapezoidal ones. An experiments bay on December 10, 1963—an infamous decision Pete Knight poses with
was situated behind the cockpit. The outer right Knight neither forgot nor forgave—he returned the rebuilt X-15A-2.
wing could be replaced for structure and materials to the AFFTC for spaceflight training.
studies. Finally, it had strengthened launch shack-
les to carry the extra weight of its jettisonable tanks Knight checked out in the first X-15 on
and added structure. September 30, 1965, reaching Mach
4.06 at 76,600 feet. He did not pilot
On June 25, 1964, Lt. Col. Robert A. Rushworth the X-15A-2 until the summer of 1966,
piloted the X-15A-2 on its first flight. Four flights when he made three flights carrying a star-track-
followed—one by McKay and three by Rush- ing experiment, peaking at 249,000 feet.
worth, each with a disturbing landing gear inci-
dent. First, the nose gear extended at Mach 4.3; Afterward the X-15A-2 team focused on trying
then a gear door scoop opened at Mach 4.5; and to reach and even exceed Mach 7. Their first task
finally the right landing skid extended at Mach 4.3. was to test-jettison the external tanks and con-
“Boy,” Rushworth fumed after the last incident, tinue on internal propellants, which Knight did on
“I’ve had enough of this!” All reflected uneven November 18, 1966. Launching near Mud Lake,
thermal expansion, forcing changes to up-locks he dropped the tanks at Mach 2.27 and 69,700
and actuator cables. Rushworth then moved on,
succeeded by a new pilot, 35-year-old USAF
Major William J. “Pete” Knight.

Slight in stature, Knight was a towering pres-
ence at Edwards. He had been commissioned
in 1953 after enlisting during the Korean War,
and won the Allison Jet Trophy Race the follow-

TECH NOTES

NORTH AMERICAN X-15A-2 COCKPIT

1. Airspeed Mach indicator (alternate 8. Attitude indicator 15. Propellant source pressure gauge
directly below) 9. Inertial speed indicator 16. Propellant tank pressure gauge
10. Emergency battery switch 17. Propellant pump inlet pressure gauge
2. Accelerometer 11. Helium release selector switch 18. Generator (AC) voltmeter
3. Dynamic pressure indicator 12. Fuel flow indicator 19. Auxiliary power unit (APU) switches (2)
4. Inertial height indicator 13. Hydraulic pressure gauge 20. APU warning/caution lights
5. Inertial climb indicator 14. Ventral (or dummy ramjet) jettison 21. Landing gear handle
6. Engine indicator and caution lights 22. Propellant manifold pressure gauge
7. Angle-of-attack indicator button

3 0 AH J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1

23. APU hydrogen peroxide tank pressure 28. Hydrogen peroxide tank and engine 34. Vent, pressurization and jettison lever
gauge control lines pressure gauge 35. Data timer
36. Center control column
24. Mixing chamber temperature gauge 29. Chamber and stage two igniter 37. Auxiliary pneumatic and control
25. Cabin helium source pressure gauge pressure gauge
26. Cabin internal emergency release pressure gauge
30. AC voltmeter 38. Ballistic control stick mount
handle 31. APU source pressure gauge 39. LR99 engine throttle
27. Hydrogen peroxide source and purge 32. APU bearing temperature gauge 40. Circuit breaker panel
33. Cabin pressure altimeter
pressure gauge

NATIONAL MUSEUM OF THE U.S. AIR FORCE J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1 AH 31

new and feet and raced to Mach 6.33 (4,261 mph) at 98,900 limit. NASA planned to spray MA-25S, a Martin-
improved feet. “When those tanks go, it is the loudest bang developed silicon-based ablative coating, over the
After extensive and jolt I have had in a long time,” he reported. underlying Inconel-X nickel-alloy structure and fit
modifications, the “It sounded like the whole airplane blew up.” preformed ablative strips around the leading edges
X-15A-2 sports a of the wings, tail surfaces and windscreen. The
bare Inconel-X finish The second task was checking flight behavior X-15A-2 could then test what might be an easy
and external tanks in with a dummy scramjet on the pylon, which method for protecting future spacecraft on reentry.
1964 (top). The Knight performed on May 8, 1967, launching
rocket plane was over Hidden Hills dry lake and hitting Mach 4.75 In May and June 1967, technicians applied the
subsequently at 97,600 feet. dull flamingo-pink ablator and fitted the strips.
covered in a pink After the coating cured, they applied white sealer
protective coating Third was readying the X-15A-2 to survive for safety, since MA-25S, exposed to liquid oxygen,
(right) and white higher temperatures than its original 1,200-degree detonates if struck with an 8-pound force! Pro-
sealant (above). gram leaders well remembered how, just a decade
earlier, Bell, the USAF and NASA-predecessor
NACA had lost three airmen killed or injured,
four rocket planes blown up and two mother
ships wrecked by explosions caused by lox-chilled
leather gaskets that detonated when jolted, and
wanted to avoid any repeat.

Engineers prevented MA-25S residue from
obscuring pilot vision via a Solomonic solution:
Since X-15s typically flew left-hand landing pat-
terns, they installed an “eyelid” over the cockpit
canopy’s left pane. During hypersonic speed runs,
ablating MA-25S would render the right pane
opaque, but as Knight neared Edwards he could
open the eyelid and fly his approach and landing
looking out the clear left pane.

On June 29, 1967, while the X-15A-2 received
its coatings, Knight flew the first X-15—and

it nearly killed him. He was climbing
through 104,000 feet at Mach 4.17 and
“really enjoying the flight” when an elec-
trical arc from an onboard experiment
dumped both APUs, causing the LR99 to
quit. Knight radioed a terse “Shutdown”
as warning lights flashed on, then off,
and the twin APUs wound down, taking
away all electrical and hydraulic power.
He tried the mechanical reaction con-
trols, but found them ineffective. With-
out instruments, communications or
controls, Knight was a passenger in an
ascending ballistic missile.

The X-15-1 peaked at 173,000 feet.
Going over the top he looked right, seeing
Mono Lake, “clear and beautiful.” Left
was Mud, Knight thinking (as he told me
in 1982), “Take a good look, Pete—that’s
probably where you’ll plant it.” Momentarily he
considered ejecting in the lower atmosphere. But,
as the X-15 descended, he flipped on its emer-
gency battery. The right APU refused to start,
but the left did, restoring most controls and some
instruments, but not his radio or angle-of-attack
(AOA) indicator, both critical for reentry.
Reflexively, Knight pulled the nose up until the
X-15 began to yaw, immediately easing off, and
then pulled to yaw again. It was risky but it worked
and the X-15 levelled at 45,000 feet. He then

3 2 AH J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1

OPPOSITE TOP & TOP RIGHT: AIR FORCE FLIGHT TEST CENTER; ALL OTHER PHOTOS THIS SPREAD: NASA rolled into a sustained 6G left turn, setting up an He levelled at 100,000 feet, increasing the AOA record run
approach to Mud Lake, and made a no-flap land- to +6 degrees to maintain a zero rate of climb. Above: The X-15A-2
ing. Unscathed save for a bad head bump exiting Pitch control was “very sensitive,” with the AOA accelerates after
the airplane, Knight received the Distinguished bobbing between +4 and +7 degrees. When his launch on October 3,
Flying Cross for his steady nerve and great skill. inertial speed indicator read 6,500 fps, he shut 1967, during Knight’s
down the LR99 after a 141.4-second burn. In fact, flight to Mach 6.7. Left:
The X-15A-2 was ready by late summer, the X-15A-2 had flown significantly faster, as the Portions of the dummy
pristine in its new all-white finish. Pre- inertial indicator—like all inertial systems—was scramjet carried under
vious flights had evaluated MA-25S on subject to lag. More precise data from the X-15 the ventral pylon
panels and surfaces, but never as an entire program’s radar tracking station at Beatty, Nev., melted and three of
coating. Knight did so on August 21, 1967, launch- revealed it had actually attained 6,630 fps, Mach four explosive bolts
ing over Hidden Hills and flying out to Mach 4.94 6.7 (4,520 mph), at 102,100 feet—a speed record holding it in place
at 91,000 feet. Decelerating through Mach 2.5, he for manned aircraft that stands to this day. detonated, causing it
opened the eyelid, which acted like a tiny canard, to fall off the aircraft.
inducing a mild coupled pitch-roll-yaw. He jetti- Though the MA-25S generally protected the
soned the dummy scramjet and landed. underlying Inconel-X structure, it also prevented it INTERSECTING
from absorbing and radiating the heat its design- SHOCKWAVES
Engineers found the MA-25S generally in “very ers had anticipated, creating local hotspots. Inter- FROM THE
good condition,” but the stub ventral fin had suf- secting shockwaves from the scramjet and pylon SCRAMJET AND
fered severe erosion to its leading edge, the signifi- had created roiling turbulent flows generating PYLON CREATED
cance of this missed despite engineers recognizing temperatures exceeding 2,800 degrees. The abla- TURBULENT
that “shock waves originating from the dummy tor rapidly eroded, portions of the dummy scram- FLOWS
ramjet shape” had caused it. Technicians added jet melted and the pylon burned through, feeding GENERATING
a high-temperature probe at the forward apex of searing flow into the aft end. TEMPERATURES
the vertical fin, made APU and propellant checks, EXCEEDING
and refurbished the ejection seat. At its higher velocity, the X-15A-2 flew a higher 2,800 DEGREES.
deceleration profile than planned, resulting in
The team mated the X-15A-2 to the NB-52B
mother ship on September 25, anticipating fly-
ing later that week. But rains rendered Mud Lake
a reality, so the date slipped to the first week of
October. The test plan stipulated 6,500 feet per
second (Mach 6.57) at 100,000 feet, faster than
any previous manned winged flight.

At 1:30 p.m. on October 3, 1967, following a
90-minute hold for a leaky jettison valve and a
faulty helmet, the NB-52B, piloted by Colonel
Joseph Cotton and Major William Reschke, took
off with Pete Knight and the X-15A-2 snugged
under its right wing. Four chase planes went up
as well: three F-104s and a T-38. A C-130 with
paramedics and a rescue vehicle orbited on-call
near Grapevine Dry Lake. NASA and the AFFTC
pre-placed fire trucks and comm vehicles on
Mud, Cuddeback and Rogers dry lakes, together
with two helicopters, a UH-1 at Mud and an H-21
at Rogers.

The climb-out passed smoothly save for glitches
with a yaw check and missed radio calls. At 2:32
p.m., the NB-52B was at 43,750 feet a dozen miles
east-northeast of Mud Lake. Launch panel oper-
ator Jack Russell radioed “3-2-1-launch,” and
Knight hit the launch switch. Briefly, the X-15A-2
remained in place until he hit it again. Thereafter,
he reported, “It was one of the smoothest launches
I have had.”

Knight compensated for a left rolling tendency
from the external tanks’ differing weights, tran-
sitioned into the 35-degree climb-out (holding a
+2-degree AOA) and jettisoned the tanks at Mach
2.2 and 73,500 feet just over a minute into the
flight, pressing on into the upper stratosphere.

J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1 AH 33

well done NASA mission controller (and X-15 pilot) Bill Per procedure, after coming to a halt,
Knight, still wearing Dana twice warning Knight he was “high on Knight recorded his final instrumenta-
his pressure suit, and energy” and had to “trim down.” Knight, “pretty tion readings, wondering why his ground
ground personnel well relaxed by this time,” performed stability and team was looking toward the airplane and
examine damage to control maneuvers during which the ball nose not helping him out. The answer became clear
the X-15A-2 after his sensor briefly stuck, preventing measurement of when he saw the blackened back end.
record flight. Below: yaw response, possibly because of heating. Over
The airplane exhibits Cuddeback at 80,000 feet and Mach 4, a hydro- The damage stunned NASA engineers. The
charred leading edges, gen peroxide overheat light came on, triggered by Flight Research Center’s Jack Kolf told me in
burnt speed brakes on the superheated air in the aft end, and Dana radi- 1977, “If there had been any question that the air-
the vertical fin and oed, “Go jettison on the peroxide, Pete.” Finally, plane was going to come back in that shape, we
damaged ventral pylon a heat-weakened line and a malfunctioning valve never would have flown it.” FRC thermodynami-
the next day at NASA’s vented all the helium for expelling residual pro- cist Joe Watts saw the flight’s major lesson as teach-
Flight Research Center. pellants. Knight, like McKay, thus had to land ing engineers to take “extreme care in the design
approximately 1,500 pounds heavy. of hypersonic vehicles where shock impingement
and interference effects are present because of
Turning slightly right from his arrow-like launch the extremely high temperatures encountered.”
track, Knight passed five miles east of Edwards’ NASA’s John Becker—father of the X-15—
North Base at 55,000 feet and Mach 2.2, opening agreed, urging future designers to pay “maximum
the eyelid and beginning a left turn at Mach 1.7 attention to aerothermodynamic detail in design
that took him over the south lake at 44,000 feet. As and pre-flight testing.”
he curved through the turn, the partially melted
scramjet separated at Mach 1.02 and 32,000 feet, Afterward, NASA generally cooled to both re-
appropriately falling like a bomb into the Edwards furbishable ablators for cheap hypersonic pro-
bombing range. Now down to 20,000 feet, Knight tection and hypersonic pylon-mounted engines.
wisely rejected landing on lakebed Runway 23, The latter reflected the phenomenally destructive
opting for more distant Runway 18, where he power of colliding shockwaves revealed by the
made “a very smooth touchdown” at 2:40, eight X-15A-2. Two conical oblique shockwaves from
minutes after launch. the scramjet had impinged on a bow shockwave
formed by the pylon, generating superheated
high-pressure vortices that scoured off the MA-25S
ablator, wrinkled the fuselage at the pylon’s base,
burnt through the pylon itself and melted portions
of the scramjet. Three of four explosive bolts hold-
ing the scramjet in place had detonated, weaken-
ing the fourth so it fractured, causing the scramjet
to fall off the airplane.

Though North American returned the X-15A-2
to readiness, it never flew again. Today it is dis-
played in bare Inconel-X finish at the National
Museum of the U.S. Air Force in Dayton, Ohio.
The NB-52B that carried it is exhibited outside
Edwards’ North Gate.

As for Pete Knight, on October 17, he flew the
third X-15 to 280,500 feet (53.13 miles), earning
astronaut wings. (Sadly, on November 15, that

OPPOSITE TOP: AIR FORCE TEST CENTER MUSEUM VIA PETER W. MERLIN; X-15 crashed, killing Major Mike Adams.) He and officers’ club farewell banquet: “People say, ‘It’s back in black
LEFT: NASA: ABOVE: NATIONAL MUSEUM OF THE U.S. AIR FORCE/KEN LAROCK Bill Dana closed out the program the following time to go’ and ‘We all have to make way for young The X-15A-2 takes its
year. Knight flew the first X-15 three more times, people.’ Well, I say, ‘To hell with them!’” The room place in the fourth
and would have on December 20, 1968—planned erupted in laughter and applause. building of the
as the 200th flight—but Edwards had snow! The National Museum of
team demated the first X-15 and NB-52B, ending Never one to remain idle, he entered politics, the U.S. Air Force in
an era. serving as mayor of Palmdale, Calif., then in the October 2015. Note
California Assembly and Senate, his license plate the open “eyelid”
The Mach 6.7 flight earned Knight the Harmon emblazoned with “X-15A-2.” He became presi- covering the cockpit’s
Trophy for 1967 (and the nickname “Speedy dent of The Society of Experimental Test Pilots, left window pane.
Pete”), presented by President Lyndon B. Johnson and was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of
in a Cabinet Room ceremony on December 3, Fame, California’s Aerospace Walk of Honor and THOUGH NORTH
1968. Johnson noted “his workday is spent on the New Mexico’s International Space Hall of Fame. AMERICAN
fringes of space” and “his bravery and his skill have RETURNED THE
been tested time and again.” Active to the end, Pete Knight died in 2004 at X-15A-2 TO
age 74, justly hailed as one of the world’s greatest READINESS, IT
Both were soon tested again. Like X-15 pilots aerospace pioneers. But for all his many accom- NEVER FLEW
Bob White and Bob Rushworth, Knight left the plishments, it is as an airman’s airman that he is AGAIN.
High Desert for Vietnam, flying 253 combat mis- best remembered—his flight to Mach 6.7 the
sions in F-100Ds. In 1982 he told me (while shak- highlight of both an extraordinary program and a
ing his head), “Nothing is as scary as bombing and celebrated career.
strafing at night under flares.” Afterward, he rose Aerospace historian and analyst Richard P. Hallion
steadily through Air Force Systems Command, was a founding curator of the National Air and Space
finishing his career as vice commander of the Museum, wrote the official history of the NASA Flight
AFFTC, as the Air Force entered the era of the Research Center and subsequently served as Air Force
A-10, B-1, F-15 and F-16, all of which he flew. Flight Test Center historian and oversaw the Air Force
History and Museums Program. For further reading,
Richly honored, Knight held the Legion of Merit he recommends: The X-15 Rocket Plane: Flying
with one Oak Leaf Cluster, Distinguished Flying the First Wings Into Space, by Michelle L. Evans;
Cross with two Oak Leaf Clusters, Air Medal with X-15: Extending the Frontiers of Flight, by Dennis
10 Oak Leaf Clusters, Octave Chanute Award R. Jenkins; and At the Edge of Space: The X-15
and an Air Force Association Citation of Honor Flight Program, by Milton O. Thompson.
in addition to the Harmon Trophy. He retired
in 1982, memorably proclaiming at his Edwards

J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1 AH 35

rolling thunderchief
Captain Dan Cherry rolls in on a target,
in a detail from Harley Copic’s painting
Thunder Over the Red River. Cherry’s
Republic F-105D carries 750-pound
M117 bombs, which under certain
conditions could explode prematurely
due to their fuzes’ design.

3 6 AH J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1

THE EXPENDABLES

WHEN BOMBS BEGAN EXPLODING PREMATURELY OVER VIETNAM,
KILLING AIRCREWS, THE CAUSE WAS TRACED TO FAULTY FUZES, BUT
MORE WOULD DIE BEFORE A SOLUTION WAS FOUND BY JOHN LOWERY

THE PROBLEM OF AIRCREWS BEING KILLED BY
PREMATURE BOMB DETONATION BEGAN EARLY
IN THE VIETNAM WAR.
The first known instance occurred on November the problem. The project was assigned to Captain
danger close 12, 1965, when Captain William Miller was fly- John Morrissey, who conducted the tests that sub-
Bomb-laden F-105s ing a Republic F-105D on a mission to North sequently revealed the reasons behind the accident.
refuel from a Boeing Vietnam. His flight of four Thunderchiefs was
KC-135 tanker before still over Thailand and the six 750-pound M117 The first thing Captain Morrissey discovered
heading to North bombs he was carrying should have been secure. was that the proximity fuzes had been designed
Vietnam. In November during WWII for internal carriage by B-17 and
1965, Captain William Captain Miller was killed instantly when B-24 bombers. In fact, the applicable technical
Miller’s Thunderchief the proximity-fuzed bombs exploded as he ap- order dated from the early 1940s. If carried exter-
was destroyed by a proached a Boeing KC-135 tanker to refuel. The nally—as they were on the F-105Ds—they were
fuze-related premature M188 variable-time proximity fuzes were sup- limited to a maximum speed of 240 mph (204
bomb detonation as posed to arm only after being released from the knots). Yet the bombs were typically carried by
he approached a bomb rack. But somehow one of the World War F-105s at airspeeds of 550 knots or greater.
KC-135 to refuel. II–era fuzes had become armed before release.
Then, as the fighter-bomber closed on the tanker, Until the advent of the Vietnam War, the United
the small radar beam emitted by the fuze on one States’ national military policy had emphasized
of the bombs detected the aircraft and detonated. “mutually assured destruction,” with atomic
The fuzes were then temporarily withdrawn from weapons as a deterrent. Consequently, develop-
service to determine the cause. ment of new modernized conventional weap-
ons lagged badly. In essence, the U.S. Air Force’s
The 4525th Fighter Weapons Wing at Nellis Air Mach 2–capable fighters were forced to carry left-
Force Base in Nevada was tasked with identifying over WWII bombs and fuzes simply because there

3 8 AH J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1

PREVIOUS SPREAD: ©HARLEY COPIC; ALL PHOTOS: U.S. AIR FORCE was nothing else available. As Lt. Col. Billy Sparks Morrissey’s subsequent flight tests with the bombing up
reported, “They were very old and had a prob- M188 proximity fuzes immediately identified the Top: A crew chief
lem with detonation if dropped any distance, even problem. It involved a combination of both high poses with the six
without fuzes installed.” airspeed and the safety wire used to restrain the 750-pound bombs
small arming propeller. Normally the fuze’s safety loaded on an F-105’s
The proximity fuze was designed to detonate wire was pulled when the bomb released. This centerline multiple
the bomb in the air to suppress anti-aircraft fire freed the propeller to spin and arm the proximity ejector rack. Above:
over a wide area. These old fuzes were armed by a fuze. But at the high speeds typical of the F-105D, Sergeant Anthony
clock-like mechanism after a set number of turns the fuze safety wire sometimes vibrated and broke, DeBerardinis installs
of a small propeller located on the fuze’s nose, with allowing the propeller to spin and arm the bomb fuzes on M117 bombs
the arm-time set prior to departure. Once armed, prior to release. Once the cause of the premature carried by a McDonnell
the bomb detonated when the fuze’s small radar detonation was identified, the fuzes were modified F-4E of the 347th
unit detected anything that would reflect a radar to make the bombs safe to carry. Tactical Fighter Wing.
beam—a ground target or, in Miller’s case, the
KC-135 tanker. Unfortunately, the problem was larger
than just one mishap and one type of
Only limited quantities of these WWII leftovers fuze. In November 1967, the McDon-
were available. Despite official denials to Congress nell F-4 Phantom–equipped 366th Tac-
by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, the tical Fighter Wing, located at Da Nang Air Base
supply of M117 bombs was also critical. In fact,
as the war heated up in the spring of 1966, when I
served as an F-105D pilot with the 333rd Tactical
Fighter Squadron of the 335th Tactical Fighter
Wing, we completely exhausted the supply. The
war reserve munitions stockpiles on Guam had
been purged—barged out to sea and dumped—to
save on storage costs. Consequently, the Depart-
ment of Defense was forced to purchase replace-
ments from the reserve stockpiles of allied nations.
And despite continuing U.S. losses to anti-aircraft
fire, for several weeks we flew fighter-bomber
missions into heavily defended North Vietnam
armed only with the airplane’s 20mm cannon.

J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1 AH 39

TECH NOTES

PROXIMITY FUZES

The M188 variable-time (VT) nose fuze that caused Captain Miller’s
accident was similar to the M166 (below). The long-delay electric
FMU-35 fuze (bottom) proved problematic to the F-4 Phantoms of
the 366th Tactical Fighter Wing based at Da Nang, South Vietnam.

ARMING
PROPELLER

TRANSMITTER RECEIVER GENERATOR
WRENCH LUG
WRENCH LUG
LOCK WASHER

FIRING CAPACITOR

EXPLOSIVE TRAIN DETONATOR MOTOR new challenge
BOOSTER CUP HOUSING Korean War ace Frederick “Boots” Blesse, the
366th Wing’s director of operations, was told
(MOTOR NOT SHOWN) “sometimes you get losses like those in combat.”

LEAD CUP PLATE in South Vietnam, lost eight aircraft and 16 crew-
men in rapid succession. At first the losses were
LOCK RING attributed to a so-called “golden BB” hit—wherein
SAFETY PIN the aircraft rolled into a dive and was hit by a lucky
shot from anti-aircraft fire, then exploded, leaving
BATTERY INITIATOR & LIQUID AMMONIA IMPACT SWITCH no survivors. (Medal of Honor recipient Captain
LANYARD ASSEMBLY BATTERY Lance P. Sijan did survive a bomb explosion on
EXTERNAL his F-4, and despite being severely wounded he
BOOSTER ejected successfully, only to be captured later and
die of his untreated wounds as a POW.)
SELECTOR SWITCH
Consequently, the wing’s director of operations,
ELECTRONIC SECTION EXPLOSIVE Colonel Frederick C. “Boots” Blesse, attempted U.S. AIR FORCE DIAGRAMS ADAPTED BY PAUL FISHER
ROTOR TRAIN to stop all bombing missions to investigate the
problem. “But we had no proof that anything was
ASSEMBLY wrong,” wrote Blesse in his book Check Six, add-
DETONATOR ing, “…we were told ‘sometimes you get losses like
those in combat.’”
SAFING PLUG
Blesse described a “Skyspot” mission that ulti-
mately provided the clue needed to resolve the
problem. When a target was covered by clouds,
ground-based Skyspot radar was used to vector a
flight of four or more fighters to a point at which
a countdown was started by the radar controller.
Then, in close formation, upon command from
the controller, all aircraft released their bombs
simultaneously.

On this occasion, however, a hurry-up vector to
the release point had left the flight’s second ele-
ment—ships three and four—spread out by sev-
eral hundred yards. As the flight leader’s bombs

4 0 AH J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1

released, crew members in the second element appointed the project officer. The wing had just preflight check
saw one of the leader’s bombs explode a few feet received 36 fuzes from the manufacturer, Saun- Colonel Robin Olds,
beneath the aircraft. This destroyed both aircraft ders Industries, for test and evaluation. Because commander of the 8th
in the lead element and killed all four crewmen. the new fuzes were urgently needed in Southeast Tactical Fighter Wing,
Only now they knew where to look for the cause of Asia, to expedite the approval process Head- inspects the M117
these heretofore unexplained losses. quarters Tactical Air Command allowed the use of bombs on his F-4C
live munitions for the tests rather than inert shapes. prior to a mission.
The problem involved the newly introduced Using live bombs, Morrissey had already dropped
long-delay electric FMU-35 fuzes. Something was more than half of them successfully when the tests
causing them to activate prematurely. Yet incredi- were interrupted by his deployment to Southeast
bly, despite now having eyewitnesses, the leadership Asia as team leader of a munitions introduction
in higher headquarters didn’t agree. Thus, because team for a related project. In his absence, another
the wing didn’t have anything else, aircrews were member of the OT&E section, Major Robert L.
ordered to continue using the new fuzes. But the Chastain, was assigned to complete the tests.
order didn’t say the bombs had to be armed. So,
Blesse had subsequent missions launched with the On December 17, 1968, Major Chastain
bombs unarmed, and the losses stopped immedi- resumed the fuze testing. The mission of the two-
ately. Sometime later these fuzes were withdrawn ship flight of F-105Ds was to complete the evalua-
and replaced by the improved FMU-72. tion of these modernized electric proximity fuzes.
Each aircraft was loaded with six M117 bombs.
In 1968 the Air Force accepted for testing the
new electrically actuated FMU-57 proximity fuze, Chastain, a recent graduate of the Air Force
destined to replace the obsolete fuze that had Aerospace Research Pilot School, was flying the
cost Miller his life. It was designed specifically to number-two position on Major John O. Rollins
counter the surface-to-air missile and anti-aircraft II’s wing. With the call-sign “Winder Flight,” they
fire that was taking a heavy toll on U.S. fighters. departed at 10 a.m. and approximately five min-
utes later entered the Nellis Range III weapons
Testing of the new proximity fuzes was assigned complex. The six bombs on each aircraft were
to the Operational Test and Evaluation (OT&E) set to be dropped individually. To ensure the safe
section of the 4525th Fighter Weapons Wing separation of the aircraft from the bomb blast,
at Nellis AFB. Again, Captain Morrissey was

J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1 AH 41

grim test result each electrically activated fuze had a safe-arm Field, Mass., for their initial briefing on the new
Grainy film footage time set for six seconds. proximity fuze, they brought up their suspicions.
(above) captures the
destruction of an The test fuzes had been installed and inspected Subsequently they submitted a letter regarding
F-105D piloted by by Air Force munitions specialists, then checked their concerns through the fighter weapons wing
Major Robert L. by Major Rollins and a representative of the fuze to Headquarters Tactical Air Command, then
Chastain (right) while manufacturer. The test plan called for a 30-degree ultimately to Air Force Systems Command and
he tested a new dive angle, with each bomb released at 470 knots the manufacturer. But Morrissey described the
electric proximity fuze 5,000 feet above the ground. Six single “hot” response they received as: “Leave the heavy intel-
at Nellis Air Force Base passes were to be flown by each pilot against the lectual lifting to us. You just drop the bombs.”
in December 1968. designated target.
The first commandment for all bomb fuzes had
THE BOMB Rollins was first, and all six of his bomb drops always been that they would not arm until far
RELEASED were normal. The only discrepancy involved a enough from the airplane to prevent damage if
NORMALLY, BUT bomb that was not an air burst but rather exploded they detonated. With this newly designed proxim-
JUST A FEW upon ground contact. (It would have been a dud ity fuze the internal battery was inert until a con-
FEET BELOW except for the tail fuze used as a safety measure.) nector was pulled as the weapon released from the
THE F-105 IT bomb rack. Then, upon battery rise, the proximity
EXPLODED. Then it was Chastain’s turn. His first pass was fuze was armed.
a dry run to check bomb-release conditions. On
the second pass he toggled his first bomb but it The problem identified with the new fuze was
hung up momentarily, then released cleanly three that upon release a single failure in the wiring,
seconds late. from faulty construction during manufacture or
damage from handling in the field, could cause it
Three minutes later, while being tracked by ra- to detonate as its internal battery came online—
dar and a series of four movie cameras, Chastain approximately three to four feet below the aircraft!
rolled in on his second hot pass. The Air Force acci-
dent report noted that this pass was normal in all When Chastain was tasked with completing the
respects. Film footage showed the bomb released
normally, but just a few feet below the F-105D it
exploded, destroying the aircraft. Major Chastain’s
body was found still strapped in his ejection seat.

When the 36 test fuzes had arrived at
Nellis for testing, OT&E section pilots
Morrissey and Major Guy Pulliam
immediately questioned their fail-
safe circuitry. There appeared to be a fatal failure
path that could lead to premature ignition. When
they visited Saunders Industries in Hanscom

4 2 AH J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1

tests he was briefed on the possible design flaw. portedly turned and said, “Boss, you are wrong CHASTAIN
And while he was fully aware of the urgency sur- about this, and I’ll prove it if it kills me.” They de- REPORTEDLY
rounding the new fuzes, his degree in geophysics parted “mad as hell,” according to Lt. Col. Sparks. SAID, “BOSS,
gave him uncommon insight into the design and YOU ARE
construction of the sophisticated electric proxim- On the day of Chastain’s accident, the cam- WRONG ABOUT
ity fuze he was to test. eras tracking his dive filmed the incident at 1,000 THIS, AND I’LL
frames per second. This allowed documentation PROVE IT IF IT
In desperation Chastain and an unidentified of every six inches of bomb travel. Analysis of the KILLS ME.”
officer flew to Washington, D.C., and visited the film showed that the second bomb he dropped
Pentagon. There they briefed their concerns to exploded four feet below the bomb rack. The proj- heavy load
USAF director of operations Maj. Gen. George ect officers had been right, but had been ignored. An F-105D shows
Simler, a fighter pilot and the former fighter weap- And Major Chastain died proving their point. off a max load of 16
ons wing commander. 750-pound bombs,
After redesign and testing by the Fighter which was seldom if
The two officers showed General Simler how, Weapons Center, the new fuze finally entered ever carried in combat.
upon release, there were two places where a short service in 1973. Meanwhile great strides had been
or bad wiring could cause the fuze to function made in both munitions and fuze design, includ-
instantaneously once the battery reached full volt- ing introduction of the “smart weapons” used so
age. Simler agreed in theory with them, but noted effectively today.
that half of the fuzes had already been successfully
tested. Since there was nothing else available, he The 4525th Fighter Weapons Wing officers
overruled the two officers. had spotted the problem and tried to be heard.
Despite being rebuffed, they doggedly continued
(It is worth noting that earlier, as a brigadier the tests. Until this mishap, however, both the air-
general and deputy for operations of the 2nd Air crews and airplanes had been treated as “expend-
Division at Kadena Air Base on Okinawa, Simler ables.” It was Major Chastain’s dedication, integ-
had complained in a secret letter to Headquarters rity and bravery that ultimately saved many of us
Pacific Air Forces about the lack of progress in from a similar fate.
improving fuzes for general-purpose bombs used Korean and Vietnam war veteran John Lowery is the
on tactical aircraft. But now, as Headquarters author of Life in the Wild Blue Yonder, which is
USAF director of operations, he was under severe recommended for further reading, along with Check Six:
pressure from above to approve the new fuzes.) A Fighter Pilot Looks Back, by Frederick C. Blesse.

As they departed Simler’s office, Chastain re-

ALASKA’S
BLEUGSEHNDPIALROYTS

DURING THE GOLDEN AGE OF
ALASKA BUSH FLYING, PIONEERING
AIRMEN DID THINGS THEIR WAY,
REGARDLESS OF WHAT OTHERS
THOUGHT IMPOSSIBLE BY MIKE COPPOCK

call of the wild
The spirit of Alaska’s pioneering
bush pilots lives on today as a de
Havilland Canada Beaver lands on
Ruth Glacier in Denali National Park.
More than a century after the first
flight in the territory, the majority of
Alaska remains inaccessible by road.

J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1 AH 45