Enculturation of Korean American Adolescents Within ...

Family Relations, 56 (October 2007), 403–412. Blackwell Publishing.
Copyright 2007 by the National Council on Family Relations.

Enculturation of Korean American Adolescents Within
Familial and Cultural Contexts: The Mediating
Role of Ethnic Identity*

Irene J. Kim Park**

Abstract: The purpose of the present study was to test a socialization model in which ethnic identity mediated the
relationship between 3 domains of family processes and 1 key aspect of enculturation: native language fluency. Data
from a sample of 112 Korean American adolescents living in the Midwest revealed that adolescent ethnic identity
partially mediated the influence of family cohesion on their Korean language fluency. Findings suggest that ethnic
identity may serve as a mechanism through which family relations influence adolescents’ native language fluency.
Implications for adolescent and family adaptation are discussed within an ecological framework, including potential
strategies for strengthening ethnic identity.

Key Words: Asian adolescents, enculturation, ethnic identity, family processes, immigration, native language fluency.

Rapidly changing demographics in the United States enculturation. Enculturation, broadly defined, en-
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2001) have led to a renewed compasses ‘‘the process of learning about and adapt-
recognition of the importance of understanding the ing to one’s ethnic culture, potentially leading to the
needs of underserved and diverse populations, espe- adoption of beliefs, values, behaviors, and language
cially immigrant groups. Currently, children of immi- of that culture and to one’s ethnic identity’’ (Roosa,
grants comprise approximately 25% of the American Dumka, Gonzales, & Knight, 2002). Successful ne-
youth population, and this proportion is projected gotiation of these processes is significant because they
to increase in the next two decades (Hernandez & facilitate bicultural competence (i.e., competence in
Charney, 1998). Korean American adolescents rep- both the host culture and the culture-of-origin),
resent one growing segment of this population. On which has been linked to better psychological adjust-
the basis of data from the 2000 Census, Yu and Choe ment (e.g., LaFromboise, Coleman, & Gerton, 1993).
(2003–2004) reported that the Korean population in
the United States increased by 35% between 1990 Background and Significance
and 2000, whereas the U.S. total population increased
only 13%. Korean immigrants comprised almost Although a great deal of research attention has fo-
60% of the total increase during that decade (Yu & cused on the acculturation of Asian immigrants and
Choe). Thus, issues related to immigration, adapta- youths to the U.S. host culture (e.g., Chun & Akutsu,
tion to a new host culture, and retention of culture- 2003), their enculturation to the culture-of-origin has
of-origin values and behaviors are very salient in often been neglected. Such a distinction is important
the Korean American context. On a day-to-day because these constructs represent two different expe-
basis, Korean American adolescents and their fami- riential phenomena—while acculturation deals with
lies are often negotiating processes associated with adaptation to the host culture, enculturation involves

*This study was funded by a grant from the University of Notre Dame, Faculty Research Program. The author would also like to acknowledge the support of the
Parenting Research in Diverse Environments (PRIDE) Scholars Network funded by the W. K. Kellogg Foundation (P0107975). Preparation of this manuscript was
supported in part by an NIMH training grant (T32-MH18921) and NICHD Grant P30HD15052.

**Irene J. Kim Park is Assistant Professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556 ([email protected]).

404 Family Relations Volume 56, Number 4 October 2007

retention of the values and behaviors of the how various family processes were associated with
culture-of-origin. Understanding both aspects (i.e., native language fluency by testing a mediational
acculturation and enculturation) of the immigrant model of enculturation.
experience is necessary, especially in light of im-
plications for fostering bicultural competence and Conceptual Model
subsequent well-being. To address these gaps in the
literature, the present study focused on one charac- A socialization model for ethnic minority youths
teristic behavior associated with enculturation: developed by Knight and colleagues (Knight, Bernal,
native language fluency. & Carlo, 1995; Knight, Bernal, Cota, Garza, &
Ocampo, 1993) informed the theoretical basis of
One of the main elements of bicultural compe- the present study. The general purpose of this model
tence (LaFromboise et al., 1993) is communication is to show how enculturation and acculturation pro-
ability, defined as ‘‘an individual’s effectiveness in cesses affect the development of ethnic minority
communicating ideas and feelings to members of youths. The model developed by Knight, Bernal, et al.
a given culture, both verbally and nonverbally’’ (1993) and Knight et al. (1995) possesses several
(p. 405). In fact, LaFromboise et al. refer to lan- features that are congruent with an ecological under-
guage competence as ‘‘a major building block of cul- standing of the adolescent as embedded within mul-
tural competence’’ (p. 405). Native language fluency tiple contexts (e.g., Bronfenbrenner, 1979), including
is significant not only because of its critical role in the contexts of the family and two cultures (i.e., U.S.
bicultural competence but also because it has been host culture and culture-of-origin). For instance, the
found to have a positive effect on developmental socialization model includes: (a) the family’s social
outcomes among adolescents from immigrant fami- ecology (e.g., familial interdependence, the family’s
lies (Nguyen & Huang, 2007). For instance, native socioeconomic and generation status), (b) socializa-
language fluency has been positively associated with tion effects of familial agents, (c) the youth’s ethnic
future educational and occupational aspirations identity, and (d) the youth’s ethnic or value-based
(Bankston & Zhou, 1995; Portes & Schauffler, social behaviors (e.g., native language fluency).
1994), the quality of parent-child relationships
(Fillmore, 1991), as well as ethnic identity (Phinney, For the purposes of this study, one portion of
Romero, Nava, & Huang, 2001) in multiple immi- Knight, Bernal et al.’s (1993, 1995) model was selected
grant populations. Moreover, native language flu- for investigation. In particular, the present study
ency can be construed as a cultural resource (Portes focused on family processes, the adolescent’s ethnic
& Schauffler), particularly because it often grants identity, and the adolescent’s native language flu-
greater access to the ethnic community (Bankston & ency, as illustrated in Figure 1. Three types of family
Zhou). For adolescents, native language fluency may processes were identified for examination: family
also be associated with greater emotional closeness cohesion, parent-adolescent communication, and
with parents, especially with their mothers (Tseng & parent-adolescent conflict. These family processes
Fuligni, 2000). reflect aspects of the original model (i.e., family’s
social ecology and socialization effects of familial
Given the influence of native language fluency agents). They also represent multiple levels of family
on Asian American adolescent development in par- interactions—both systemic (e.g., family cohesion)
ticular (Nguyen & Huang, 2007), it was selected as and dyadic (e.g., parent-adolescent communication
one ethnic-specific manifestation of the encultura- and conflict, respectively). The adolescent’s ethnic
tion process to investigate in greater depth. As with identity was operationalized as identification with
other aspects of enculturation, the family is a major his/her culture-of-origin. As theorized by Knight
socializing influence on native language usage and and colleagues, ethnic identity was hypothesized to
fluency among adolescents in diverse cultural con- mediate the effects of socialization on ethnic behav-
texts (Super & Harkness, 1997). Previous research iors, including the adolescent’s native language flu-
(e.g., Tseng & Fuligni, 2000) has shown significant ency. Native language fluency was defined here as
relations between family dynamics (e.g., cohesion; the adolescent’s perceived proficiency in spoken and
engagement in discussions with parents) and parent- written forms of the Korean language. Figure 1
adolescent language use patterns, yet the mechanism summarizes the mediation model tested in the
of effect between these two constructs remains
unclear. The purpose of this study was to examine

Family Processes and Enculturation Park 405

Adolescent’s Korean
Ethnic Identity
(Mediator)

Family Processes Adolescent’s Korean
(Family Cohesion, Language Fluency
Communication, Conflict)

Figure 1. Conceptual Model for the Present Study Informed by Knight, Bernal, et al.’s (1993) Socialization
Model for Ethnic Minority Youths.

present study whereby adolescents’ ethnic identity developmental period for identity formation
mediates the influence of family processes on an (Erikson, 1968; Marcia, 1966). For ethnic minority
enculturation outcome: native language fluency. adolescents, some proportion of their self-concept is
derived from the enculturation process and their
The mediation model highlights familial and cul- ethnic identity. During adolescence in particular,
tural contexts, represented by three types of family children of immigrants must begin to navigate
processes, the adolescent’s ethnic identity, and his/ across multiple cultural and social contexts as they
her ethnic-specific behavior (i.e., native language interact more frequently with their peers and family
fluency). members both in the host culture and the culture-
of-origin (e.g., Yeh et al., 2005).
Literature Review
Tensions between immigrant parents and adoles-
Enculturation, Family Processes, and Native Language cents are often accentuated as they negotiate cultural
Fluency During Adolescence priorities such as independence versus interdepen-
dence (Markus & Kitayama, 1991) or autonomy
The process of enculturation is both unique and versus embeddedness (Kwak, 2003). Thus, the
challenging for adolescents born into immigrant familial context becomes very important in the
families. When compared with adolescents born enculturation process to children of immigrants.
into nonimmigrant families, adolescents from immi- Previous research suggests that the quality of parent-
grant families must acquire their ethnic heritage and child relationships significantly influences and longi-
heritage language primarily from their familial con- tudinally predicts shifts in language use patterns
text and, to some extent, from their family’s ethno- among children of immigrants, including East
cultural networks. Parents are the child’s first Asians (Tseng & Fuligni, 2000). In addition, the
socialization agents (Maccoby & Martin, 1983) and pace at which adolescents increase their English flu-
play a critical role in shaping youths’ cultural sociali- ency often outstrips that of their parents for various
zation process. For example, Greenfield (1994) reasons including greater opportunities for youth to
asserts that cultural values are embedded in, and interact with the host culture through socializing
transmitted through, parent-adolescent social inter- agents such as the public school system and the lim-
actions. This enculturation process stands in con- ited access to English-speaking environments for
trast to that of individuals from nonimmigrant immigrant parents in ethnic enclaves. Subsequently,
families who are able to acquire their cultural values adolescents and parents may perceive greater rela-
and behaviors from the larger, mainstream society tional and emotional distance from one another,
without relying solely on their kinship network. experience more conflicts, and engage in less com-
munication (Tseng & Fuligni). The present study
At the same time, identity status theory suggests examined the association between adolescents’ native
that the transition into adolescence is a critical language fluency and family processes in three

406 Family Relations Volume 56, Number 4 October 2007

domains (i.e., parent-adolescent communication, Unidimensional, linear models and measures of
parent-adolescent conflict, and family cohesion). ethnic identity and acculturation (e.g., the Suinn-
These domains were selected to represent a range of Lew Asian Self-Identity Acculturation Scale; Suinn,
ways in which adolescents perceive and negotiate Ahuna, & Khoo, 1992) have posited that the acqui-
their relationships with their parents, as well as to sition of host culture behaviors (e.g., English skills)
offer comparability with previous studies that have is linked to the deterioration of culture-of-origin
assessed various immigrant family processes (e.g., behaviors (e.g., native language fluency). Presently,
Gonzales, Deardorff, Formoso, Barr, & Barrera, more widely accepted multidimensional, orthogonal
2006; Liu & Goto, 2007; Trickett & Jones, 2007; models of ethnic identity acknowledge the indepen-
Tseng & Fuligni). dence of the host/mainstream culture versus culture-
of-origin dimensions (e.g., Oetting & Beauvais,
What remains unclear from the literature, how- 1990–1991). On the basis of such orthogonal con-
ever, is how these family processes lead to ethnic ceptualizations of ethnic identity, this study exam-
behaviors, such as native language fluency. Given ined the relationship between ethnic identity and
the empirical literature on the significance of parent- native language fluency. Specifically, it was expected
child interactions within the context of cultural that a stronger identification with Korean culture
adaptation (e.g., Bornstein & Cote, 2006), it was hypo- would be associated with higher levels of Korean
thesized that family cohesion and parent-adolescent language fluency. Moreover, it was expected that the
communication would both be positively associated more proximal influence of ethnic identity would
with adolescents’ native language fluency, whereas account for the effect of family processes on native
parent-adolescent conflict was hypothesized to be language fluency. In other words, family processes
negatively associated with native language fluency alone would not explain adolescents’ Korean lan-
(e.g., Shon & Ja, 1992). guage fluency, but rather only to the extent to which
these family processes were associated with adoles-
The Role of Ethnic Identity vis-a`-vis Family Processes cents’ ethnic identity.
and Native Language Fluency
In sum, the present study seeks to fill a gap in the
According to the conceptual model illustrated in current literature on family processes, ethnic iden-
Figure 1, ethnic identity is the mechanism by which tity, and enculturation (as manifested by native lan-
various family interactions are associated with native guage fluency) in several ways. First, the study used
language fluency. For example, a prior investigation a within-group design to examine these phenomena
found that familial agents transmitted ethnic con- in one specific Asian American population: Korean
tent information through their child-rearing practi- American adolescents. There is a need for within-
ces, which influenced the nature of Mexican group studies in order to test whether previous find-
children’s ethnic identity; ethnic identity, in turn, ings apply to a particular group and also to more
was related to children’s Spanish language use carefully investigate the culture-specific mechanisms
(Knight, Bernal, et al., 1993). Thus, family pro- that underlie certain patterns of behavior. Second,
cesses facilitate the socialization of ethnic identity, the present study examined three different types of
which in turn is linked to ethnic-specific values and family processes associated with the socialization of
behaviors, including native language fluency. ethnic identity and ethnic-specific behavior. Third,
a mediation model was tested to determine the
Ethnic identity has been commonly associated extent to which ethnic identity serves as a mechanism
with language fluency, particularly with the latter through which family processes influence native lan-
serving as a widely assessed indicator of ethnic in- guage fluency for Korean adolescents. Thus, the
volvement (Phinney, 1990; Sue, Mak, & Sue, 1998). study applied a model of socialization to Korean
Conversely, maintenance of native language fluency American adolescents with an eye toward integrating
has been closely related to identification with one’s familial and cultural contexts. The main research
culture-of-origin (Laroche, Kim, Hui, & Tomiuk, question was: Does ethnic identity serve as a mediat-
1998). For example, Bankston and Zhou (1995) ing mechanism explaining the association between
reported a significant correlation between native lan- three domains of family processes (i.e., parent-
guage fluency and ethnic identity. Language fluency adolescent communication, parent-adolescent conflict,
has also been conceptualized as one of the most and family cohesion) and native language fluency?
important components of ethnic identity (Phinney).

Family Processes and Enculturation Park 407

Method The median annual income for mothers was in the
$20,000 – $29,000 bracket, and the median annual
Participants and Procedures income for fathers was in the $40,000 – $49,000
bracket. Thus, the combined household income is
The sample for the present study was drawn from approximately $60,000 – $78,000, indicating that
a larger on-going project (e.g., Kim, Lee, Nguyen, this sample’s income is higher than the national
& Kim, 2006) examining the influence of culture median income level ($57,518) for Asian Americans
and family processes on anger regulation and adoles- according to the most recent statistics from the U.S.
cent mental health among Korean immigrant fami- Census Bureau (DeNavas-Walt, Proctor, & Lee,
lies living in the Midwest. Participants targeted were 2005). Mothers (M ¼ 33.2%, SD ¼ 20.8) and
youth between the ages of 11 – 19 and their primary fathers (M ¼ 34.1%, SD ¼ 29.8) had spent approx-
caregiver(s). Inclusion criteria were: (a) Korean imately one third of their lives in the United States.
American youths ages 11 – 19 years old; (b) residing
with one or both parents, at least one of Korean ori- Measures
gin; and (c) the youth was born in Korea (first gen-
eration) or the United States (second generation). All measures for the adolescents were provided in
Adolescent participants were recruited through five English while the survey packets for parents were
Korean ethnic churches and two civic organizations available in either English or Korean depending
located in suburban areas in the upper Midwest. upon the parents’ language preference. Three adoles-
Questionnaires were administered to the adolescents cents requested a Korean version of some of the
in groups of 10 – 20 in the churches. Questionnaires study measures, which was provided for them. A
for parents were either mailed to their homes or translation and back-translation procedure (Brislin,
given to the target adolescent to take home to their 1970) was used to translate English language instru-
primary caregiver(s), who then mailed in their com- ments into Korean, employing two independent
pleted questionnaires. Parental consent, parent per- bilingual translators. The measures described below
mission for their child, and adolescent assent were represent the focus of the present study but are only
obtained. a subset of measures utilized in the larger project.

The current sample consisted of 112 Korean Demographic background. Age, generation sta-
American adolescents. These adolescents ranged in tus, length of United States residency, and educa-
age from 11 to 19 years old (M ¼ 14.5, SD ¼ 2.1) tional level were assessed for youths. Occupational
and had spent, on average, 82% (SD ¼ 30%) of status and yearly income were assessed for parents
their lives in the United States. Approximately 66% only.
(n ¼ 74) of the adolescents were born in the United
States, whereas 34% (n ¼ 38) were born in Korea. Native language fluency. Adolescents’ percep-
Slightly over half of the sample (55%; n ¼ 62) was tions of their native (Korean) language fluency were
female. Only one target child per family was assessed using a 3-item subscale from the Asian
included in the study if they matched the inclusion American Multidimensional Acculturation Scale
criteria. Because approximately 70% of Korean (AAMAS; Chung, Kim, & Abreu, 2004). Adoles-
Americans attend a Korean ethnic church in the cents rated their ability to speak, understand, and
United States (Hurh, 1998; Kim, Kim, & Kelly, read or write in the Korean language, using a 6-point
2006), adolescents and their parents were recruited Likert scale format, ranging from 1 (not very well) to
heavily from Korean ethnic churches, providing 6 (very well). This native language fluency subscale
a relatively representative sample (Min, 1995). demonstrated good internal consistency, with a
Cronbach’s alpha of .86 for the present sample.
Adolescents’ socioeconomic status was estimated
using parents’ self-reported education and yearly in- Ethnic identity. Adolescents’ level of identifica-
come levels. Because parent data were more difficult tion with the Korean culture was measured with the
to attain, the sample sizes are smaller for mothers 6-item Cultural Identity subscale from the AAMAS
(N ¼ 35) and fathers (N ¼ 25). Approximately (Chung et al., 2004) using a 6-point Likert scale for-
65% of mothers (n ¼ 22) and 75% of fathers mat. Sample items included: ‘‘How proud are you
(n ¼ 18) had a college or higher level of education. to be part of your own Asian ethnic group?’’ and
‘‘How much do you identify with your own Asian
ethnic group?’’ The Cultural Identity subscale

408 Family Relations Volume 56, Number 4 October 2007

showed adequate internal consistency in this sample used to form one composite variable (a ¼ .94) reflect-
with Cronbach’s alpha of .76. ing intensity of parent-adolescent conflict.

Family processes. Three domains of family pro- Family cohesion. Adolescents’ perceptions of
cesses were assessed including: (a) parent-adolescent family cohesion were assessed using the 16-item
communication, (b) parent-adolescent conflict, and Cohesion subscale of the 30-item Family Adaptation
(c) family cohesion. and Cohesion Evaluation Scales II-Family version
(FACES-II; Olson, Portner, & Bell, 1982; Olson,
Parent-adolescent communication. Adolescents’ Sprenkle, & Russell, 1979). Adolescents responded
perceptions of the degree to which they can effec- to each item using a 5-point Likert scale ranging
tively communicate with their mothers and fathers, from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always). The
in terms of content and process, were assessed with Cohesion subscale contains items such as, ‘‘Family
the 20-item Parent and Adolescent Communication members are supportive of each other during diffi-
Scales (Barnes & Olson, 1985). Using a 5-point cult times’’ and ‘‘Family members feel very close to
Likert scale format ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) each other.’’ The FACES-II Cohesion (a ¼ .81)
to 5 (strongly agree), participants rated their endorse- subscale demonstrated good internal consistency in
ment of statements such as, ‘‘I find it easy to discuss the present sample.
problems with my [mother/father]’’ and ‘‘I am
sometimes afraid to ask my [mother/father] for what Results
I want.’’ The full scale demonstrated good overall
internal consistency for both mothers and fathers Descriptive analyses were conducted to examine
(a ¼ .88 and .87, respectively) in the present sam- sample characteristics and associations between the
ple. In the statistical analyses, the mean of the study variables. Zero-order correlations, means, and
mother and father scores was used to form one com- standard deviations are reported for the main study
posite variable (a ¼ .89) reflecting parent-adolescent variables (see Table 1). As hypothesized, the correla-
communication. tional analyses revealed a significant positive associa-
tion between family cohesion and Korean language
Parent-adolescent conflict. The 10-item Asian fluency (r ¼ .20, p , .05). Associations between
American Family Conflicts Scale (FCS; Lee, Choe, parent-adolescent communication (r ¼ .17) and
Kim, & Ngo, 2000) was used to assess the likeli- conflict intensity (r ¼ .12), and Korean language
hood, seriousness, and intensity of perceived conflict fluency did not reach significance. Significant posi-
between adolescents and their mothers and fathers. tive associations were also found between family
This measure was developed specifically for use with cohesion and ethnic identity (r ¼ .27, p , .01) and
Asian American adolescents with regard to family between ethnic identity and Korean language flu-
conflict situations and reflects both intergenerational ency (r ¼ .53, p , .001).
and acculturation differences between children and
their parents. A sample item is: ‘‘Your parents want Test of Mediation Model
you to sacrifice personal interests for the sake of the
family, but you feel that this is unfair.’’ Each item is On the basis of prior theory and research as described
rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 ¼ almost never/not in the literature review, a mediation model was
at all; 5 ¼ almost always/extremely) on two dimen- tested with ethnic identity as the mediator explain-
sions: likelihood and seriousness of the problem. ing the relationship between family processes and
The mean of these two scale scores was used to form Korean language fluency. A statistical test for media-
an intensity of conflict score. The FCS has demon- tion was conducted using regression analyses as spec-
strated adequate reliability and validity, with alpha ified by Baron and Kenny (1986) whereby mediation
coefficients of .81 to .89 and .84 to .91 for FCS- is said to occur if the following conditions are satisfied:
Likelihood and FCS-Seriousness, respectively (Lee (a) the independent variable predicts the mediator,
et al., 2000). In the present study, the internal con- (b) the independent variable predicts the dependent
sistencies of these three subscales were good for both variable, (c) the mediator predicts the dependent
mother-adolescent (a [likelihood] ¼ .80; a [serious- variable when both the mediator and the indepen-
ness] ¼ .88; a [intensity] ¼ .91) and father- dent variable are entered into a regression equation,
adolescent (a [likelihood] ¼ .83; a [seriousness] ¼ .88;
a [intensity] ¼ .91) conflict. In the statistical analyses,
the mean of the mother and father intensity scores was

Family Processes and Enculturation Park 409

Table 1. Youth Reports of Family Process and Cultural Variables: Correlations and Descriptive Statistics ( N ¼ 112)

Variables 1 2 34 5

1. Parent-adolescent communication — — — — —
2. Family conflict intensity 20.40*** 20.25** 0.27** 0.53*** 3.98
3. Family cohesion 0.20* 5.03 1.22
4. Korean ethnic identity 0.64*** 0.06 53.46 0.79 .86
5. Korean fluency 0.15 0.12 9.64 .76
M 0.17 2.48 .81
SD 65.15 0.71
a 10.60 .94
.89

*p , .05. **p , .01. ***p , .001.

(d) the impact of the independent variable on the established by Baron and Kenny (1986) were satis-
dependent variable is significantly reduced after con- fied: (a) family cohesion (independent variable) was
trolling for the mediator. The Sobel test was used to a significant predictor of Korean ethnic identity
assess the statistical significance of the mediation (proposed mediator), b ¼ .27, t(110) ¼ 2.94, p ,
effect (Preacher & Leonardelli, 2001). .01; (b) family cohesion was a significant predictor
of Korean language fluency (dependent variable),
Separate mediation models were developed and b ¼ .20, t(110) ¼ 2.08, p , .05; (c) Korean ethnic
tested for each of the three domains of family pro- identity predicted Korean fluency when family cohe-
cesses for the sake of precision and specificity. For sion was also entered into the regression equation
example, in the first mediation model, family cohe- [which was significant, F(2, 109) ¼ 21.44, p ,
sion was the independent variable, Korean ethnic .001, R2 ¼ .28], b ¼ .51, t(109) ¼ 6.09, p , .001;
identity was the mediator, and Korean language flu- and (d) the association between family cohesion and
ency was the dependent variable. In the second Korean fluency was reduced, when controlling for
mediation model, parent-adolescent communication Korean ethnic identity, to b ¼ .06, t(109) ¼ .67,
was the independent variable, Korean ethnic identity p ¼ .51 (ns). The Sobel test statistic confirmed that
was the mediator, and Korean language fluency was the association between family cohesion and adoles-
the dependent variable; in the third mediation cents’ Korean fluency was significantly reduced (z ¼
model, parent-adolescent conflict was the indepen- 2.51, p ¼ .01) when Korean ethnic identity was also
dent variable, with the same mediator and depen- part of the regression equation. That is, family cohe-
dent variable (see Figure 1 for a general illustration sion (e.g., close bonding & interaction with family
of the mediation model). members) alone did not sufficiently explain these
adolescents’ native language fluency. Rather, Korean
A mediation effect was found in one instance. ethnic identity partially accounted for the influence
Korean ethnic identity mediated the association of family cohesion on native language fluency.
between family cohesion and Korean language flu- According to MacKinnon and Dwyer’s (1993)
ency. Results from a series of regression analyses
(see Table 2) indicated that all four conditions

Table 2. Multiple Regression Models for Test of Mediation: Family Cohesion/Ethnic Identity/Korean Fluency
( N ¼ 112)

Variable B SE B b R2 F

1. Cohesion (Ethnic identity ¼ DV) 0.02 0.01 0.27** 0.07 8.64**

2. Cohesion (Korean fluency ¼ DV) 0.03 0.01 0.20* 0.04 4.35*

3. Cohesion (Korean fluency ¼ DV) 0.01 0.01 0.06 0.28 21.44***

Ethnic identity (Korean fluency ¼ DV) 0.79 0.13 0.51***

Note. DV ¼ dependent variable.
*p , .05. **p , .01. ***p , .001.

410 Family Relations Volume 56, Number 4 October 2007

formula for measuring the extent of mediation, 71% more empirical support for the external validity of
of the total effect of family cohesion on adolescents’ prior findings (e.g., Knight, Cota, et al., 1993) and
Korean language fluency was mediated by their the generalizeability of this theory to diverse immi-
Korean ethnic identity. Thus, adolescents from grant families and adolescents.
more cohesive families tended to have higher levels
of Korean ethnic identity which, in turn, was associ- Implications for Practice and Policy
ated with higher levels of Korean language fluency.
Taken together, the set of findings from this study
Discussion provide additional evidence that familial and cul-
tural contexts must be considered when explaining
Although psychological theory and research are Korean American adolescents’ enculturation and
beginning to address the complexities involved in socialization. With regard to native language fluency,
the multiple contexts of immigrant families and these results suggest that ethnic identity is a key
adolescents at a descriptive level, little empirical mediator explaining the association with family
work has been conducted testing explanatory mech- processes.
anisms underlying enculturation and cultural sociali-
zation processes. The primary aim of this study was By identifying ethnic identity as a mediator,
to investigate the relations between family processes, practitioners, educators, and policymakers can begin
ethnic identity, and native language fluency among to target their prevention and intervention efforts in
Korean adolescents, as a means of identifying one a more fine-tuned manner when working with
potential mechanism that might underlie the phe- Korean American adolescents and their families. For
nomenon of enculturation. Results from the statisti- example, helping Korean immigrant youths to
cal test of mediation showed that adolescents’ maintain or strengthen their ethnic identity may be
Korean ethnic identity mediates the influence of a strategy for facilitating native language fluency and
family processes on native language fluency. More perhaps other related ethnic behaviors. According to
specifically, greater family cohesion was associated the present study’s results, promoting family cohe-
with stronger ethnic identity, which in turn was sion would help strengthen Korean American ado-
related to higher levels of Korean language fluency. lescents’ ethnic identity, and in turn, their native
This mediation effect is significant in revealing one language fluency.
possible mechanism through which perceived family
relations are positively associated with adolescents’ Alternatively, another method for strengthening
use of their native language. ethnic identity among Korean American adolescents
may be drawn from the empirical literature. Prior
Theoretically, these results reveal the utility of research among Chinese adolescents has shown that
the ecological approach in examining immigrant ethnic identity salience is significantly associated
adolescents as embedded in multiple contexts in with ethnic behaviors such as speaking one’s native
order to more fully explicate potential mediating language (Yip & Fuligni, 2002). Ethnic identity
mechanisms. The present findings also provide par- salience has also been found to be heightened in
tial support for the socialization model (Knight, specific contexts, including environments where
Bernal, et al., 1993) in terms of the specific predic- adolescents are in the company of same-ethnicity
tion that children’s ethnic identity would mediate individuals (e.g., same-ethnicity peers or family
the effects of family processes on ethnic behaviors such members) or where the adolescent’s native language
as language fluency. Although Knight and his col- is the one being used predominantly (Yip, 2005).
leagues have previously explored various aspects of
the socialization model as applied to Mexican Amer- Limitations and Future Directions
ican children and social behavior styles (e.g., Knight,
Cota, & Bernal, 1993), the present study is the These findings must be understood in light of the
first application of the model to Korean American study’s limitations. One of the limitations of the
adolescents and their families. By extending this present study is the relatively small sample size and
socialization model to another ethnic minority group reduced power to detect significant effects. How-
(i.e., Korean Americans), the present study provides ever, the significant results reported herein then rep-
resent a conservative test of the study hypotheses,
given the sample size restrictions. Second, the family
variables (i.e., family cohesion, parent-adolescent

Family Processes and Enculturation Park 411

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