BIODIVERSITY

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 1 | P a g e CHAPTER 1: BIODIVERSITY 1.1 BIODIVERSITY AND CLASSIFICATION Learning outcomes: 1.1 Biodiversity and classification (a) State the types of biodiversity (genetic, species and ecosystem) (b) State hierarchical classification (c) Explain briefly the three- domain system (Carls Woese, 1977) (A) TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY Types of biodiversity Genetic diversity Species diversity Ecosystem diversity The genetic variation within a species. Differences in the composition of genes or other DNA sequences among individuals. The number and relative abundance of species in a biological community. Varieties of community and ecosystems in a given area/ found on earth (B) HIERARCHICAL CLASSIFICATION 1. Taxonomy is the science of naming, describing and classifying organisms 2. Carolus Linnaeus (father of taxonomy) developed the hierarchical classification system and the system of Binomial nomenclature 3. Hierarchical classification = A method to group and categorize organisms, by biological characteristic, into taxonomic groups (taxon). There are 8 taxon groups.

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 2 | P a g e Taxon Example 1: Human Example 2: Mango Domain Eukarya Eukarya Kingdom Animalia Plantae Phylum Chordata Anthophyta Class Mammalia Dicotyledonae Order Primates Sapindales Family Hominidae Anacardiaceae Genus Homo Mangifera Species Homo sapiens Mangifera indica (C) THREE-DOMAIN SYSTEM (CARL WOESE, 1977) Proposed by Carl Woese (1977) ▪ They proposed this classification based on molecular data on differences in the sequences of nucleotides in the cell’s ribosomal RNA known as 16S rRNA. ▪ Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a molecular building block for ribosomes. ▪ They classify organisms into three- domain systems. ▪ There are differences between Domain Bacteria and Archaea although both are prokaryotes. Domain Bacteria Domain Archaea Domain Eukarya - True bacteria - Found in large numbers in nearly every environment on Earth - e.g: Cyanobacteria, E.coli, Clostridium tetani, Vibrio cholerae Bacteria lives in extreme environment e.g: Sulfolobus sp. Eukaryotes are single – celled to multicellular organisms whose cells have a membranebound nucleus and have various organelles. e.g: Protists (green algae) Fungi (yeast) Plants (ferns) Animals (insects) Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 3 | P a g e 1.2 DOMAIN BACTERIA AND DOMAIN ARCHAEA LEARNING OUTCOMES 1.2 Domain Bacteria and Domain Archaea a) State the two domain of prokaryotes, Bacteria (e.g. E. coli) and Archaea (e.g. Sulfolobus sp.). b) Differentiate between the two domain of prokaryotes, Bacteria (e.g. E. coli) and Archaea (e.g. Sulfolobus sp.) based on: i. cell wall structure; ii. association of histone to DNA; and iii. structure of membrane lipids. c) Describe the diversity of bacteria i. cell shape (coccus, bacillus, spirillum and vibrio); and ii.Gram-stain (Gram-positive, Gram-negative) d) Explain the roles of bacteria: i.recycling of chemical elements in ecosystem (nitrogen fixation e.g. Rhizobium sp.); ii. symbiotic (enterobacteria e.g. E. coli in human intestine); iii. pathogenic (e.g. Salmonella sp.); and iv. in research and technology (e.g. bacterial plasmid). (A)TWO DOMAINS OF PROKARYOTES: Domain Bacteria: E.coli Domain Archaea: Sulfolobus sp.

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 4 | P a g e (B) DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DOMAIN BACTERIA AND DOMAIN ARCHAEA i. Domain Bacteria Characteristics ii. Domain Archaea Cell wall made up of peptidoglycan Cell wall structure Cell wall lack of peptidoglycan DNA is not associated with histone proteins Association of histone to DNA DNA is associated with histone proteins Membrane lipids contain straightchain (unbranched) hydrocarbon bonded to glycerol by ester linkage. Structure of membrane lipids Membrane lipids contain (some) branched-chain hydrocarbons linked to glycerol by ether linkages. EXTRA INFO: ▪ Archaea is less widespread as compared to Bacteria ▪ They are extremophiles (live in extreme/ harsh environments). 3 groups of Archaea: Methanogens survive only in oxygen-free environment like marshy areas or guts of ruminant animals Halophiles live in high salinity (salty) environments Thermoacidophiles live in high temperature and high acid concentration environments like hot springs (C) DIVERSITY OF BACTERIA i. Based on cell shape Coccus (plural: cocci) Spherical shape; Diplococci (pair), Streptococci (chain), Staphylococci (cluster) Bacillus (plural: bacilli) Rod shape Spirillum (plural: spirilla)- rigid Spirochete - flexible Spiral shape Vibrio Comma shape ii. Based on Gram stain (due to difference in composition of their cell wall) Gram -positive bacteria ▪ Stains blue or violet ▪ Simple cell walls with thick layer of peptidoglycan ▪ Purple or blue stain is trapped in cell wall ▪ Less threatening pathogens ▪ e.g : Bacillus sp., Clostridium sp., Staphylococcus sp. and Streptococcus sp. Gram -negative bacteria ▪ Stain pink or red ▪ Cell walls with thin layer of peptidoglycan

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 5 | P a g e ▪ Purple or blue stain is decolorized by alcohol, so it exhibits the colour of pink safranin ▪ More pathogenic than Gram-positive bacteria, lipopolysaccharides in the outer membrane are often toxic. Outer membrane is also impermeable to antibiotic penicillin ▪ e.g: Salmonella spp., E. coli and Azotobacter sp. (D) THE ROLES OF BACTERIA NO. ROLES EXPLANATION i. Recycling of chemical elements in the ecosystem. (nitrogen fixation eg. Rhizobium sp.) - Nitrogen fixation. Rhizobium sp. helps in fixing nitrogen from the atmosphere through a nodule on the root of legumes. e.g: beans, pea, clover. - Decomposer. Bacteria also decompose the organic molecules of dead organism and release CO2 to atmosphere ii. Symbiotic (enterobacteria eg. E.coli in human intestine) - Enterobacteria, E. coli in the human intestine helps to digest lactose and supply vitamin K & B complex. - Bacteria inhabit cows and other ruminant’s digestive tracts. Ruminants lack enzymes for digesting cellulose. They provide the bacteria with a nutrientrich home, and the bacteria digest the cellulose for them iii. Pathogenic (eg. Salmonella sp.) - Tetanus by Clostridium tetani, cholera by Vibrio cholera, syphilis by Treponema pallidum, food poisoning by Salmonella sp. iv. In research and technology (eg. bacterial plasmid) - In biotechnology, E. coli used in gene cloning (as host and plasmid as vector) - Microbial fermentation help produce many food and beverage e.g. cheeses, yoghurt and vinegar - Medical research, easily cultured for making antibiotics - Used in sewage treatment and breaking down solid wastes in landfills. - Used in bioremediation to detoxify or remove oil, gasoline and other pollutants from the environment.

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 6 | P a g e 1.4 DOMAIN EUKARYA: KINGDOM PROTISTA Learning outcomes: 1.4 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Protista a) State the unique characteristics of Protista. b) State the classification of Protista based on the unique feature: i. two major phyla of algae (photosynthetic pigment): Chlorophyta (Chlamydomonas sp.) ● Phaeophyta (Fucus sp.) ii. four major phyla of Protozoa (locomotion): ● Euglenophyta (Euglena sp.) ● Rhizopoda (Amoeba sp.) ● Ciliophora (Paramecium sp.) ● Apicomplexa (Plasmodium sp.) c) Explain the roles of Protista in ecological community: i. roles in CO2 fixation (e.g. phytoplankton); ii. food source (e.g. Chlorella sp.); iii. eutrophication/algal bloom (e.g. green algae); iv. red tide (e.g. dinoflagellates); v. human health (e.g. Plasmodium sp. causes malaria); and vi. Sewage treatment (e.g. Protozoa). (A)UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF PROTISTA ▪ Eukaryote ▪ Most are unicellular, some are colonial (lives in colonies) or simple multicellular ▪ Include protozoa (animal-like protists) & algae (plant-like protists) ▪ Feeding mode: Photoautotroph (photosynthetic) for algae Heterotroph (saprophytic or holozoic) for protozoa ▪ Reproduction: Asexual reproduction (by binary fission or spore formation) or sexual reproduction (fusion of gametes) ▪ Most are motile (pseudopodia, flagella or cilia) ▪ Protists are either phytoplankton (e.g. common marine algae) or zooplankton (e.g. protozoan) (B) CLASSIFICATION OF PROTISTA BASED ON THE UNIQUE FEATURE (i) TWO MAJOR PHYLA OF ALGAE (photosynthetic pigment) Unique characteristics of Algae (plant-like protists) 1. Both are aquatic and many species make up phytoplankton. 2. Can manufacture their own food by photosynthesis 3. They are not considered plants because they lack many plant structures 4. Algae lack cuticle

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 7 | P a g e i. Phylum Chlorophyta (Chlamydomonas sp.) ii. Phylum Phaeophyta (Fucus sp.) -Green algae -Photosynthetic pigments: chlorophyll a and b -Brown algae -Photosynthetic pigments: xanthophyll, fucoxanthin, chlorophyll a and c (ii) FOUR MAJOR PHYLA OF PROTOZOA Unique characteristics of Protozoa (animal-like protists) 1. All are aquatic (make up zooplankton) and unicellular eukaryotic organisms. 2. Do not have cell wall. 3. Able to move independently (motile) 4. Have contractile vacuole to expel excess water for osmoregulation 5. Lives primarily by ingesting food (heterotrophic) i. Phylum Euglenophyta (Euglena sp.) ii. Phylum Rhizopoda (Amoeba sp.) iii. Phylum Ciliophora (Paramecium sp.) iv. Phylum Apicomplexa (Plasmodium sp.) Move by using flagella. Move by using pseudopodium. Move by using cilia which cover all over the body. Non - motile (C) ROLES OF PROTISTA IN ECOLOGICAL COMMUNITY NO. ROLES EXPLANATION i. Roles in CO2 fixation (eg. phytoplankton) Can fix CO2 from atmosphere for photosynthesis ii. Food source (eg. Chlorella sp.) As a dietary supplement. High in proteins and packed with fats and vitamins to promote growth and tissue repair iii. Eutrophication/ algal bloom (eg. green algae) Explosive growth of algae due to excess nutrients (P and N) in the water. Followed by increased activity by decomposers (bacteria). Reduce O2 content in water and cause death of aquatic organisms.

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 8 | P a g e iv. Red tide (eg. dinoflagellates) Pollution due to dinoflagellates. Release toxin when dinoflagellates are consumed by shell or fish. Can cause illness to consumers. (red algae that causes harmful algal blooms) v. Human health (eg. Plasmodium sp.) Plasmodium sp. causes malaria vi. Sewage treatment (eg. Protozoa) The importance of protozoans in wastewater treatment is to maintain a slime layer within the systems. 1.5 DOMAIN EUKARYA: KINGDOM FUNGI Learning outcomes: 1.5 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Fungi a) State the unique characteristics of Fungi. b) State the classification of Fungi phyla based on the spore bearing structure: i. Zygomycota (e.g. Rhizopus sp.). ii. Ascomycota (e.g. Penicillium sp.); and iii. Basidiomycota (e.g. Agaricus sp.). c) Explain the role of Fungi: i. decomposer: ii. symbionts: iii. pathogens: iv. commercial importance in food production (e.g. yeast in fermented food); and v. pharmaceutical (e.g. Penicillium sp. produce penicillin). (A)UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI 1. Fungi are heterotroph by saprophytic. They secrete enzymes externally to decompose organic materials and then absorb the nutrients. 2. Some fungi are parasites and symbionts. 3. Most are multicellular except yeast (unicellular). 4. Cell walls are made up of chitin and store food as glycogen. 5. They have body which consists of long, branched threadlike filaments called hyphae. Mass of hyphae called mycelium. Types of hyphae: Septate Aseptate/ Coenocytic Hyphae are divided by cross walls (septa with pores) Hyphae has no septa, thus multinucleated

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 9 | P a g e 6. Fungi reproduce by using spores (during sexual or asexual reproduction). Spores are produced on specialized aerial hyphae or in specialized spore-forming (fruiting) structures called sporangium. Spores germinate to form new hyphae. Yeast usually reproduce by budding. 7. Fungi are classified based on the types of spore-bearing structures. (B) CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI INTO THREE PHYLA (BASED ON SPORE BEARING STRUCTURE) Phylum Phylum Zygomycota Phylum Ascomycota Phylum Basidiomycota Type of hyphae Aseptate/ coenocytic hyphae Septate hyphae Septate hyphae Asexual reproduction Spores form in sporangium. Conidia / conidiospores that pinched off from conidiophores. Rare/ none Sexual reproduction Zygospores are formed internally inside zygosporangium (thick wall resistant structure). Zygosporangium came from the fusion of hyphae. Ascospores form internally inside the sacs called ascus. The asci are arranged in fruiting bodies called ascocarps. Basidiospores form externally outside the basidia. The basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps. Example Rhizopus sp. (Black bread mold) Penicillium sp. (blue and green mold) and Yeast Agaricus sp. (button mushroom) (C) ROLES OF FUNGI No. Importance Example i. Decomposer ● Saprophytic fungi will decompose (by secrete enzymes for extracellular digestion) and absorb nutrients from organic wastes and dead organisms. They are able to degrade cellulose and lignin of plant cell walls. ii. Symbionts Lichens are a symbiotic association between algae and fungi.

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 10 | P a g e ● Algae provides fungus with food / produce carbohydrate through photosynthesis ● Fungus provides moisture, shelter, minerals and anchorage for algae Mycorrhizae are mutualistic associations of plant roots and fungi. ● Fungus helps plant roots absorb water and minerals in the soil - act as root extensions ● Plant provides organic nutrients to fungus iii. Pathogens ● (Parasitic) fungi that attack food crops produce compounds that are harmful to humans ● Fungal infection such as ringworm and athlete’s foot ● Candidiasis, a yeast infection of mucous membranes of the mouth, throat or vagina iv. Commercial importance in food production (eg. yeast in fermented food) ● Fermented food by alcohol fermentation ● Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) is used in making bread and alcohol (beer) ● Involve in the production of ‘tempe’ and ‘tapai’ v. Pharmaceutical (eg. Penicillium sp.) ● Penicillium sp. produce penicillin ● Some fungi produce antibiotics that are antibacterial (used to treat bacterial infection) 1.6 DOMAIN EUKARYA: KINGDOM PLANTAE Learning outcomes: 1.6 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Plantae a) Describe alternation of generation as the unique characteristic of Plantae. b) State the classification of Plantae into four groups: i. Bryophytes; ii. Pteridophytes; iii. Gymnosperms; and iv. Angiosperms. 1.6.1 Bryophytes a) Describe the unique characteristics of bryophytes. b) State the classification of bryophytes into three phyla/divisions: i. Hepatophyta (e.g. Marchantia sp.); ii. Bryophyta (c.g. Polytrichum sp.); and iii. Anthocerophyta (Anthoceros sp.). c) State the terrestrial adaptation for bryophytes. 1.6.2 Pteridophytes a) Describe the unique characteristics of the pteridophytes. b) State the classification of pteridophytes into two phyla/divisions: i. Lycophyta (e.g. Lycopodium sp., Selaginella sp.); and ii. Pterophyta (e.g. Dryopteris sp.). 1.6.3 Bryophytes and Pteridophytes a) Observe the diversity of species in bryophytes and pteridophytes.

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 11 | P a g e b) Construct scientific drawing of bryophytes and pteridophytes. (Experiment 2: Plant Diversity - Bryophytes and Pteridophytes). 1.6.4 Gymnosperms a) Describe the unique characteristics of gymnosperms. b) State the classification of gymnosperms into four phyla/divisions: i. Cycadophyta (e.g. Cycas sp.); ii. Coniferophyta (e.g. Pinus sp.): iii. Ginkgophyta (e.g. Ginkgo biloba); and iv. Gnetophyta (e.g. Gnetum sp.). 1.6.5 Angiosperms a) Describe the unique characteristics of angiosperms (Phylum Anthophyta). 1.6.6 Evolutionary relationship in plant kingdom. a) Explain the evolutionary relationships among groups in the plant kingdom bryophytes to angiosperms) based on: i. size: ii. dominance to gametophytes and sporophytes; iii. dependence to gametophytes and sporophytes: iv. water dependence in fertilization: v. presence and complexity of vascular tissues; and vi. embryo protection. (A)ALTERNATION OF GENERATION AS THE UNIQUE CHARACTERISTIC OF PLANTAE 1. Multicellular eukaryotes. 2. Autotrophic. Synthesis its own organic food through photosynthesis. 3. Non motile. Anchored to surfaces by root or rhizoid (root-like structure). 4. Cell wall made of cellulose and food storage in the form of starch. 5. Life cycle with alternation of generation includes both diploid and haploid stages that are multicellular. 6. Multicellular diploid stage is called the sporophyte. 7. Meiosis in sporophytes produces haploid cells called spores. 8. Haploid spores divide mitotically to form a multicellular haploid stage called gametophyte. 9. Cells of gametophyte give rise to gametes by mitosis. 10. Fusion of two haploid gametes at fertilization results in a diploid zygote, which develops into the next sporophyte generation.

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 12 | P a g e (B) CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTAE INTO FOUR GROUP PLANT GROUP Mosses and other non-vascular plants Ferns and seedless vascular plants Seed plants Vascular plants Bryophytes Pteridophytes Gymnosperms Angiosperms Gametophyte Dominant Reduced, independent (photosynthetic and free-living) Reduced (usually microscopic), dependent on surrounding sporophyte tissue for nutrition Sporophyte Reduced, dependent on gametophyte for nutrition Dominant Dominant Example 1.6.1 BRYOPHYTES (A)UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF BRYOPHYTES 1. Non-vascular plant. No vascular tissues for the transport of water and organic and inorganic nutrients. 2. Tend to be small in size and normally live in damp, shady terrestrial environments. 3. Seedless. It produces haploid spores (homosporous spores). 4. The body is called thallus, do not have true roots, stem and leaves 5. Terrestrial adaptation (more advanced than algae of protista):

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 13 | P a g e ● has epidermis with no cuticle. ● has stomata for gaseous exchange. ● has a capsule to protect spores. ● has rhizoid (root-like for attachment and absorption of water) 6. Alternation of generation in which: Gametophyte (n) Sporophyte (2n) Dominant generation. It is larger and longer living. Smaller and short lived. Gametophyte are able to carry out photosynthesis Sporophyte depends on gametophyte for water and nutrients (amino acids, minerals, sugar) Gametophyte produces gametes in their gametangium that are: - Archegonium: produces oosphere (egg) - Antheridium: produces flagellated sperms (antherozoids) Sporophyte remains attached to female gametophyte Consist of: ● Foot: absorbs nutrient from the gametophyte ● Seta (stalk): conducts nutrients to capsule ● Capsule (sporangium): produce spore (homosporous) by meiosis 7. Fully dependent on water for fertilization (motile/ flagellated sperms need to swim towards egg) (B) CLASSIFICATION OF BRYOPHYTES INTO THREE PHYLA/ DIVISIONS i. Phylum Hepatophyta (eg. Marchantia sp.) ii. Phylum Bryophyta (eg. Polytrichum sp.) iii. Phylum Anthocerophyta (eg. Anthoceros sp.) liverworts Dioecious (sexes are separated) mosses Dioecious (sexes are separated) hornworts Mostly monoecious (C) TERRESTRIAL ADAPTATION FOR BRYOPHYTES 1. A sterile jacket prevents antheridia and archegonia from drying out. 2. Bryophytes depend on water to live. They only live at moist place because the sperms require a film of water to reach the eggs. 3. After fertilization, zygote and embryo still live in archegonia to prevent from drying. 4. The presence of stoma (in mosses and hornworts) facilitate the movement of gasses. foot

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 14 | P a g e 1.6.2 PTERIDOPHYTES (A)UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF PTERIDOPHYTES 1. Have simple vascular tissue (simple xylem and phloem) 2. Have true root, stem and leaves. * small leaves are called microphylls as in Selaginella sp. while large is called megaphylls as in ferns 3. Involved alternation of generation in which: - Sporophyte generation is dominant in the life cycle; larger and longer lifespan - Gametophyte is smaller and shorter lifespan - But, the gametophyte and sporophyte are independent to each other because both of them can undergo photosynthesis. 4. Dependent on water for fertilization (motile/ flagellated sperms need to swim towards egg) 5. Seedless plant. 6. The sporophytes bear sporangia with leaf-like appendages called sporophyll. In some cases, sporophyll may form distinct compact structures called strobili or cones. 7. Spores are produced inside the sporangia. *Strobilus (plural: strobili) is the reproductive structure that formed from sporophylls and sporangia that grouped together at the tips of the stem. 8. The spores may be homosporous or heterosporous Homosporous Heterosporous Plants that produce only one type of spore Plant that produce two different types of spores; ● smaller microspores develop into male gametophytes ● larger megaspores develop into female gametophytes The spore develops into a bisexual gametophyte (with both archegonia & antheridia) The spore develops into a unisexual gametophyte (separate male and female gametophytes) Strobilus of homosporous plant e.g: Lycopodium sp. and Dryopteris sp. Strobilus of heterosporous plant e.g. Selaginella sp. 9. The spores germinate to produce a haploid gametophyte, called prothallus. (either bisexual or unisexual gametophytes) 10. In gametophytes, male organs (archegonia) produce sperms/ antherozoids while female organs (antheridia) produce egg cells. 11. Fertilization needs external water for movement of sperms/ antherozoids. 12. The diploid zygote formed is retained in the archegonia where it develops into a young sporophyte. Megaspores in megasporangium m Microspores in microsporangium m Microsporophyll (fertile leaf) Megasporophyll (fertile leaf)

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 15 | P a g e (B) CLASSIFICATION OF PTERIDOPHYTES INTO TWO PHYLA/DIVISIONS i. Phylum Lycophyta (eg. Lycopodium sp. , Selaginella sp. ) ii. Phylum Pterophyta (eg. Dryopteris sp.) Lycopodium sp. Selaginella sp. (homosporous) (heterosporous) e.g: Dryopteris sp. (homosporous) 1.6.3 GYMNOSPERMS (A)UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF GYMNOSPERMS 1. Gymnosperms are non-flowering plants (do not produce flowers or fruits) 2. Seed plants. The seed is naked (exposed/ unprotected because the seed is not enclosed in fruit). Seeds exposed on sporophylls that usually form cones 3. Complete vascular tissue. The xylem consists only of tracheid (without vessel elements) and phloem consists only of sieve tube (without companion cells). 4. Involved alternation of generation in which: - Sporophyte is dominant in the life cycle - Gametophyte is very much reduced and dependent on sporophyte 5. Reproductive structures are called cones or strobilus and they are heterosporous. 6. Female cones have megasporophyll bearing megasporangium. Within each megasporangium, megasporocytes undergo meiosis and produce haploid megaspores. Megaspore develops into a female gametophyte and is retained/ kept in the ovule. 7. Male cones have microsporophyll bearing microsporangium. Within each microsporangium, microsporocytes undergo meiosis and produce haploid microspores. Microspore develops into male gametophyte (pollen grain) 8. After fertilization, the ovule develops into naked seed (due to lack ovaries/ flower) 9. Do not need external water for fertilization, but need wind as the pollinating agent. 10. Classification of gymnosperms into four divisions/ phyla:

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 16 | P a g e (B) CLASSIFICATION OF GYMNOSPERMS ii. Phylum Cycadophyta i. Phylum Coniferophyta iii. Phylum Ginkgophyta iv. Phylum Gnetophyta Cycas sp. Pinus sp. Ginkgo sp. Gnetum sp. Palms-like Woody tree Woody tree Trees, vines and shrubs Compound leaves with palm-like tree Needle-like leaves Fan-shaped leaves that turn gold before fall off Broad leaves with reticulate venation 1.6.5 ANGIOSPERMS (A)UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF ANGIOSPERMS (PHYLUM ANTHOPHYTA) 1. Angiosperms are flowering plants (produce flowers and fruits) 2. Have complete vascular tissue, xylem consist of tracheid and vessel element while phloem consists of sieve tube and companion cells) 3. Seed producing plant. The seed is enclosed in fruit (protected seed) 4. Involved alternation of generation in which: - Sporophyte generation is dominant/ longer living. - Gametophytes generation is reduced in size and depends on sporophyte for nutrition. 5. Angiosperms reproductive structures are flowers. There are also heterosporous (produce two different types of spore) with double fertilization: (a) Microspores will produce pollen grain (male gametophyte) (b) Megaspores will produce embryo sac (female gametophyte) 6. No need for external water for fertilization, but need pollinating agents like insects and wind. 7. After double fertilization: - Ovary develops into fruit. - Ovule develops into seed. ● Seeds contain diploid embryo and triploid endosperm (cotyledon). ● Seed is enclosed by seed coat (derived from integuments of ovule) Differences of Angiosperms and Gymnosperms in terms of reproduction ANGIOSPERMS GYMNOSPERMS - Reproductive organ is flower - Reproductive organ is cone/ strobilus

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 17 | P a g e - Undergoes double fertilization - Does not undergoes double fertilization - The seed possess endosperm - The seed does not possess endosperm - The seed are protected by fruit/ovules enclosed by ovaries - The seed are not protected by fruit/ovules not enclosed by ovaries/ naked seed - Several pollinating agents like wind, insect - Pollinating agent is wind 1.6.6 EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIP IN PLANT KINGDOM (A)EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIP AMONG GROUPS IN PLANTS KINGDOM Characteristics Bryophytes Pteridophytes Gymnosperms Angiosperms i. Size Small sporophyte, large gametophyte Large sporophyte, small gametophyte Large sporophyte, reduced gametophyte Large sporophyte, reduced gametophyte ii. Dominance to gametophytes and sporophytes Gametophyte (n) Sporophyte (2n) iii. Dependence to gametophytes and sporophytes Sporophyte dependent on gametophyte Gametophyte and sporophyte are independent Gametophyte dependent on sporophyte iv. Water dependence in fertilization Fully depend on water for fertilization Need water for fertilization No (non-motile sperm doesn’t need water for fertilization) v. Presence and complexity of vascular tissues No vascular tissue Simple vascular tissue Complete vascular tissue vi. Embryo protection Within archegonia (gametophyte) Some protection within archegonia (gametophyte) Within seed coat Within seed coat enclosed in fruit 1.7 DOMAIN EUKARYA: KINGDOM ANIMALIA LEARNING OUTCOMES 1.7 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Animalia a) Describe the unique characteristics of Kingdom Animalia. b) State the classification of Animalia into nine phyla: Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata and Chordata. c) Discover the unique characteristics of the following Phyla: i. Porifera (e.g. Leucosolenia sp.);

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 18 | P a g e ii. Cnidaria (e.g. Obelia sp.); iii. Platyhelminthes (c.g. Taenia sp.); iv. Nematoda (e.g. Ascaris sp.); v. Annelida (e.g. Pheretima sp.); vi. Arthropoda (e.g. Valanga sp.); vii. Mollusca (e.g. Achatina sp.): viii.Echinodermata (e.g. Asterias sp.); and ix. Chordata (c.g. Amphioxus sp.). d) Explain evolutionary relationships of animals based on their: i. level of organization; ii. germ layers; iii. body symmetry; iv. body coelom; and v. segmentation. (A)UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF KINGDOM ANIMALIA Multicellular eukaryotes ▪ Feeding mode: Heterotrophic (holozoic) ▪ Most reproduce sexually ▪ Most have nervous systems and muscle systems ▪ Motile / capable of locomotion (during at least a part of their life cycle) ▪ Have diverse body plans (body plan = the basic structure and functional design of the body) ▪ Have a period of embryonic development (B) CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALIA INTO 9 PHYLA Phylogenetic tree of Kingdom Animalia

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 19 | P a g e (C)UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF EACH PHYLUM (i) PHYLUM PORIFERA (e.g : Leucosolenia sp.) 1. Body plan: No true tissues (Parazoa) and no body symmetry (asymmetry). 2. They are sessile (lived permanently attached to the surface) 3. Suspension feeders (feed on food particles suspended in the water that passes through its body). 4. Sac-like body with tiny pores (ostium) on the body wall for water to enter. Water exits through the osculum. 5. Central cavity is spongocoel. 6. (Most) are hermaphrodites = the same individual can produce both sperms and eggs 7. They can reproduce by both asexual and sexual means. ● Sexual reproduction: amoeboid cells produce egg & sperm into water, they fused to form new sponge ● Asexual reproduction: budding Leucosolenia sp. (sponges) Choanocytes/ collar cell ▪ Flagellated cells line the inside of the sponge wall ▪ Beating of flagella generates water current that brings food and oxygen and carries out carbon dioxide and waste through the osculum. Amoeboid cell / amoebocytes ▪ Digest food particles trapped by collar cells. Then, it transports nutrients to other cells. ▪ Secrete spicules. ▪ Secrete spongin to provides support and elasticity ▪ Produce sperm and egg/ gamete Spicules ▪ Secreted by amoeboid cell ▪ Made of calcium carbonate / silica ▪ Sharp pointed structures to provide support for a sponge and protection from predators

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 20 | P a g e (ii) PHYLUM CNIDARIA (e.g. Obelia sp.) Body plan: have radial symmetry and diploblastic. Has single-opening in the gastrovascular cavity that acts as mouth and anus. Their unique features are tentacles with cnidocytes that discharge nematocysts (stinging structure). It is used to trap prey and as protection/ defense. Some species dimorphism/ polymorphism: the existence of two different body forms (polyp and medusa) within a species. Polyp Medusa Sessile (adhere to substrate) Free swimming/ motile Cylindrical shape body Umbrella/ bell-shaped body The mouth directed upward (dorsal opening) The mouth directed downward (ventral opening) Dimorphism in life cycle of Obelia sp. ▪ Polyp form: (i) reproductive polyp (gonozoids) - no tentacles, containing medusa buds for reproduction (ii) feeding polyps (gastrozoids) - have tentacles to trap prey ▪ Medusa form: - Produce by reproductive polyps by budding - Free swimming medusa reproduce sexually Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction Reproductive polyp (gonozoid) produces medusa through budding The sperm from male medusa and ovum from female medusa combine to form a zygote.Zygote develops into planula larva and forms a new colony of polyp.

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 21 | P a g e Class Hydrozoa Class Scyphozoa Class Anthozoa Hydra sp. Obelia sp. (sea fur) Aurelia sp.(jellyfish) - Medusa is the main stage - No or a much reduced polyp stage in their life cycle Actinia sp. (sea anemone) - Comprises the corals in the sea - No medusa stage, exist only as polyps (iii) PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES (e.g. Taenia sp.) 1. Body plan: Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, acoelomate 2. Known as flatworm because bodies are flattened dorsal-ventrally. 3. Unsegmented (except Class Cestoda- tapeworm) 4. Hermaphrodite- an individual in which reproductive organs of both male and female sexes are present 5. Gastrovascular cavity has a single opening which serves a mouth (no anus)// incomplete digestive system 6. Shows cephalization (head formation) *cephalization= the concentration of sensory structures at the anterior end of the body 7. Most are parasites except Class Turbellaria - planaria. 8. Flame cell/ protonephridia as their excretory organ/ osmoregulation. 9. No circulatory system. Due to a flattened body, circulation is carried out by diffusion. Class Cestoda (e.g. Taenia sp.) Class Trematoda (e.g Fasciola sp.) Class Turbellaria (e.g Dugesia sp.) Taenia sp. (tapeworm) ▪ No mouth or digestive system ▪ Scolex (head) with suckers and hooks ● Sucker: to absorbs nutrients from host ● Hook: for attachment to host Fasciola sp. (liver flukes) ▪ Have TWO suckers for attachment (Oral sucker and ventral sucker) Dugesia sp. (planaria) ▪ Scavenger flatworm ▪ Free-living (Mostly marine, some freshwater & few terrestrial)

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 22 | P a g e (iv) PHYLUM NEMATODA (e.g. Ascaris sp.) 1. Body plan: Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, pseudocoelomate 2. Unsegmented and cylindrical shape with tapered/pointed ends 3. Complete digestive tract with mouth and anus 4. No circulatory system 5. Separate sexes (dioecious, in female is larger than male) 6. Have longitudinal muscles only 7. Shows cephalization 8. Mostly parasitic, living inside the host. 9. Tough and transparent cuticle forms the outer body covering for shape and protection Brugia malayi Elephantiasis (Lymphatic filariasis) disease: Caused by Brugia malayi ▪ One of the causing agents of elephantiasis in human transmitted by mosquitoes ▪ Elephantiasis a condition characterized by swelling of the lower limbs. ▪ Due to the roundworm block the body’s lymphatic system causing lymphatic fluid to accumulate in the tissues (v) PHYLUM ANNELIDA (e.g Pheretima sp.) 1. Body plan: Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, coelomate 2. Has metameric segmentation = each segment contains same organ in each segment except head 3. Complete digestive tract with mouth and anus 4. Have longitudinal and circular muscle 5. Have tiny bristles called setae / chaetae help in movement. In ragworm, there are present of setae and parapodia for the movement. 6. Nephridia/ metanephridia as excretory organs and has closed circulatory system 7. Body covered by cuticle 8. Shows cephalization. It may be hermaphrodite or some are dioecious 9. Roles of Annelida - Soil aeration: earthworms loosen, aerate and mix the soil as they burrow into the soil. Burrowing also provides passage-ways for plant roots and improves soil condition. - Medical use: anti-coagulant (hirudin) in saliva of leech is used in cupping treatment/ improves blood flow (prevents blood clots following surgery)

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 23 | P a g e Class Oligochaeta (e.g. Pheretima sp.) Class Polychaeta (e.g. Nereis sp.) Class Hirudinea (e.g. Hirudo sp.) Pheretima sp. (earthworm) Nereis sp. (Ragworm) Hirudo sp. (leech) EXTRA INFO: Differences between the Phylum Platyhelminthes, Nematoda and Annelida. Phylum Platyhelminthes Nematoda Annelida Level of organization Organ Organ Organ system Germ layers Triploblastic Body symmetry Bilateral symmetry Body cavity Acoelom Pseudocoelom Coelom Segmentation Unsegmented Unsegmented Segmented body Number of digestive opening One opening which serves as mouth (incomplete) Two opening, mouth and anus (complete) Nervous system Simple brain, simple sense organs Simple brain, dorsal and ventral nerve cord Simple brain, ventral nerve cord Circulatory system No circulatory system Closed circulatory system Specialized structures • Dorsoventrally flattened body • Flame cell/ protonephridia for osmoregulation and excretion of waste products • Body muscle cannot be contracted, locomotion • Cylindrical body with pointed (tapered) ends • body covered with thick/ tough cuticle • have longitudinal muscle only (body muscle can be contract for locomotion) • Rounded body with blunt ends • (Meta) nephridia for osmoregulation and excretory • Present of setae/ chaetae for locomotion except leeches • body covered with cuticle

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 24 | P a g e happens only by swimming • have longitudinal and circular muscle (body muscle can be contract for locomotion) Life style Parasitic except Dugesia sp. Non-parasitic Supporting system No Hydrostatic skeleton Hydrostatic skeleton Habitat Live in at least 1 host but Dugesia sp. is marine or freshwater (aquatic) Soil, water Live in soil or aquatic areas (vi) PHYLUM ARTHROPODA (e.g Valanga sp.) 1. Body plan: Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, coelomates 2. Main body cavity is hemocoel that filled with hemolymph in adult 3. Show cephalization, well-developed sensory organ at the anterior end of the body 4. Have complete digestive system 5. Have an open circulatory system - the blood is not contained within an enclosed circuit of vessels 6. Excretory system is the Malpighian tubules collect wastes from the blood and reabsorb water so that only dry material is excreted. 7. Three main features of Arthropoda: Features Description Exoskeleton A hard external covering, usually made of chitin. Paired and jointed appendages Legs, mouthparts antennae, claws pincers, swimming paddles, and gills represent some of the specializations. Segmented body (tagmata) i. 3 segments (Head/thorax/abdomen) or ii.2 segments (Cephalothorax/abdomen)

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 25 | P a g e How these unique characteristics contributes to the success of Arthropods in term of their survival Characteristics How? Variety of respiratory organs - Directs the air to the tissues, thus makes high metabolic rate possible - Allow them to survive in different habitat Metamorphosis - Larvae and adult utilize different sources (niche) thus reduces intraspecific competition - Allows different growth forms (in different habitats) Segmentation/ metamerism - Allow specialization of the body parts for variety functions Exoskeleton - Protects the animal - Protection from dehydration (prevent water loss) - For support & attachment site for muscles - Adaptations to wider range of habitat. Well-developed sensory organ - Alert to any change in the environment/ to sense different environmental stimulus Paired and jointed appendages - Allow efficient locomotion and flexible movement. - Make the body plan more efficient because specialized for variety of functions e.g. Movement, feeding Six classes of Phylum Arthropoda Class Insecta Valanga sp. (e.g grasshoppers) Class Crustacea Macrobrachium sp. (e.g prawn) Class Chilopoda Scolopendra sp.(e.g centipede) Class Diplopoda Iulus sp. (e.g milipede) Class Arachnida Nephila sp. (e.g. spider) Class Merostomata Tachypleus sp.(e.g. horseshoe crab)

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 26 | P a g e (vii) PHYLUM MOLLUSCA (e.g. Achatina sp.) 1. Body plan: Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic and coelomate. 2. Unsegmented: soft body covered by a shell composed mainly of calcium carbonate 3. Metanephridia as excretory organ 4. Has hydrostatic skeleton 5. Body soft and fleshy 6. Open circulatory system – except Cephalopoda 7. Most mollusc have separated sexes and their gonads located in the visceral mass but many snails are hermaphrodites. 8. Three important body structure: a) Visceral mass: Containing most of internal organ b) Mantle: cover the visceral mass and contain gland that secrete calcareous shell contain calcium carbonate. c) Muscular foot: contain both sensory and motor organ for movement/ locomotion Class Gastropoda (e.g. Achatina sp.) Class Cephalopoda (e.g. Sepia sp.) Class Bivalvia (e.g. Anadara sp.) Achatina sp. (garden snail) Sepia sp. (cuttlefish) Anadara sp.(cockle) • Single & spiralled shells • Body is large, moist & muscular • Respiration through gills & moist skin. • Have a radula for feeding/ to scrape the food • Anus & mantle cavity at the head region - after torsion • Open circulatory system • Visceral mass covered by mantle • Shell is internal • Mouth surrounded by long tentacles • Have a radula for feeding/ to scrape the food • Closed circulatory system • Well-developed nervous system • Complex brain. • Double shells joined by ligaments & adductor muscle • Small head, no tentacles • Big gills • Open circulatory system • No radula and torsion (viii) PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA (e.g Asterias sp.) 1. Body plan: Adult is pentaradial symmetry while larva is bilateral symmetry, triploblastic and coelomate 2. Mouth generally on lower (oral) surface of body and anus on upper (aboral) surface 3. Have water vascular system - function in movement, feeding and gaseous exchange. ▪ A network of hydraulic canals branching into tube feet ▪ Ampulla = Rounded muscular sac at the base of the tube foot to store fluid

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 27 | P a g e 4. Endoskeleton consist of calcium carbonate plates 5. Has spines that covered the body for protection 6. Simple nervous system without brain 7. Crown of thorn starfish: ● threaten coral reef by acting as predator to eat coral reef ● When Crown-of-thorn starfish appear in high densities (‘outbreak’), they consume coral tissue faster than the corals can grow Class Asteroidea (e.g Asterias sp.) Class Holothuroidea Class Echinoidea Asterias sp.(starfish) Sea cucumber Sea urchin Flattened star, arms not long with spines. Cucumber-shaped, no arms and no spines Spherical shape, no arms but a lot of spines. (ix) PHYLUM CHORDATA (e.g Amphioxus sp.) 1. Body plan: Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic and coelomate. 2. Close circulatory system. Blood and interstitial fluid do not mix. Blood never leaves the blood vessel. 3. Have endoskeleton 4. Structure that present on chordates: Amphioxus sp. (lancelet)

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 28 | P a g e Structure Description Myotomes - Segmented muscle blocks Notochord - A longitudinal, flexible rod located between the digestive tube and the nerve cord. Give rise to vertebral column/ endoskeleton - provides skeletal support throughout most of the length of the animal Post anal tail - Muscular tail extending beyond the anus. Present at least in embryo / early stage - provides much of the propulsive force in many aquatic species Dorsal hollow nerve cord - A hollow tube above the notochord - Develops into the central nervous system: the brain and spinal cord (CNS) Presence of pharyngeal cleft (slits in the pharynx) - Connect the pharynx, just posterior to the mouth, to the outside of the animal - Slits allow water that enters the mouth to exit without continuing through the entire digestive tract - As suspension-feeding devices. - Modified for gas exchange (in aquatic vertebrates), jaw support, hearing, and other functions during vertebrate evolution. (D)THE EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIP OF ANIMALS Animal classification based on (i) Level of organization CELL Body is composed of cells which loosely perform different functions but are not organized into tissues or organs TISSUE Cells performing similar functions and having structural relatedness are grouped together to form tissues. ORGAN Tissues performing similar functions aggregate to form organs which perform respective physiological functions. ORGAN SYSTEM Organs involved to achieve a particular function form the organ system.

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 29 | P a g e (ii) Germ layers Parazoa (no true tissue) Eumetazoa (have true tissue) No true tissue = No germ layer e.g: Sponges (Phylum Porifera) Have true tissues - are collections of specialized cells isolated from other tissues by membranous layers. Diploblastic = Having two germ layers (ectoderm & endoderm) Triploblastic = Having three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm & endoderm) (ii) Body symmetry Asymmetry Radial symmetry Bilateral symmetry No pattern of symmetry. Body cannot be divided into mirror halves. Body can be divided into mirror halves through multiple planes. Body can be divided into two mirrorimages, right and left halves through only one plane. (iii) Body coelom ▪ Body cavity is a fluid-filled space separating the digestive tract from the outer body wall. ▪ Also known as coelom Acoelomate Pseudocoelomate Coelomate Organisms that have a solid body and LACK a body cavity Organisms that have a body cavity NOT completely lined by mesoderm. It develops between mesoderm and the endoderm Organisms that have a fluid-filled body cavity (coelom) COMPLETELY lined by mesoderm. Internal organs develop & suspend in coelom.

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 30 | P a g e (iv) Segmentation ▪ Segmentation is the division of some animal body plans into a series of repetitive sections. Advanced animals have body segments and specialization of tissue. (a) Metamerism: repetition of organ and tissue in every segment (b) Tagmatization: segments are different and may fused into groups specialized for specific function (i) 3 segments (Head, thorax and abdomen) (ii) 2 segments (Cephalothorax and abdomen) Phylum Level of organization Germ layers Body plan (symmetry) Body cavity Segmentatio n/ metamerism Porifera Cell No true tissue Asymmetry - No Cnidaria Tissue Diploblastic Radial - No Platyhelminthes Organ Triploblastic Bilateral Acoelomate No Nematoda Organ Triploblastic Bilateral Pseudocoelomate No Annelida Organ system Triploblastic Bilateral Coelomate Yes Arthropoda Organ system Triploblastic Bilateral Coelomate Yes Mollusca Organ system Triploblastic Bilateral Coelomate No Echinodermata Organ system Triploblastic Bilateral (Larva) Radial (adult) Coelomate No Chordata Organ system Triploblastic Bilateral Coelomate Yes END OF TOPIC

MY SMART STUDY GUIDE SDS SEMESTER 2: SB025 31 | P a g e TERMINOLOGIES TERM DEFINITION Bacillus Used to describe any bacterium that has a rod shape Cephalothorax Head and thorax fused. Coccus Used to describe any bacterium that has a spherical shape Coenocytic Fungal mycelium in which hyphae lack septa Decomposer Any of various organisms (bacteria and fungi) that return organic substances to ecological cycles by feeding on and breaking dead organisms (extracellular digestion). Detritivore An organism (earthworm or fungus) that feeds on dead and decomposing organic matter Dioecious Separate sexes Eukaryotes Multicellular organism that have nucleus and membrane bound organelles Free-living An organism that is not directly dependent on another organism for survival Hermaphrodite An organism that has reproductive organs normally associated with both male and female sexes. Heterosporous plants that produce two types of spores Heterotroph An organism that is unable to synthesis its own organic carbon-based compounds from inorganic sources, hence it feeds on organic matter produced by, or available in, other organisms. Holozoic An organism that obtains its nourishment by the ingestion and absorption of organic matter as animals do. Homosporous spores plants that produce only one type of spore Hydrostatic skeleton One that contains no rigid, hard structures or bones for support, but rather relies on a fluid-filled cavity within the body (another form of skeletal support) Hyphae Long, branching filamentous structures of a fungus Metameric The property of having repeated segments such as annelids Motile Capable of movement Multicellular An organism that consist of more than one cell Nephridia An invertebrate organ which occurs in pairs and performs a function similar to the vertebrate kidney Non-vascular plant Plant without a vascular system (xylem and phloem) but possess simpler tissues that are specialized for internal transport of water Pathogenic A condition that capable of producing disease Photoautotroph An organism, typically a plant, obtaining energy from sunlight as its source of energy to convert inorganic materials into organic materials. Prokaryotes A single cell organism, lack nucleus and have no membrane bound organelles Rhizoid Root like structure Saprophytic Feeding, absorbing or growing on decaying organic matter (e.g. dead or decaying animal Sessile Fixed in one place, non-motile Spirillum Refers to a bacterium with a cell body that twist like a spiral Tagmata The body segments are the head, thorax, and abdomen Thallus Green shoot or twig which is the undifferentiated vegetative tissue of some organisms such as algae, fungi, some liverworts and lichen. Unicellular An organism that consist of only one cell