Sabab 2020

VOLUME4 || 2020

SABAB

LADY SHRI RAM COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

SABAB

The Annual Academic Journal
Department of Political Science
Lady Shri Ram College for Women

2020

Sabab is the annual academic journal of the Department of Political Science,
Lady Shri Ram College for Women. In Urdu, the word Sabab means reason or
cause. It implies the quest for the grounding of the abstract, the grasping of the
metaphysical. Sabab publishes a compilation of imaginative, ambitious
undergraduate papers each year with the aim of encouraging critical thinking
and meaningful engagement with the political phenomena around us.

Published in New Delhi
Department of Political Science
Lady Shri Ram College for Women
Lajpat Nagar- IV, New Delhi

Delhi- 110024
Ph- 011-26434459

© Department of Political Science, Lady Shri Ram College for Women, 2020

The moral rights of the contributing authors are reserved. These are the views
of the authors themselves and are not intended to make assertions on the
sensitivity of any community or social group. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without prior
permission in writing from the Department of Political Science, Lady Shri Ram
College for Women, New Delhi.

ADVISORY BOARD EDITORIAL BOARD
Ms. Manisha Chaurasiya Editors in Chief
Ms. Shilpi Singh Pallavi Baraya
Mr. Vagesh Pawaiya Apala Mandal

POLITICAL SCIENCE UNION Editors
2019-20 Aparna Joshi
Muda Tariq, President Gayathri Rajesh
Priya Sanghamitra, General Secretary Malya Sharma
Khyati Vyas, Treasurer
Pia Mann
Stephy Stephen

Illustrators
Anamika
Aakriti Kiran

Sabab 2020

Cover Design by Anamika
Cover Art: Abstraction on Concrete by Howard Dearstyne (1940/62)

Used under the terms and conditions of the license-
https://www.artic.edu/open-access/open-access-images

“There is no such thing as a new idea. It is impossible.
We simply take a lot of old ideas and put them into a sort of mental kaleidoscope. We

give them a turn and they make new and curious combinations.
We keep on turning and making new combinations indefinitely-but they are the same old

pieces of coloured glass that have been in use through all the ages.”
-Mark Twain

Sabab 2020

Faculty Note

The question of ‘what comes first?’ is a haunting curiosity that has never been settled. The schools of
thought, philosophy, concepts, ideas and theories have often grappled and are still grappling with the
same question. Perhaps, for good reason. The curious mind never succumbs to or gets reconciled with the
ideas of chaos, randomness or the sophistry of the big-bang. And why should it not be? Is it because there
is the other--a ‘parallel’?
There are innumerable beings around us who illustrate and explain our ancestry through the evolutionary
logic but at the same time there are those who believe in creation by somebody who is incomprehensible,
the master. If evolution and creation are parallels and without judgment or value of being called as either
friend or adversary but just a fact and not moral fiction, then for many of us, relativism is the truth. Well,
that can make people like Hans- Georg Gadamar happy who either ‘explains’ or ‘believes’ in the idea that
horizons are waiting to get fused. However, the choice of either explaining and believing the same remains
ambiguous and elusive followed by the same grappling. Given the same choice, a common person will
belittle and simplify the issue by calling it just a matter of perception or interpretation. But for the
complex ones like Karl Popper, it is not just a matter of perceiving or interpreting but disproving the
proven or falsification. The falsifiability hypothesis of Popper puts many of us in a strange limbo i.e.
believing or explaining a phenomenon presumes not to believe or explain, but a refutation of such an
assumption for him separates science from pseudo-science. Perhaps, it is the pride, arrogance and
dogmatism of singularity and oneness which was troubling Popper’s open society of multiplicity and
diversity and for that reason, idealist like Plato, Rousseau, Hegel and Marx have become his enemies of
the open society. However, Popper does not reconcile our previous grappling with regard to whether
explanation or belief are a-priori. Hence both idealism and realism are again checkmated and become
parallels to themselves.
Thus, perceiving truth through the lenses of duality has become the logical fate of human dwellings. It is
often become poetic to refer to ourselves as epitome of split personalities, torn up in the binaries of soul
and body, reason and emotion, fate and choice, spirit and matter, etc. Do the given parallels ever meet? It
is uncharacteristic and fatalistic to accept incommensurability’s among the parallels. The reason for non-
acceptance is not a value judgment or a subjective viewpoint but has always been a factual necessity and
for the same reason since antiquity, the emphasis has been laid on finding the third path. For Buddha the
same was called as madhyam marga (middle path), for Socrates elenchus (dialogue), for Aristotle doctrine of
mean (moderation), for Hegel and Marx the same is dialectics and for contemporary ones like Habermas it
is called communicative action. Thus, the third path in these philosophers shuns out the possibilities of
self-sufficiency and highlights the ontological lack among the parallels. Perhaps, the moment of
congruence among the parallels is not a matter of choice but becomes the logical necessity by virtue of

Sabab 2020

their incompleteness. For Philosophers like Leibniz, the world is constituted of infinite number of life
affirming atoms called as monads. The moment of congruence among these monads for Leibniz is the
result of ‘pre-established harmony’ ensured by God-the creator. If God for Leibniz is the name of the
mediator among the parallels, then the same name could also be elenchus, dialectics, madhayam marga, mean
and communicative action. Here the mediator or congruent is not construed as an extreme, ultimate and final
entity but a medium of explanation (science). No explanation is possible without believing and on more
occasions, belief can sustain without explanation but not vice-versa.
In the realm of politics and society, do we believe in our ontological lacking? If the answer is yes, then
whether the masses or crowd are rational or irrational, the democratic state would always be in search of
congruence between the parallels i.e. the masses (ruled) and the state (ruler). Also, if poetry and polis were
in congruence, it would be a moment of reflection, inwardness and intersubjectivity for the polis to
mitigate about justice, empathy and equality. But when poetry or modes of dialogue via media become
propaganda, then parallels do not meet and it is the perversity which waits to shake hands with power and
conquest. This gives birth to an autonomous nonbeliever of ontological lacking, a tyrant who eventually
fails to moderate between vices and virtue and dissuades us from the middle path to the extreme one. It
is the failure of not having ‘elenctic’ society and politics that makes us search for solace in anonymity due
to the fear of an alleged self-sufficient, monological panopticon state. Perhaps, in the age of Artificial
Intelligence anonymity is the identity, politics is algorithm and the state is a data machine, making the trio
a matrix. What happens to the parallels in the age of AI, Superman and Fetishism? Do we overcome our
ontological lacking and attained autonomous selves? If that would be the case, then the matrix would not
have stopped functioning by the wrath of a small virus (a parallel). It suggests that dialogue is still
incomplete and parallels still exist in search of its mediator-a congruent. Thus, our grappling with what
comes first still subsists as the being is never a being but always becoming.

We congratulate the Editorial Team for their earnest efforts in bringing the present edition of Sabab, the
Annual Journal of the Department of Political Science, Lady Shri Ram College for Women to you. The
conceptualization and execution of the theme- ‘Parallels’ was a challenging task. We are glad that the
editorial team, along with contributors, have done a commendable job.

Manisha Chaurasiya
Shilpi Singh
Vagesh Pawaiya

Sabab 2020

Editors’ Note

Theory proudly states perspective is everything- you have Mill on one hand and Marx on the other, it is
always a matter of adjusting your glasses. There is no objective wrong, there is no objective right, only
subjective interpretation. That is the idea that this volume of Sabab seeks to reiterate this year- there is a
fundamental continuity to what we say and do and everything is an extension of something. Opposites are
the same from a certain end of the spectrum; all that differs is the gaze. Processes exist simultaneously;
nothing is an isolated social product. Fundamentally, there is nothing which is abstract, there is nothing
which is beyond understanding, everything is within our grasp. If that is so, then no question has been
answered in totality for posterity, each facet of the prism has yet to be questioned, yet to be known.

The theme of our Journal this year, Parallels, seeks to push the boundaries of critical thinking to their
most creative results. It aims to illustrate connects where none appear at first glance. In an age of rising
conservatism, of both thought and action, there is a certain self-censorship that afflicts us- ideas come,
but before links can fully form, another part of us is already shutting them out. Questioning, the biggest
challenge to power, institutionalized or otherwise, is nipped in the bud before it fully even takes root.

Truth becomes restricted to one idea, there is no conflict because there is no challenge. As students, it is
of fundamental importance to break the cycle- we are unbearably cynical only a few years into adulthood.
There comes the parallel, the coin flips and so does our perspective. How do you institutionally urge
optimism? From one student to another, how do you say, there is space for the creative, there is room for
the un-thought of, in our classrooms, in academia?

With this issue of Sabab, we hope to bring you some of that optimism- a little slice of questioning that is
still taking place, surviving and thriving. From an analysis of oppression under matriliny, to a conversation
that traces the parallel progressions of the way we understand crowds; from a modern day allegory of
Plato’s cave to a study of the political relevance of poetry; from a commentary on the phenomenon of
anonymous protests to an enquiry that aims to classically deconstruct a certain cult leader’s politics- we
are proud to present to you, Volume Four. It has been an honour.

Sincerely,

Editors in Chief

Pallavi Baraya

Apala Mandal

CONTENTS 1
7
1. Polis, Poetry and Perversity 14
A Kaleidoscopic Lens into the Contemporary Political Relevance of Poetry 21
Diya Narag 27
34
2. The Wanton Crowd?
Problematizing the Classical Theories of Crowd Studies
Havishita Malik

3. Of Vices and (Strong) Men
Locating Platonic Vices in the Politics of Narendra Modi
Zobia Salam

4. What’s In a Name?
The Politics of Anonymous Protest
Ishita Jain

5. From Philosopher-Kings to Data Sinks
The Allegory of the Digital Cave
Raksha Gopal

6. Analysing Gender Biases in Matrilineal Societies
A Review Paper with comparative insights from Asia and Africa
Tanya Singh

Sabab 2020

Polis, Poetry and Perversity

A Kaleidoscopic Lens into the Contemporary Political Relevance of Poetry

Diya Narag
Department of Political Science

The paper aims to critically analyse the concept of mimesis (representation) using a comparative study between Plato and Aristotle.
Plato’s conception of the fine arts (music, painting, poetry, theatre) were that they were imitative in nature, and an illusion from
reality and Aristotle had a completely opposite view stating it is a natural human inclination, to try and reflect on the beauty and
perfection of reality that we see around us in poetic form. To narrow down the scope of the paper, the focus is on poetry as a part
of the fine arts. While Plato believes poetry can be dangerous, Aristotle believes it can be cathartic. For a contemporary look at
poetry, a comparison has been drawn between Greek Poetry and Dalit Poetry in India. This seeks to highlight how poetry today
can affect emotions/aesthetic pleasure, how it can be perceived as a form of education (how it’s taught and what is allowed to be
taught) and to understand if it can be categorized as a form of political propaganda.

Introduction namely; that of representation and of education
and then understand its relevance in
From the period of the ancients to the moderns, contemporary times, in terms of whether poetry
from Greek culture to Roman culture, from the can be categorized as propaganda. One needs to
Renaissance period to the Age of Enlightenment, understand why a bunch of written words were
from the Eastern Hemisphere to the Western, one deemed to be powerful enough to sway both
commonality that exists is the expression of adults as well as young children and how poetry is
culture through various means, especially the fine seen in the modern world today.
arts. According to theorists like Antonio Gramsci,
culture seeks to play an important role in politics The underlying theme of tragedy is used as a form
and cultural hegemony can influence society in of commonality to compare Greek poetry,
more ways than imagined. Fine arts like paintings particularly Homer’s poetry and Dalit Poetry
and poetry can operate at levels beyond where particularly Namdeo Dhasal’s poetry to see how
they influence our aesthetic pleasure of both sight they influence the readers and why they can or
and hearing. They can stir our emotions and cannot be seen as a threat by their critics.
touch our very souls. In Aesthetic Theory, the
concerned study is not only with such standard 1. Plato’s Conception of Poetry
aesthetic preoccupations as the function of beauty The concept of mimesis can be defined as
and sublimity in art, but with the relations imitating or representing a particular object by an
between art and society. imitator. The first thing that it is of importance to
realize is that ‘imitative art’ is not a purely
Poetry in particular has played a significant role in classificatory concept or description. There are
social and political movements like poetry written arts or genres inside the arts which are more
during the Renaissance, focusing on humanism, imitative than others. For instance, an emphasis is
poetry written during the Harlem Renaissance given on certain types of poetry which are
with writers like Langston Hughes and poetry regarded as more imitative than other forms of
written during the Indian National Freedom poetry, in particular poems of tragedy and comedy.
movement, with writers like Sarojini Naidu and In some poems, the very text takes on a life of its
Rabindranath Tagore.

The purpose of this paper is to understand the
importance of poetry in Greek times at two levels

1

Sabab 2020

own through the poet’s characters: that poetry is desires collectively known as epithumiai, which is
deemed most dangerous. the happiest state available for human souls, and
Plato develops three essential factors during the the most virtuous. Imitation undoes the soul's
first half of Book 10 of the Republic: justice, it brings both vice and misery.

1. Poetic mimesis, like the kind found in a Although Plato finds fault with Homer for stirring
painting, is the imitation of appearance up these tragic emotions, he admits that he
alone and its products rank far below the himself has often experienced that pleasure when
truth. listening to a rhapsode's recitation of Homer.
Plato recognized Homer as a master in this art,
2. Therefore, poetic mimesis corrupts the and consequently could not help praising him,
soul, weakening the rational impulse's even though he had to condemn him practically in
control over the person's other drives and the same sentence. This clearly expresses a
desires. dichotomy in his separation of an artist from his
art, and analysing the art, to the extent of
3. It should therefore be banned from the censoring it for the good of public. Thus, one can
good city. infer that good art is indicative of good expressive
qualities that can lead to behaviour control and
Plato talks about the allegory of the cave where he therefore is a form of good propaganda that
states that prisoners see shadows of objects and instils ideal virtues in its observers who then
mistake them as the ‘whole truth’. These are but embody the space of good citizens in the polis.
illusions of the true ‘forms’ in nature and thus the Hence, imitative poetry was also discouraged to
same way poems are copies of the world’s ensure the continuity of the good, just and the
essentialised existing forms. Plato tags poets as brave in his ideal state.
imitators of imitations and believes they are thrice removed
from the actual truth (Plato’s Aesthetics, 2008). Plato In both the Republic and the Laws, Plato identifies
believes poets lack real knowledge and possess education as one of the most important aspects of
only superficial knowledge which can’t be trusted. a healthy state. He lays out detailed education
Imitative poetry is but a picture of a picture; it is programs that start in the foetal stage and he goes
far from the truth and is shadowy and unreal. In on to explain the content in terms of values,
another place Plato explains himself a little more physical exercise and art. Plato considered most of
clearly, pointing out in what way both epic and his fellow Athenians to be hopelessly corrupt,
tragic poetry share in the imitative art. In such readily inflamed by hollow rhetoric, and seduced
poetry the imitator knows nothing worth by easy pleasures and consequently, recognizes
mentioning of the things he imitates; imitation is the need to teach children from a young age to
but a form of play and not to be taken seriously. live virtuous lives and to seek wisdom. Plato
Then why does he curb the use of this very form thinks that a child’s education is the last thing that
of poetry in education of the masses when he should be left to chance, since the young mind is
deems the poet/imitator to possess no true so easily manipulated. Tangentially, Plato also
knowledge? feels that men will naturally sympathize with
According to Plato such emotions as pity and fear, characters of a tragedy as a means of expressing
induced by tragic poems, would weaken the moral their own mental state, emotions of sadness, grief
character of the youth of his city state. Plato or disappointment. This could lead to them being
argued that “there is an old quarrel between philosophy swept away by such emotions and hence being
and poetry”. In his dialogues, both this quarrel and misguided.
the related quarrel between philosophy and
rhetoric amount to clashes between the two Of importance is also another passage by Plato,
contrasting views of philosophy on the one hand, where a list is offered of the arts (or of their
and of poetry or rhetoric on the other. The products) that are to be regarded as auxiliary to
dialogue as a whole identifies justice with a politics- the dominating art (Leszl, 2004). The
balance among reason, spirit or anger, and the treatment of politics itself as a form of art could
help us understand Plato’s view on how different

2

Sabab 2020

arts can affect society, which in turn can affect the view of the soul immediately being corrupted by
politics of a city-state. un-virtuous or vice like actions. Aristotle
emphasizes artistic intention because it indicates
2. Aristotle’s Conception of Poetry how the art work is to be read, that art works in
general have different goals that bear upon the
Aristotle’s view on mimesis differed significantly correct way they are to be looked at. It is worth
from Plato. He determines that tragedy, like all noting that some scholars believe the ‘flaw’ was
poetry, is a kind of imitation (mimesis), but adds intended by Aristotle as a necessary corollary of
that it has a serious purpose and uses direct action his requirement that the hero should not be a
rather than narrative to achieve its ends. He says completely admirable man. Harmartia, or a fatal
that poetic mimesis is imitation of things as they flaw, would thus be the factor that limits the
could be, not as they are - for example, of protagonist's perfection and keeps him on a
universals and ideals. This makes poetry a more human plane, making it possible for the audience
philosophical medium than history, which merely to sympathize with him.
records what has actually happened. Hence the
idea of mimesis is but natural to humans. The practice of mimesis, as he points out at the
beginning of his Poetics, is proper to man’s nature
Aristotle says emotions like pity and fear will arise just as his rationality, and one cannot admit that a
spontaneously. Their effect is best handled by conflict arises between the two, for this would
letting them work on the audience indirectly imply that there are contrasting tendencies present
through the action of the plot, and not by any in human nature, a view that is supported by Plato.
direct means. The aim of tragedy, Aristotle writes, Thus, what belongs to this practice, i.e. the
is to bring about a ‘catharsis’ of the spectators to production of art-works and their contemplation,
arouse in them sensations of pity and fear, and to cannot be morally harmful. Further, the practice
purge them of these emotions so that they leave of mimesis, in its various forms, is a source of
the theatre feeling cleansed and uplifted, with a pleasure, which contributes to the idea of
heightened understanding of the ways of gods and happiness.
men. Human actions, thoughts, emotions, feelings
are all the objects of imitation for tragedy, 3. Greek Poetry: Homer’s Iliad as a case study
according to Aristotle. Tragedy, too, has its own
distinctive way of imitating, which we learn is by The story of the Iliad describes the war waged by
the means of action. According to Aristotle, the Achaeans and other allies on the city of Troy.
tragedy has six main elements: plot, character, This epic poem can be a case-study for both Plato
diction, thought, spectacle (scenic effect), and and Aristotle’s point of view. Homer was also
song (music), of which the first two are primary referred to as the ‘first tragedian’ making his
(Fitzmyer, 1945).Without action there cannot be a selection all the more apt.
tragedy; there may be one without character. The
plot, then, is the first principle, and, as it were, the Plato admired Homer but believed his poetry
soul of a tragedy, character holds the second place. could corrupt individuals. According to Plato
This is opposed to Plato’s idea of the hero and various instances of the portrayal of gods as well
gods, thus critiquing the very idea that characters as the heroes in the poem were not rightly
play the most fundamental role in poems. expressed. Plato could potentially have a problem
with gods using humans as pawns throughout the
In terms of education, Aristotle believes that epic for their own bidding. Specific instances in
children are most affected by what they read and the poem could be Paris’s cowardice,
learn but he believes poetry can also teach Agamemnon’s abuse of power, Helen’s
children what to do as well as what not to do unfaithfulness to Menelaus and Achilles’s
when they read about ‘bad actions.’ Thus, poetry bloodthirstiness, abandonment of the Greeks and
embodies a set of instructions, not just pleasure his bouts of rage. Achilles’s hamartia or fatal flaw
for the masses. Above all ‘immoral pleasure’ (his heel) can also be seen as a sign of weakness in
represented is not dangerous if it is cathartic in the poem.
nature. This again is opposed to Plato’s cynical

3

Sabab 2020

For Aristotle three things make a good tragic plot, became inspiration for tragedy masters such as
especially as far as the emotional effect is Shakespeare, penned the first dramatizations. We
concerned. They are peripety (a sudden and must remember that music played an important
unexpected change of fortune or reverse of role in lyric poetry, and also in tragedies.
circumstances), anagnorisis (a moment in a plot or
story, specifically a tragedy, wherein the main Although they no longer followed the dramatic
character either recognizes or identifies his/her character arc of the play, tragic novels
true nature, recognizes the other character's true nevertheless addressed the great religious and
identity, discovers the true nature of his situation, psychological questions surrounding human
or that of the others – leading to the resolution of suffering. As modern audiences continue to enjoy
the story) and calamity. Unquestionably, Aristotle tragedies from across the millennia, they also
felt that the Iliad was ‘rich in suffering’ (Fitzmyer, continue to produce new variations of the genre.
1945). Homer uses certain expressions to describe Modern Tragedy has shifted from humanistic
the character of his heroes like Achilles. Aristotle flaws of individuals to a more existentialist idea of
admired this as it is important to rationally understanding the role played by human beings in
perceive the character of man as we might believe society. They also don’t need to have certain older
it to be, a more real or practical side of him. characteristics like that of a fatal flaw or ‘hamartia’.

In the Iliad we can see Homer using exaggeration Today tragedies can be seen to target problems
to heighten recognition and reverse character we face around us, which are less suited to grand
identification (Cannatella, 2006). The important gestures but more suited to daily contemporary
claim that the Iliad is ‘rich in suffering’ as a problems. Also, intersectionality, complexity of
desirable notion to depict in certain stories can structure as well as representation of communities
help the young reader by deepening their can have tragic elements as well.
understanding of the world, particularly of the
irrational, unexpected, sad, and unnecessary 5. Dalit Poetry as a modern-day tragedy
deaths that in the Iliad reach widespread
proportions. Aristotle explains suffering as a In order to understand of the evolution of
destructive and painful action but a necessity in a Marathi poetry, it is critical to move beyond the
play when there is considerable distress involved. restrictive understanding of literature as a written
Suffering can be positively evaluated from a moral or printed object, which is integral to the colonial
point of view. It completes the action, arousing idea of literature. Poetry in India has always
our compassion, sympathy, and our emotional implied performance, music, and improvisation as
participation in the feelings of others. In case of well as transmissions through oral traditions.
poems portraying cruelty, the poet’s mimetic Another reason for choosing Dalit poetry is the
ability to pay attention to cruelty in life enables musical element that was seen in ancient tragedies
the audience to recognize it for what it is, to see which can often be seen in such poetry as well.
what is revealing about it, indicating various facets
of it, which could be considered enriching. The case study selected to analyse Dalit poetry is
Another vital aspect is the fact that Aristotle Namdeo Dhasal’s work. Born in 1949, Dhasal
highlights the three aspects of a good tragedy by initiated the Dalit Panther movement in 1972 and
giving Iliad as an example, to show that the plot regards all his work as ‘inherently political’. Many
and actions of the characters like Agamemnon observers depict his work as avant-garde,
and Achilles matter more than their personal heterogeneous, playful, alliterative etc.
characters and emotions, which then play a
secondary role. Dhasal’s poetry embodied a complex structure in
terms of his poetry being seen from a Marxist lens,
4. Modern-day tragedies where caste status is seen to contribute in the
division and treatment of different classes in
The roots of the modern tragedy are traced more society. Two noteworthy genres that recur in his
than 2500 years ago. Famous Greek authors such poetry are odes dedicated to individuals and erotic
as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, who poetry.

4

Sabab 2020

The particular poem selected is ‘Mandakini Patil: to light in Aristotle’s terms. This particular poem
A Young Prostitute, My Intended Collage’. The signifies not just the character of one woman,
poem employs modern day elements of tragedy namely Mandakini, but the plight of an entire
and interestingly focuses on the plight of women, community and the structures that allow these
something that has been mostly negated or not plights to exist. For Plato such poetry would make
given central importance in ancient tragic poetry. us sympathise with the characters involved and
Dhasal leaves the sophisticated poetic style transpose our own feelings of
shattered by indulging to a greater extent in vulgar unhappiness/sadness etc. onto the medium of the
descriptions. In the poem Dhasal pictures the poem. For Aristotle representing our reality is but
ultimate marginalized identity, a prostitute who is natural and hence this form of poetry could be
shown to be an object for sexual objectification cathartic for individuals or maybe even in a
by men. community that can express its anger through
various other mediums/channels of expression.
“Her clothes ripped off, her thigh blasted open,
A sixteen-year-old girl surrendering herself to pain, 6. Conclusion

And a pig: its snout full of blood”. Through deconstructing the work of Homer’s
‘Iliad’ and Dhasal’s ‘Mandakini’ we see the
(Suri, 2017) evolving nature of the genre of tragedy which is
more robust, rebellious, inciting and inflammatory.
The poem paints the worst that happens in such Dhasal’s poetry could be categorized by some as
places. The violence and the brutal force with being provocative or vulgar but the underlying
which the young women’s virginity and chastity is themes target caste-based oppression, ill treatment
violated do not belong exclusively to this place. It of women, the strife of a community and hence
often comes from the outside world, which is the modern day issues reflecting real life problems,
supposedly filled with virtue in the broad daylight, which were not supposed to be brought to light
a world that is in reality darker and more sinister. according to Plato. Can we then say that Dhasal’s
If writing is an activity of aesthetic pleasure, this poetry or any form of poetry is a form of political
poem invariably goes against the literary aesthetics propaganda today which can incite individuals to
by presenting art as a depiction of a broken self a degree where they forget the rational part of
(Nambiar, 2013). Pain, anguish, poverty, themselves and give in to the emotional sides of
deprivation and starvation, suffered by almost all their soul? How does this affect society, the roles
the marginalized sections of our society have been played by citizens in society, the freedom of
captured accurately in the poetry of Dhasal. The speech and choice in society? Do people want to
predicament of a Dalit woman and her attack oppressors mentioned in Dhasal’s poems?
exploitation is mirrored in a sarcastic way. For
Dhasal there is no difference, as stated by him in Propaganda is defined as dissemination of
poetry and activism and we can see how his information, facts, arguments, rumours, half-
poetry combines the two. truths, or lies to influence public opinion.
Although the meaning can be perceived
In terms of education this poem is included in the subjectively, it can be said that if tragic poetry is a
MA English curriculum in Delhi University and a form of propaganda today, all forms of poetry can
variety of other universities. So, one sees here that be termed propaganda. Plato used a one-sided
despite its provocative language claimed by many approach by generalizing and compartmentalizing
critics, it’s raw and naked depiction of reality of the soul into two parts (rational and irrational)
the Dalit community, it has not been subjected to without considering other forms of psychological
censorship. In fact, Dhasal’s poetry is so elements and societal factors.
renowned it has been featured in various Anand
Patwardhan documentaries. With a free range of information, available in
most democratic countries owing to the ‘freedom
It has not been deemed to take over the irrational of speech’ decree, it can be stated that while one
part of the soul in Plato’s terms then as can be form of poetry can offer one point of view, other
deduced from the statement above. The focus is
definitely not on particular characters but the
story or the plot that the writer is trying to bring

5

Sabab 2020

points of view can be offered by other forms of Fitzmyer, Joseph A. The Aristotelian Elements of
poetry and hence create a sense of balance and Tragedy as Found in Homer. 1945.
offer a range of perspectives. In countries where
Rushdie’s ‘Satanic Verses’ was published, there https://ecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?a
may have been an outcry by one particular rticle=1172&context=luc_theses (accessed
community, but not everyone was swayed into a October 2019).
rebellion or crushing anger at how the prophet
was represented. Free Book Summaries.

While Marxist interpretations of a text exist, the https://freebooksummary.com/criticism-of-
internet today is a modern-day repository of the homers-the-iliad-by-socrates-as-depicted-by-plato-
fine arts, offering us a storehouse of works as well in-the-republic-censorship-39079.
as a liberal, feminist, post-modernist etc. view of
the very same work or literature in particular. Ketkar, Sachin. A Language of Heterogeneity: The
Thus, if we don’t delve into deeper issues of Poetry of Namdeo Dhasal. June 21, 2016.
specific indoctrination practiced in certain https://www.sahapedia.org/language-of-
countries, we are allowed to choose the heterogeneity-the-poetry-of-namdeo-dhasal
perspective we relate to the most. Ethics like (accessed October 2019).
justice, goodness and courage, at the same time
are encouraged through the course of both Plato Leszl, Walter G. "Plato's attitude to poetry and
and Aristotle’s dialogues. A good society is one the fine arts, and the origins of aesthetics." Open
where the subjects are taught virtues through the Edition Journals 1 (2004).
arts, through literature and attain a state of true
happiness. Can it be guaranteed then that in a Nambiar, Rakesh. Poet of the Underworld by Namdeo
society where censorship prevails, where Dhasal.
conscripted military service is compulsory (to 2013.https://www.academia.edu/4313184/Poet_
inculcate virtues of patriotism and courage in the of_the_Underworld_by_Namdeo_Dhasal
youth) are happy societies? There is no causal (accessed October 2019).
relation that can really be established. The theory
of ethics is so subjective in nature that a universal Plato's Aesthetics. June 27, 2008.
theory of such virtues is nearly impossible. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-
aesthetics/ (accessed October 2019).
One’s written verses can be blasphemous for
some, and liberating for others. Hence Aristotle’s Plato. The Republic. Coradella Collegiate Bookshelf
view is much better adopted here in terms of the Editions. . 1996.
definitive fact that poetry can be claimed to be
cathartic in nature. It can be said to be natural for Smith, Bruce Lannes Propaganda.
humans to imitate the grievances they face in their
everyday lives, to propose or think of an ideal https://www.britannica.com/topic/propaganda.
society and to represent to improve their realities.
A subjective interpretation of these realities today Story Board That
is both the prerogative of the government to
allow us as well as the privilege we enjoy of https://www.storyboardthat.com/genres/tragedy
choosing the same.
Suri, Swati. " Namdeo Dhasal: A Poet of the
Underworld." IOSR Journal Of Humanities And
Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) 22 (September 2017).

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aristotle. Poetics. Translated by A Translation By S.
H. Butcher. 2008.
Cannatella, Howard James. "Plato and Aristotle’s
Educational Lessons from the Iliad ." Paideusis 15
(2006).

6

Sabab 2020

The Wanton Crowd?

Problematizing the Classical Theories of Crowd Studies

Havishita Malik
Department of Political Science

Throughout this paper I argue that the classical tradition of studying crowd theories as founded by Socrates rests on false notions
of the crowd being irrational and it is this faulty notion of the crowd that finds reflection in crowd control policies and in a general
distrust towards the crowd eventually leading to the dismissal of crowd’s demands (not all of which are unreasonable) and actions.
Such a dismissal of crowd’s demands leads to further discontent among the deprived since they already have very few avenues of
fruitful political participation among which crowd is one of the primary ones .On the other hand dismissal of its actions leads to
letting the culpable miscreants off the hook, as in the case of mob violence, in addition to non-admissibility of genuine demands
and worries.

Introduction dialogue to its very conclusive end. Socrates is
quick to take note of such betrayal. The crowd
This paper commences with the narration of a must be very fickle to turn against Gorgias.
short episode from Plato’s work. Gorgias, the
famed rhetorician, is accepting questions from a Whenever faced with a difficult question from
crowd that had gathered around him when Socrates, Gorgias almost instinctively turns to the
Socrates walks in and enters into a dialogue with crowd for help and says, ‘I don’t know what in
Gorgias. Note that he enters into conversation the world you mean, Socrates. Ask somebody else
with Gorgias and not the crowd, for Socrates is in the crowd.’ This frustrates the entire process of
no rhetorician, but rather a philosopher (Arendt, the dialectics. Through the dialectics, Socrates
1990). The discussion is underway and soon, hopes that interlocutors would be encouraged to
Gorgias finds himself in muddy waters. He tries closely examine their assumed beliefs. However,
to exit gracefully by leaning on the same crowd this process is impeded when Gorgias repeatedly
that he had been entertaining, the very crowd he shirks from this exercise and delegates it to the
thought ‘he knew’. He suggests to Socrates that excited crowd. The crowd may have urged the
they end the discussion ‘keeping in mind the continuation of the dialogue, but Socrates sees no
people who are present here’. (Plato, and Donald hope of it leading to the attainment of knowledge
J. Zeyl. 1987. Gorgias.) But is that what the crowd and truth .This conversation is futile and hopeless,
wants? Has he misjudged the temperament of the for Socrates is not talking to Gorgias any more,
same entity he has been rigorously studying so as rather he is talking to the crowd nearby and
to strike a chord with them? Clearly so, because crowds allow no scope of welcoming exposition
the crowd wants more- for now, it demands a of their underlying beliefs, necessary for the
continuation of the dialogue by making a thorubus- attainment of truth and knowledge.
‘a commotion’ or ‘the confused noise of a
crowded assembly’.. Gorgias has no way of 1. The Greek Understanding of the Crowd
escaping this discussion prematurely. He must Such an inability of the crowd to seek, let alone
carry it to its ultimate end, for who knows what attain, truth can be further explained by the clear
the crowd may demand next. division that Socrates creates between rhetoric
and philosophy. The former plays to the tune of
Such an intervention elevates the by-standing the crowd, while the latter transcends such
crowd to the position of an agent. It is this crowd considerations and is whole heartedly dedicated to
that was to save Gorgias from a decisive defeat
and it is this same crowd that will take this

7

Sabab 2020

the quest of truth, implying that a crowd is neither proposition in concrete terms, which is a natural
receptive to the language of truth, nor does it response considering the sheer numbers of fact-
possess the capacity to reach there, primarily checkers that constituted the demos. Moreover,
because of its inherent nature of protecting its arguments perceived to be ‘intellectually sloppy or
members from considerations of accountability. excessive in rhetorical flourish’ were shouted
The crowd crushes any internal restraints that an down by the crowd (Keum, T-Y. n.d.).
individual imposes upon oneself, and thus it can Thyrasymachus, another rhetorician was similarly
hardly ever be held accountable for its actions or restrained by the crowd in the Republic when he
its utterances. Thus the collective stands accused made attempts to take over a discussion, while
of disproportionately amplifying the “immediately another time he was made to explain his emotion-
available emotions” (Keum, T-Y. n.d.) of an laden speech, as he turned to quietly leave the
individual ‘so that the very rocks and arena he thought he had left captivated. The
surroundings echo the din and drown out the audience he had mistakenly assumed to be gullible
quiet voice of reason within before it has had a would end up holding him accountable for his
chance to be heard.’ In this battle between rhetoric.
collective passion and individual rationality, the
latter faces a crushing defeat paving way for This account of the wisdom of the crowds, as
enterprising demagogues, sophists and poets who exhibited by the Athenian assembly, can be
usurp power. Thus both the philosopher and its challenged by the troubling image of the crowd
object of enquiry is an individual, for no one but that the chorus (as mentioned in the Protagoras)
the individual is capable of the elenchus, that is, the provides, which is comparable to Socrates’
rational refutation of arguments, while engaging in audience. The chorus is a collective which, when
dialectics. joined together by occasion, demands
‘choreographic unity’. The nature of this unity,
This idea of handing over unparalleled power to though temporary and specific to the occasion
the demos or masses without being able to hold it and the premises, is ‘intense ‘and ‘absolute’.
accountable has historically caused immense Interestingly the pronouns used by a chorus
anxiety. Many therefore, have rallied for the casually oscillate between ‘I’ and ‘we’. The ‘I’,
individual to be taken as the governable unit of mostly the choral leader, singles himself out to
any society (due to the ease with which culpability speak for the ‘we, only to submerge himself into it
can be attributed to it) .This however must not be again. How can a de-individuated ‘I’ as this ever
taken to mean that the Athenian collective was be held accountable? Thus while ‘social unity
incapable of the responsibility, accountability and around a shared experience, the collective creation
rationality that were celebrated in an individual. of meaning, and immersive education through
The Athenian democratic ideal had channelled its participation, were all important values idealized
structures to check its own pathologies so as to in the image of the chorus’,( Keum, T-Y. n.d.), the
better pursue those goals that the demos tragedy of it all does not escape either Socrates or
collectively wished. In such a portrayal of the Plato and remains pronounced to both.
collectives, they are not so much doomed to
ignorance as they are exceedingly vulnerable to it. This paper condemns such a conception of the
This is exemplified in their assemblies where the crowd as it fails to account for the wisdom of the
sheer number of people ensured accountability. Athenian assembly, perhaps due to cherry-picked
Such an assembly would permit no retraction or accounts of a crowd’s behaviour. Firstly, Socrates
alteration from statements made in their presence. committed a phenomenal blunder by misjudging
Fear of loss of reputation or a collective the nature of the crowds as being irrational,
punishment given by a crowd to one of their own despite ample evidence that proved otherwise, for
was enough of a deterrent. The collective also example the responsiveness of the crowds
discourages both speakers and voters from riskier towards Socrates’ language of philosophy. On
ventures that could not be justified in the name of multiple occasions, Socrates is called out as a
common interest. Rhetoricians could not simply demegoros or a crowd pleaser. This would imply
hope to slip away after delivering their dramatic that the crowd welcomed Socrates’ philosophical
pieces. They were made to explain every enquiry or quest to truth. Secondly, Socrates’

8

Sabab 2020

insistence on the irrational nature of crowds 3. The Need to Revise
inspired an entire tradition of crowd theories The philosophical roots of the word ‘crowd’ allow
which has further been institutionalized in the for an automatic characterisation of every crowd
form of ‘crowd policing strategies’. This as creating public disorder, engaged in by ‘deviant’
showcases how a flawed theoretical stance has or ‘transitional’ sections of society, i.e., ‘juveniles
devastating repercussions in the world beyond, as in the majority, mixed with older groups of
has been the case in India. malcontents, criminals and activists’. (Beckett,
1992) Such a conception of the crowd, fuelled by
2. Socrates’ Legacy the ‘group mind thesis’ first advocated by Socrates,
Throughout history the conception of the crowd notoriously reduces every crowd to ‘riff-raff ‘,
exhibits more continuity than change and thus it ‘agitator’ and ‘copycat’ riots ( Taylor, 1984).
is safe to conclude that the Socratic legacy lives on.
Each time a crowd theorist attempts to answer The proof of such influence of crowd theories on
the question –‘what makes the crowds so crowd control strategies can be found in a report
irrational?’ they are ultimately relying on Socrates’ titled ‘Précis on Crowd Control’ drafted by Sh.
theorization of the crowd (fickle, monstrous and P.P.S Sidhu, IPS (Retd.) submitted to the Bureau
violent). From Le Bon and MacDougal's ‘group of Police Research & Development within the
mind thesis’ to Tarde’s ‘Law of Imitation’ and Ministry of Home Affairs Government of India in
then to Canetti’s “natural history of crowds”, all 2016. According to this report, a crowd is “more
have unquestioningly accepted the Socratic or less large gathering of individuals in one place
premise. The crowd continues to be marked by its in close physical proximity to one another with a
potential for violence, its tendency to subsume the tendency to develop psychological interaction”
individual within itself and their ability to develop and it has the following characteristics:
a collective mind (Bon, 1977). Notable exceptions “Heightened Emotions, Heightened Suggestibility,
to this trend are crowd historians George Rude Credulousness, Irresponsibility and Lack of Moral
and EP Thompson. inhibitions and Tendency to Group.” The imprint
of classical crowd theory on State imagination
When viewed through the classical lens, three cannot be more apparent. However, the choice of
interdependent mechanisms remain fundamental such a definition of the crowds is not one of the
to the crowd phenomenon –anonymity, many tragedies of a laggard bureaucracy but is
suggestibility and contagion (King and rather a carefully arrived at policy decision. It is
Waddington, 2005). Anonymity liberates the only through such a seemingly neutral and de-
individual from the shackles of reason by allowing personalised treatment of the crowd that the
them to commit slippages without the fear of Government can hope to avoid any substantial
being held accountable. Suggestibility refers to the engagement with it (considering the
readiness with which the de-individuated self tend uncomfortable questions a genuine engagement
to obey the commands of the collective mind of with the rational crowd would bring to the fore).
the crowd. Lastly, contagion refers to the law of Thus before any serious enquiry is made into the
imitation that it is at play within a crowd, motives and intentions of the crowds, the State
according to which all imitate each other till they disenfranchises them by simply refusing to engage
reach a state of ‘choreographed unity’, the kind with a collective which de-individuates its primary
Socrates’ audience and the chorus in archaic subject. The conception of the crowd as lacking
Athens exhibited. capacity for rational judgement automatically
strips it of any political agency that it had hoped
Thus, without upturning the Socratic premise of to achieve, for if the crowd is nothing more than a
the conception of the crowd, it is likely to be collective governed by irrational impulses, it can
‘unfairly pathologised as criminal and irrational, never be trusted to mean what it says. The crowd
masking the social context in the crowd’s act and is treated no differently than a child – one who is
thus underplaying the possible role of authorities unaware of his demands and is therefore easily led
in the incitement to violence.’ (King and by whoever it encounters next. The crowd is
Waddington, 2005.) thought to be chanting scripted slogans, the
import of which they are hardly capable of

9

Sabab 2020

knowing and is unaffected by restrains of who were demanding a right to a healthy
accountability. environment but rather the bloodthirsty, star-
struck followers of allegedly anti-social elements.
Most importantly, a crowd exhibits perfectly
coordinated, ‘choreographic’ unity and thus not The Government assumes that every crowd is
only are all members of the crowd equally destined to turn violent since it is in its nature to
irrational but they are also in it together. They all overpower the psyche of every individual it admits.
desire the same thing, without fully understanding In this transfixed state, each individual imitates
what it is until they are in the process of doing the other, making the presence of even a solitary
“it”. Once the deed is done, participants have no anti-social element dangerous. Since the
recollection of said deed whatsoever, a tendency membership of a crowd is unregulated, this is a
which is exhibited in the ease with which crowd highly likely scenario. However, what leads the
members are thought to resume the work they Government to believe that there no restrictions
had been doing before they were carried away by to a crowd’s membership? Reicher’s ‘social
the crowd. Now with the crowd dispersed and identification approach’ throws light on this. It
their individuality restored, all members go back claims that familiarity with the ‘criterial attributes’
to being normal rational subjects of the modern is one of the first limitations that the crowd
liberal order. Straight-jacketing the crowd as a imposes on any new entrant. To be fully initiated
collective governed by irrational impulses allows into a crowd the individual must carefully study
the Government to re-articulate(or manipulate) the core attitudes and social norms. This is one of
the crowds’ message for the benefit of the crowd the ways to ensure ideological coherence and
itself and the onlookers: motives are re-assigned unanimity. Thus, Reicher claims “this process is
in a manner that the Government deems fit – for especially relevant to the problem of how the
example, kisan rallies are termed as conspiracy of ideological content of an identity is translated into
the opposition party. Simultaneously, the crowd is collective behaviour. In the process of identifying
allowed to bypass all accountability in cases of themselves as part of a crowd, individuals are able
mob violence, making questions of a cold blooded to infer not only the most appropriate way that
murder motivated by communal feelings they must behave, but also whatever limitations
unimportant. apply to their conduct.” This, however, only
applies to crowd with a collective memory to rely
A closer inspection of the commonly employed on. A crowd still in its infancy imposes two basic
approaches to the crowd, such as the ‘riff-raff conditions: ‘(a) they are clearly seen as in-group
approach’, ‘copycat syndrome’ and ‘agitator members, and (b) that the action is consonant
theories’ can help make State’s unfair treatment of with the attributes of defining their social
the crowd more apparent. identification’ (Addang et.al, 2004)Thus the riff-
raff approach stands contradicted.
3.1 The ‘riff-raff’ approach
3.2 The ‘copycat’ theory
The riff- raff approach relies on the criminal
definition of crowds, viewing participants as ‘anti- The next commonly held theory is the ‘copycat’
social elements’. This is challenged by one of the theory. This theory allows the administration to
students of the American riots of the ‘long, hot attribute flaring up of tensions to the ‘contagious
summers’ of 1964–1968 who pointed out that – effect’ of media coverage. Even though its
“Empirical results from several studies contradict influence on later political events is hard to
[the riff-raff] view: rioters were not the hard-core determine, the administration is convinced that
unemployed; rioters were better integrated than imagery of riots brings about upwelling of
non-rioters into the community, socially and emotions for or against the crowd, thus worsening
politically; and rioters were not recent immigrants the matter. This is the same explanation that the
to the city.” (Allen, 1970). The anti-Sterlite Government, as well as media (national and
protests of 2018 are a case in point. In these international), give for the recent surge of mob
protests allegations of mindless arson by lynching cases in India. Headlines such as “When
hooligans were used by the Government to a text can trigger lynching: WhatsApp Struggles
quickly dismiss the rational basis of the protestors’ with fake messages” (NDTV) and “How
demands, as if it wasn’t the local communities

10

Sabab 2020

WhatsApp helped turn an Indian village into a riots to ‘politicisation’, it is the ‘agitator view’ of
lynch mob” (BBC World) are testimonies to the rioting. According to this view, crowds are
claim. vulnerable to being manipulated by those looking
for political gains. Any crowd with a familiar face
Such an approach, however, masks the reality of from the world of politics automatically stands
people who fall prey to systematic abuse of power accused of the same. However, as a substantial
by a crowd. In 2018, a young software engineer body of research by Stephen Reicher and his
was visiting his relatives in a village in Hyderabad colleagues consistently illustrates, “crowd
when he and two of his friends were brutally members tend only to respond to actual or
beaten by a mob that had suspected them of suggested forms of behaviour that are consistent
kidnapping children. While the police’s response with their collective social values and norms.”
was to arrest 22 people, including the (Taylor, 1984).
administrator of the WhatsApp group, the
government responded by issuing an ultimatum to Two crowds that have faced dismissal on the
WhatsApp, urging it to do everything in its power grounds of flagging issues that have been
to curb chain messaging, as if ‘chain’ and ‘instant’ politicized by opportunistic parties are the
messaging were the structural factors behind such participants of the Bhima Koregaon protests and
incidents of lynching. Another example of a mob the Nashik Kisan Sabha rally.
lynching due to the spread of rumours is the
Jharkhand lynching case of July 2019. A 24 year The Bhima Koregaon march commenced on the
old man named Tabrez Ansari was brutally morning of January the 1st 2018 and by midday,
assaulted by a mob, which had also forced Ansari violence had erupted in Shanivarvada (the symbol
to chant ‘Jai Hanuman’ and ‘Jai Shree Ram’. The of Maratha power) in Pune when Hindu right
first defensive move of the Government was to wing forces incited the crowd by hurling stones at
blame the opposition for maligning the State of it. Interviews with protestors reveal that contrary
Jharkhand, hurting both investor confidence and to the expected responses from the crowd, it held
the self-image of the people of Jharkhand. The back. The instinctive reaction of the crowd was to
Government then claimed that the opposition was first appeal to the police who were playing silent
wrong to have treated an isolated incident of spectators to the entire episode. The police,
crowd violence as part of a larger trend. It was the however, not only denied the crowd any help but
crowd, claimed the Government, which had acted also attacked them with lathis. Thus it was only
on its instincts to secure its society from Tabrez, after denial of protection of the law that the
an alleged thief. This had caused him injury (and protestors retaliated. The other rationale behind
not death) and since the act had been committed police’s action could be the alleged ‘politicized
by a ‘spontaneous gathering' of vigilant residents nature’ of the protests. The involvement of Dalit
it can hardly be counted as a majoritarian crime. and Tribal activists, now referred to as ‘Urban
The Government invokes classical conceptions to Naxals’ gave the Government all the more reason
say that the crowd with a tendency to lash out to dismiss their demands for equality as being
indiscriminately, can be regarded as lacking the “politicized”.
faculties and rationality required to cherry-pick its
victim. Thus, it just so happened on the night of Here another gap emerges in the State’s
the incident that its victim happened to be a understanding of crowd behaviour. It is believed
Muslim and the case of the ‘Jai Hanuman’ chants that all crowds (even apparently peaceful ones)
was forgotten. must necessarily pass through the following stages:
from Normality to High tension to Sporadic
3.3 Agitator theories disorder to Riot to Serious rioting to Lethal
rioting (at the apex) to Immediate post-riot to
Therefore a crowd’s intentions largely remain Community unrest to Normality (King and
inaccessible. According to the State, neither Waddington, 2005). The only difference between
“kisans” nor the “Mahars” realise the nature of a seemingly violent and an ostensibly peaceful
their demands nor do the preying mobs recognise crowd is the timeline. While the former is quick to
the identity of its victims. When the take the upward trajectory, the latter can delay it
administration resorts to attributing the cause of for a longer time, if not avoid it completely. Thus

11

Sabab 2020

in the latter context it is the police who takes the long as it is deemed irrational. To further bolster
onus of speeding up the timeline, like in the case case for a revision of such an approach, findings
of Bhima Koregaon. The police are also found of Berk’s (1974) ‘game theory’ approach can be
guilty of inciting violence, which it justifies in the looked into. Berk argued that every potential
name of completing the inevitable riot cycle in the member of the crowd pauses to weigh benefits
shortest period with least force and casualties. against costs of his/her actions. A crowd with a
However is this cycle as natural as it seems? Must majority of those who have an informal assurance
every crowd tread this standardized riot curve? against indictment are most likely to turn violent.
Are there no further considerations to be Thus not every crowd seeks emotional satisfaction
acknowledged? from (say) looting (Taylor, 1984).

Reicher replies negatively to this question of a The cultural level urges a close attention to the
crowd being doomed to explode, since research acts of the crowd. A Muslim man being
contains numerous examples where crowd compelled to chant ‘Jai Hanuman’ is no accident.
members ‘actively intervened to stop any amongst Seemingly irrational actions have cultural and
them who displayed aggression when such symbolic value. For example, the arson
behaviour was seen as conveying an image of the committed by the crowds protesting against
group that was at odds with what they believed in’ Sterlite plant may seem as venting of heightened
(Addang et.al, 2004) Thus, crowd action is emotions when not viewed against the history of a
‘invariably pro-social and that, even where 21-year old judicial battle. The spectacle of
violence is involved, it tends to be selective and in violence was their only hope of attaining media
line with clear social objectives, rather than coverage and getting the attention of the upper
wanton and unrestrained’ (King and Waddington, echelons of power. The violence thus symbolised
2005). a collective agony which, though held uniformly
throughout the crowd, was in no way irrational or
4. Back to the ‘crowds’ misdirected and was rather an expression
To truly reject the conception of the crowd as discontent with deeper structural realities.
irrational, it must be invited back to be genuinely
engaged with, politically and philosophically. In At the political/ideological level one asks
such an endeavour, the Flash Point Model of important fundamental question namely – ‘who’s
David Waddington (1989) and his colleagues may on trial?’ and ‘what structures is the crowd
prove helpful. The Flash Point model provides six upholding or challenging?’ The Mandal protests,
interdependent levels of analysis of the crowd – for example, can be seen to be demanding
Structural, Political/ideological, Cultural, reinstatement of Brahmanical supremacy or the
Contextual, Situational and Interactional. Bhima Koregaon, when analysed at the political
level will be seen as questioning the
At the structural level, an investigation must be Maratha/Brahmanic supremacy, while also
made into the systemic realities that give rise to highlighting the plight of the Dalit community. To
collective disaffection. Such an analysis would be dismiss any of the crowds as if in a trance would
quick to expose the widespread prevalence of be grossly unfair.
Hindu supremacy and Islamophobia in cases of
mob violence and of caste discrimination in the The last two levels- contextual and situational -
case of Bhima Koregaon. It is important that we would cover any processes that were
recognise that each crowd has ‘a motive’ instead unconsciously left out.
of ‘any common motive’ ,in pursuit of which the
crowd takes carefully planned steps, for it is this 5. Conclusion
latter understanding that hides the communal My suggestion is to revise the conception of the
colour of mob violence while also allowing the crowd so that we may move away from its
Government to dismiss uncomfortable demands mystical image and adopt a policy of genuine
and questions of the crowd. It is rather engagement with it, for every crowd is a rational
convenient for the Government to escape any collective that exposes some form of systematic
engagement with the crowd and its demands as nature of power imbalances.

12

This paper does, however, suffer from over- Sabab 2020
generalization since the instances that have been
selected are limited in number and specific to the 13
past few years. Thus, even if my conception of the
crowd and its treatment seem relevant to the
crowds I have selected, they may not apply to
other crowds situated in another times and places.

Having engaged with the crowd in isolation in this
paper, I hope to extend this project to enquire
into the relation between the crowd and the leader,
or in other words crowds and charisma. It will be
particularly interesting to study two in relation to
each other for any interaction between the two is
sure to see about what the two can say about each
other.

.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allen, V. L. (1970). Towards Understanding
Riots : Some Perspectives. Journal of Social Issues, 1-
18.

Arendt, Hannah. “Philosophy and Politics.” Social
Research 57 (1990), pp.73–103.

Beckett, I. (1992). Conflict Management and the
police : a policing strategy for public order. In T. ..
Marshall, Community Disorders and Policing : Conflict
Management In action. London: Whiting and Brich.

Bon, G. L. (1977). The Crowd: a study of the Popular
mind . New York: Penguin Books.

C Critcher, K. J. (1989). Flashpoints : studies in Public
Disorder. London: Routledge.

Keum, T.-Y. (n.d.). Why did Socrates conduct his
dialogues before an audience . History of Political
Thought.

Mike King, D. W. (2005). The Disorderly Crowd :
From Classical Psychological Reductionism to
Socio- Contextual Theory- the Impact on public
Order. Howard Journal of Criminal Justice Vol 44,
490-503.

O Addang, P. C. (2004). An Integrated Approach
to Crowd psychology and public order policing .
Policing : an International Journal of Police Strategies and
Management, 558-572.

Taylor, S. (1984). The Scarman Report and
explanations of riots. In J. Benyon, Scarman and
after : Essays Reflecting on Lord Scarman 's report , the
riot and their aftermath. Oxford: Pergamon press

Sabab 2020

Of Vices and (Strong) Men

Locating Platonic Vices in the Politics of Narendra Modi

Zobia Salam
Department of Political Science

This paper seeks to look at vices as they have been discussed by Plato in the Republic and contemporise them by locating them
among the people and the political milieu of India today. While the first section reviews the much-talked-about virtues in Platonic
philosophy, the second reviews the less-talked-about vices in his philosophy. The third section of the paper then proceeds to ‘bring
back Plato’ by contemporising his theory of degeneration of constitutions which argues that ‘perfect’ constitutions descend step-wise
ultimately into tyranny because of vices. It introduces the argument that the current political degeneration of Indian democracy onto
the path of tyranny is because of the proliferation of vices. The fourth section locates the cause of proliferation in a paradoxical
framework. The central figure of this paradox, is the central figure of Indian politics today – Narendra Modi. This section
explains the paradox: how the virtue-holder is the vice-promoter. The fifth section goes into detail explaining how each of the four
vices propounded by Plato is promoted by him through his conduct of politics, using anecdotes and instances as examples. The
concluding section summarises the main arguments by making the link between vices and tyranny in the contemporary times and
charts the future questions that can be pursued.

Introduction For Plato (as well as the ancient Greeks): arete,
A hero of our time, gentlemen, is in fact a portrait, but not which can be translated as ‘moral excellence’,
of an individual; it is the aggregate of the vices of our whole comprised of virtue. His is a ‘eudaemonistic
generation in their fullest expression. conception’ of virtues and ethics, which is to say
that since eudaemonia or happiness is the ultimate
– Mikhail Lermontov, A Hero of Our time, 1840 aim of every being, it is only through moral
excellence – through virtue – that one can achieve
The biggest challenge that democracies all over this.
the world face today is from so-called heroes-
individual leaders who are seen as champions, Plato in the Republic propounds four central
protectors, saviours and messiahs who can wield virtues – wisdom, courage, moderation or
unchecked and unaccounted-for power. Through temperance and justice. His enlistment of these
the use of their tricks of bold rhetoric and of tools four virtues is tied to his conceptualisation of the
of persuasion, they convince the masses that they ideal city. He begins with justice and explains that
can do no wrong: they are the epitomes of virtue. what justice is cannot be explained without
However, a closer look at how these leaders outlining what a just city would look like. This
amass and hold onto power suggests a paradox: method of inquiry distinguishes justice from the
the purported holders of virtue rely on being other virtues, elevating it as the ‘master virtue’
promoters of vice to do so. The issue to still from which all other virtues emanate to create the
interrogate is ‘how?’ good life. Different virtues are preserves of
different social classes, owing to the different
1. On Virtue kinds of desires their souls are dictated by. The
Virtues and vices are two sides of the same coin. city for Plato is analogous with the soul and it is
To understand either, one needs the other. It is by making this parallel that he is able to propound
for this reason that before extracting Plato’s the virtues for the individual. Just like the city has
conception of vices, an explication of his ideas on a tripartite division, the soul too has three parts –
virtue is necessary. rational, spirited and appetitive. The part of the

14

Sabab 2020

soul that triumphs in any individual dictates the of the vices lead ultimately to misery (Pappas,
class s/he would belong to and thus, consequently 2005).
their virtue. All of the virtues then operate at the The vices, thus are qualities that represent the ills
level of the city (the political) and at the level of of the soul and are listed by Plato in Book IX:
the soul (the personal). What is important to ‘Injustice, licentiousness, cowardice, and
iterate here is this: though for Plato, each of these ignorance make a soul bad’. The soul being
virtues are deemed to be located in the preserves analogous with the city, makes all of these vices
of different classes, they must be exercised and available in a state of tyranny. The vices of the city
held in some measure by all. and of the soul reinforce each other, growing on
each other. A vicious man is a tyrannical man, his
A virtuous person is one who possesses the four is a soul that lacks justice since he is governed by
cardinal virtues. S/he is wise – i.e. s/he reasons, undesirable desires: the spirited trumps over the
develops and uses knowledge about what is good rational, the appetitive trumps over the spirited
or bad and what to do or not. This is done by and the rational. The former births ignorance and
letting reason and rationality to issue commands the latter births cowardice and immoderation
to all the other parts of the soul. S/he is respectively. The counter is true too: a tyrannical
courageous – i.e. she preserves knowledge of what man is a vicious man. Governed by the most
to fear or not and makes the correct judgement corrupt of desires- lust -he is devoid of justice and
on it, which motivates him/her towards success, all other virtues emanating from it. This takes him
victory, respect and honour. S/he is temperate – away from the good life (which is a life of virtue),
i.e. s/he has control over her/his primal desires away from eudaemonia.
and appetites such that they do not grow beyond
proper limits. Ultimately, this makes her/him just. 3. Bringing Plato Back to the Present
The just person not only refrains from externally History does not repeat, but it does instruct.
meddling with what is not her/his, but also – Timothy Snyder
harmonizes the three parts of the soul internally From the fascist and Nazi regimes of Spain, Italy,
(Frede, 2003). Virtues are important for Plato Japan and Germany and others in the past century
because without them there is no eudaemonia, no to right-wing regimes in USA, Philippines, Turkey
good life. The good life or the life worth living and India today, the common thread running
can only be a life of justice, wisdom, courage and across tyrannical regimes is that of the rule by
moderation – both in the city and of the soul. ‘strongmen’. A single individual wields massive
power and influence and fashions a political
2. On Vice community that bolsters his power and influence.
Flipping the coin, we now move on to describe But the question is: how? How does he fashion
the other side – that of vice. Vice, kakia, refers to this political community? The answer, provided
a moral falling. This implies a fault in an by blending contemporary politics (and politicking)
individual’s character – his/her very soul. A fault and Plato’s ideas together, is: through a
in behaviour and quality that brings one to despair, promotion of vices.
eluding them of true happiness.
4. The Paradoxical Prime Minister
The outlining of the first vice of injustice in Book The Prime Minister presents a paradox. Narendra
I paves the way for elucidation of the other vices. Modi has been called a classic case of ‘rise and rise’
The vices, just like virtues, are located in both the in politics – from being an efficient party worker
city and the soul through a description of the five in the nascent Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP) in the
political regimes and the five corresponding souls 1980s, to being an equally efficient organiser of
– from the best form of each, down to the worst their largest and most significant propaganda
souls and cities. The various degenerations of city campaigns in the 1990s, to being elected and re-
and soul arise when the wrong kinds of desires elected in as Chief Minister of one of the largest
dominate in the right kind of souls, thereby
opening up the ground for vice. Species of
political vice are identified as the different species
of injustice available to souls and cities and each

15

Sabab 2020

states of the country the 2000s, to then finally the images of him meditating in the cave at
being elected and re-elected as the Prime Minister Kedarnath – pointing to austerity, simplicity and a
of India – the credentials as how they are distance from material desires and worldly power.
presented point to the paradox, one that emerges When he is seen as a ‘fakir aadmi’ i.e. a saintly man,
out of the juxtaposition of two (equally carefully he is seen as embodying the third Platonic virtue
constructed) narratives. One, of a larger-than-life of moderation. This self-description can be brought
persona: politically speaking, the unprecedented to bear on another self-description – that of the
and undefeatable ‘king’; the other projects an ‘pradhaansevak’ – prime servant. As a sevak, he
image of a simple, austere, self-sacrificing and possesses no wealth, no power. As a fakir, neither
self-effacing ‘fakir’, a saint. does he desire them. Consequently, he exercises
control over his desires such that their strengths
The former narrative is spun out of his actions in are limited in appropriate measure. The virtue of
the public domain – both as the head of state and moderation is thus tied to the last virtue of justice
as himself – particularly his style of decision- – limiting the relative strengths of his appetites
making as well as the decisions made. One needs lets the appropriate part of his soul triumph.
only to look at language describing major policy Modi’s fakiri implies that he denies material
decisions. From the introduction of the Goods desires for the higher desire that a saintly fakir
and Service Tax to demonetisation; from initiating aspires to – that of knowledge. In allowing his
‘surgical’ strikes to initiating start-ups; from the logos – the rational part – to trump over his other
‘Kashmir dispute’ to the ‘Ayodhya settlement’ – desires he then becomes a just soul.
all ‘moves’ are consistently termed as ‘clever’ and
‘bold’ and seen as made by the individual and not Embodying the Platonic virtues of wisdom,
the institution of the head of the state. Essentially courage and moderation, Modi is thus, for those
then, this terminology points out to how Modi is who buy into these twin narratives, akin to Plato’s
seen as one who embodies the first two Platonic philosopher king: most appropriate to wield
virtues – that of courage and wisdom – and the power because he has no deep desire of it yet has
two are neatly tied together in this case. The the best knowledge of how exercise it.
knowledge and understanding of what is
(apparently) good and bad and right and wrong – But the Prime Minister is a paradox and this is
Plato’s virtue of wisdom – is used to make where one must highlight it. The Indian populace
‘correct’ judgement on what is to be feared, where believes that what allows Modi to exercise and
lies danger and what needs to be done in either hold onto his power are his (apparent) personal
situations, alluding to Plato’s virtue of courage. Platonic virtues. But what actually allows Modi to
The decision of scrapping Article 370 of the have, hold, wield and sustain his power is the
Constitution of India which provides for special promotion of vices – of cowardice, ignorance,
provisions for Jammu and Kashmir, to take the immoderation and thus injustice – among this
most recent example is thus a sign of his virtue. It very populace. In fact, the reason why he is able
is a move marked by wisdom; when Modi alluded to promote vices is because he is seen as a
to the ‘harm’ Article 370 had done to and the paragon of virtues, bereft of and distant from any
obstacle it had been for the people of Jammu and vice. The virtues are posited as extraordinary,
Kashmir and Ladakh, he alludes to an awareness which can be achieved only by going through the
and judgement of what's good and bad and right life routines and cycles of the man himself
and wrong for the people and the city. This is also whereas the vices are promoted in the most
what marks it as a courageous move, for it makes ordinary of ways, without which the masses
the correct judgement about the fact that danger cannot accept them. In ‘On Tyranny’, Timothy
and fear lie in the region being ungoverned by the Snyder (Snyder, 2017) invokes examples from
constitution, falling prey to the external enemy – history to argue that ordinary Germans, Italians
Pakistan. and Russians living in the 1930s did not wake up
one day to find themselves agreeing with their
This latter of the two narratives, that of fakiri, taps authoritarian leaders’ decisions and ideology. The
into Modi’s actions in the private domain. Here in obedience was built over time through the
addition to the usage of a terminology and there is promotion of vices of cowardice, ignorance,
also a use of imagery – the best case in point is licentiousness and injustice using a multitude of

16

Sabab 2020

seemingly ‘ordinary’ symbols. Obedience bred In his speech delivered to the nation on
complicity. Complicity aided genocides. Independence Day, Modi said,

5. Promoting Vices ‘Hum wealth creator ko aashankaki nazaron se na
dekhein. Hum unko pratiheenbhav se na dekhein.
5.1 Immoderation Aavashyakta hai, desh mein, wealth create
karnewaalon ka utna hi maan, sammaan aur protsahan
As mentioned previously, Plato has used the term hona chahiye’.
‘licentiousness’ to mean a willingness and freedom
to satiate one’s appetitive desires. The (Translation: We should not doubt our wealth
licentiousness then stands in opposition to the creators. The need of the hour is to respect
virtue of moderation and thus can be understood honour and encourage the wealth creators in our
as immoderation, involving as it does for the nation)
appetites or desires to demand excessively,
without moderation, and grow stronger in the He thus pressed upon the population that wealth
process. The question on how the vice of creators must be not be viewed with suspicion but
immoderation is promoted can be answered by with respect and honour. Urging respect coupled
looking at the biggest giveaway in the run up to with non-doubts, what is being urged is an
the 2019 general election made by Modi on behalf evasion from scrutiny and criticism. The
of his party: the 10% reservation for the understanding then is that the rich should not be
economically weaker sections or the ‘EWS quota’. scrutinised in their process of ‘creating wealth’. It
This reservation quota was introduced solely for is this spirit of unchecked wealth creation that has
those whose annual family income is less than ₹8 led to has led to the share of India’s top 10%
lakhs and who do not belong to the SC, ST and earners – the wealth creators – holding 55% of
OBC categories. Of careful consideration here are the country’s income, as of 2016, according to the
not the details of quota but rather the demand for World Inequality Report of 2018 (IANS, 2017).
such a quota. The demand for the quota came Thus, the dictum of not to scrutinise those who
from its sole beneficiaries: urban, middle class, create wealth lets their amassing go unchecked
upper caste individuals on the verge of feeling and hence unmoderated, consequently bolstering
alienated from the leader their bank of votes the vice of immoderation. Promoting the vice of
helped prop up (CSDS Lokniti 2014 Post Poll immoderation has, thus, very directly contributed
Survey). to Modi’s ascent to power. While the
individualism-driven urban, upper caste middle-
Paradoxically, this class of people is the one most class forms the key electoral bloc that led him to
opposed to quotas aimed at undoing social and victory in 2014, the wealth creators aid his
historical disadvantages. The urban, upper-caste, sustenance in power by being his biggest backers
middle-class ideas are individualistic: they in the pre-electoral and extra-electoral activities
emphasise upon individual ‘merit’. Their claim to through massive donations in his name to his
resources is thus based on these ideas – the party (Bureau, 2019).
meritorious and the hardworking deserve more.
Those who are disadvantaged are so because they 5.2 Ignorance
lack merit– their claim should always be lesser.
Thus, the argument then is this: The urban, The promotion of the vice of ignorance happens
upper-caste, middle class can claim and claim through a series of three happenings – one, the
excessively and endlessly because they deserve it. denial of facts; two, a revision of facts and; three,
This is the vice of immoderation – unregulated the supplementation of ‘alternative facts’ as a
and excessive appetitive desires – involving the replacement for the falsified and as revised facts.
laying of a greater claim to the larger pool of The three are usually packaged together in an
resources – both material and non-material interconnected web. Consider the following
statement made by Modi as part of his ‘Motion of
To see the promotion of the vice of Thanks’ speech after the President’s Address to
immoderation, another instance can be considered. the joint session of the Parliament in June:

‘Barah sau saal ki gulami ki maansikta humein pareshan
kar rahi hai. Bahut baar hum se thoda ooncha vyakti mile,

17

Sabab 2020

to sar ooncha karke baat karne ki humari taaqat nahin – his silence. In the numerous cases of public
hoti hai’ lynching of individuals (mostly belonging to
minority communities) that have occurred since
(Translation: The slave mentality of 1,200 years is 2014, the Prime Minister has largely remained
troubling us. Often, when we meet a person of silent in condemning them. The silence signifies
high stature, we fail to muster strength to speak not just inaction but also an unwillingness to take
up) action. Silence gives impunity to perpetrators,
through which they find power. These public
Of consideration here is the phrase describing lynchings carried out by mobs comprised of
‘1,200 years of slave mentality’ implying that mostly Hindu upper caste men have mostly
foreign rule means not just British rule (which targeted Muslims and Dalits for a wide range of
lasted for two-hundred years) but also includes things – not chanting slogans, not adhering to
the millennia before that predominantly marked caste norms and rules and even on the suspicion
by the rule of Muslim rulers of India. Like British, of carrying certain kinds of foods! What people
they too were foreigners then and hence are now fear most are these mobs, not the rule of law.
foreigners now. There is thus a denial of facts The latter ends when mobs take the former into
(denial that ‘foreign rule’ lasted for 200 years), a their hands. This then, spawns the vice of
revision of facts (foreign rule was 1200 years long) cowardice – making the wrong judgement about
and supplying of an ‘alternative fact’ (foreign rule what to be fearful of and consequently failing to
comprised of not just the British but also the stand up to danger when the time comes for it.
Muslims) – all of which are notions which by
distorting history distort knowledge, thereby The vice of cowardice and fear have peculiar but
promote ignorance. Then there are claims made profound consequences. In political contexts and
about science – from the discovery of plastic regimes where the two spread, it makes both
surgery to stem-cell engineering (Rahman, 2014) – loyalists and betrayers – stark contrasts – out of
each involving a denial and revision of knowledge people. People become loyalists of the
using a supplementation of myths. The three authoritarian leader or the regime. This is what
processes are observed in broader instances Vaclav Havel, dissident thinker and later President
elsewhere as well: in the commissioning of the of Czechoslovakia, indicated when he gave the
deletion of chapters or passages from public famous parable of the greengrocer who places a
school textbooks (denial), their replacement with sign reading “Workers of the world, unite!” in his
more comfortable narratives (revision) and the shop window and argued that it is not that the
addition of make-believe version of the past man actually believes in the slogan and, by
(supplementation). For Modi, wielding and extension, the ideology. He places the sign in his
sustaining power relies on promoting vice of window out of a fear of persecution – cowardice
ignorance through distorting ‘true’ knowledge – and to ensure that he will not be in trouble with
(facts) and promoting false knowledge (myth) the authorities. When everyone governed by the
instead. The argument is basically a Foucauldian same fear does what one greengrocer did, public
one, where one can see Modi’s power as being loyalty is created unconsciously thus ‘making it
constituted through a particular form of possible for the game to go on, for it to exist in
‘knowledge’ and scientific understanding – that the first place’ (Havel, 2018).
which is opposed to truth. In order for his actions
to be seen as legitimate and hence his power to be The second of the consequence of the vice of
construed as authority, a body of knowledge cowardice and fear is betrayal. Where the
needs to be constructed which helps sustain his individual out of the fear of persecution shows
own particular version of the past to legitimize his loyalty to the regime, s/he often also betrays
actions in the present. When myths are peddled in her/his fellow citizen out of this fear/act of
the name of knowledge, ignorance spreads. cowardice because at times loyalty may demand so.
One can take the equation between the
5.3 Cowardice perpetrator and a victim in case of a mob lynching.
The perpetrator(s), by publicly lynching the
While the vice of ignorance could be seen as individual who does not repeat the slogan ‘Bharat
being promoted by Modi’s speeches, the next vice Mata ki Jai’ (Translation: Victory to Mother India),
of cowardice it is promoted by the exact opposite

18

Sabab 2020

betrays him as a fellow citizen living under rule of show a glimpse of each of these vices as they
law. This is because all citizens under a system of actually play out in the Indian political context of
rule of law live with the assurance that any kind of today. Each of these instances indicate that even
persecution will be carried out by the authorities; directly, they harm unity and harmony among the
the monopoly of violence will rest with the State. different sections – whether social (vices promote
Judith Shklar warns about the danger of intolerance), religious (vices promote
cowardice and fear because the consequence is communalism), economic (vices promote
one of treachery and says- inequality) or any other – of people. This kind of
instability produced by a vice-based political
‘Fear of persecution makes all of us potentially community is exactly what fuels strongmen like
treacherous. Who is to condemn the Soviet citizen Modi. As the individuals forgetting reason, begin to
who shuts his door and heart to a dissident who look out for oneself and the satiation for one’s desires
once was his friend? It is the self-righteous, far prior to all else and begin fearing and mistrusting
more than the craven, who are unjust. Public fear, one another, unity –the essence and basis of the
even more than personal circumstances, makes us community, of the city – is lost. The leader alone is
treacherous; and it also excuses us, because seen as having the virtues of wisdom, courage,
danger summons us to look out for ourselves and moderation and injustice. Modi thus becomes the
our families’ (pg. 148, Shklar, 1984). messiah and so‘Modi hai toh mumkin hai’– it
possible if there is Modi – becomes more than a
The two-forked ends of fear – loyalty and betrayal slogan: it becomes an actually held belief. Power is
– also show how vices are promoted at both the shifted from being seen as lying with the
level of the society (the city) and the individual institution and is now seen as lying with the
(the soul). Promoting the vice of cowardice in the individual because of his attributes, most
former case breeds loyalty, doing the same in the importantly his virtues. Thus, it is not him but only
latter case breeds betrayal. Thus, once again, him that can ensure the existence of the
Modi’s power is strengthened by promoting the community and of the individuals hence, his
vice of cowardice and fear because it secures the power must be absolute. This is how the descent
citizens’ loyalty to him and his regime. into tyranny begins.

5.4 Injustice 6. Conclusion- Beyond Vices
Instead of focusing only on a direct reading of
As all of these vices of immoderation, ignorance Plato to argue that it is a demagogue’s
and cowardice come to be promoted in a variety demagoguery and use of rhetoric that leads to a
of ways, they add up to comprise the biggest democracy’s descent into a tyranny, the arguments
Platonic vice – that of injustice. Promoting each presented in this paper urge the reader to go
of the three vices both individually and further. It has sought to present how the
aggregately is what leads to the promotion of the prognosis for twenty-first century tyranny can be
vice of injustice. To reiterate, injustice for Plato, at made by using Plato’s formulations on virtues and
the level of the soul involved a lack of harmony vices. The two contrasts have been shown to
and unity among the three parts of reason, spirit converge in the ‘strongman’ of Indian democracy
and appetite. In the Indian politics today, reason – Narendra Modi, the purported virtue-holder
is killed by the promotion of ignorance, when the and actual vice-promoter. The everydayness of the
people come to believe rough-and-ready myths manner in which vices are being promoted in the
and are made to reject knowledge. The spirit is current political milieu hint at an already growing
dulled when people are made to fear the wrong complicity, a feeling which, history demonstrates,
the entity. Each individual is convinced that the lay just before the descent into tyranny. As one
enemy is the other and hence the fear must be of diagnoses this tyranny and locates the fault lines
each other and the mob than the law. And finally, of the present using the past conceptions on vices
as reason and spirit recede, appetitive desires for of ignorance, cowardice, immoderation and
material resources and power are allowed to injustice, the most pertinent question – one that
flourish by encouraging ideas about ‘rightful’ could not be answered but must be – is this: what
claims to benefits, resources, positions, power et.
al. If the soul is not in harmony, neither can the
city be in harmony. The select examples presented

19

Sabab 2020

does one do to get out of the abyss of tyranny? Pappas, Nickolas. 2005. Routledge Philosophy
Does classical philosophy provide an outline for Guidebook to Plato and the Republic (2nd Edition).
this condition? If yes, then might continue to hold London and New York: Routledge.
its relevance, passing the true test of the (end) of
time. If not, then one must ask: what does future Parry, Richard. 2004. "Ancient Ethical Theory."
look like? The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Fall.
https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2014/entr
BIBLIOGRAPHY ies/ethics-ancient/.

(ed.) Prashad, Vijay. 2018. Strongmen: Trump-Modi- Plato. 1997. "Republic." In Plato's Complete Works,
Erdoğan-Duterte. New Delhi: LeftwordBooks. by (ed.) John M. Cooper. Indianapolis: Hackett
Publishing Company.
Bureau. 2019. "BJP, top beneficiary of corporate
donations: ADR." The Hindu BusinessLine. January Pradhan, Bibhudatta. 2019. "Aspiring Middle
16.https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/ Class Emerges as Key Electoral Bloc in India’s
bjp-top-beneficiary-of-corporate-donations- Election." Bloomberg. May 3.
adr/article26006728.ece.
https://www.bloombergquint.com/elections/aspi
Foot, Philippa. 1978. "Virtues and Vices." In ring-middle-class-emerging-key-electoral-bloc-
Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy, india-votes.
by Philippa Foot, 1-18. Oxford University Press.
Rahman, Maseeh. 2014. "Indian prime minister
Frede, Dorothea. 2003. "Plato's Ethics: An claims genetic science existed in ancient times."
Overview." The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Guardian. October 28.
Fall. Accessed 9 12, 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/oct/
https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/ent 28/indian-prime-minister-genetic-science-existed-
ries/plato-ethics/. ancient-times .

Gatade, Subhash. 2019. Modinama: Issues That Did Shklar, Judith N. 1984. Ordinary Vices. Cambridge,
Not Matter. New Delhi: Leftword Books. Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard
University Press.
Havel, Vaclav. 2018. Power of The Powerless. London:
Vintage Classics. Snyder, Timothy. 2017. On Tyranny. New York:
Tim Duggan Books.
IANS. 2017. "Income inequality in India: Top 10%
earners have 55% of national wealth." Business Thapar, Romila. 2019. "They Peddle Myths and
Standard. December 20. https://www.business- Call It History." New York Times. May 17.
standard.com/article/current-affairs/income- https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/17/opinion
inequality-in-india-top-10-earners-have-55-of- /india-elections-modi-history.html.
national-wealth-117122000490_1.html.
2019. PM Narendra Modi's Address to the Nation |
Kumar, Vishal, Ashutosh Bhardwaj, and Abrogation of Article 370 in J&K | August 8, 2019.
Sushovan Sircar "How to be a ‘Fakir’: 10 Directed by Rajya Sabha TV.
Commandments from PM Modi’s Interviews." https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n0bNYhPJ
The Quint. May 18. nxk.
https://www.thequint.com/elections/pm-
narendra-modi-interview-lok-sabha-election-2019- ‘Must not see wealth creators with suspicion, says
fakir-quotes. PM Modi in his I-Day speech’, 15 August 2019,
from the YouTube channel of Rajya Sabha TV.
Mishra, Pankaj. 2019. "How Narendra Modi https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s3J3-
Seduced India With Envy and Hate." New York ZrN0UA
Times. May 23.
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/23/opinion ‘PM Modi's reply to the President's motion of
/modi-india-election.html. thanks in Parliament [Full speech]’, 25 June 2019,
from the YouTube channel of DD News.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ZcBOwm
x0ZU

20

Sabab 2020

What’s In a Name?

The Politics of Anonymous Protest

Ishita Jain
Department of Political Science

Anonymity, a novel feature of expression, has several political implications. In modern democracies, when new avenues for
anonymous speech or action like social media are expanding, anonymity has assumed a fiercely political role. From anonymous
political writing to graffiti, masked protests etc. anonymity is visible in several ingenious forms to different ends. It hinges on the
concurrence of several contradictions like those between the public and private, identity negation and creation, inclusion and
exclusion, which evoke different responses to it when exercised in the political domain. The coexistence of these enabling and
disabling dimensions of anonymous political protest forms the focus of this study. It seeks to explore and evaluate the nature of
anonymous political assertions through the framework of these contradictions, to make the case for a context dependent acceptance
of such assertions.

Introduction Pussy Riot, Pink and Silver movements and
carnival-esque protests. Social media has provided
Anonymity as a feature of communication can be a germane ground for anonymous communication
understood as constituting a technique of non- which has manifested in political movements like
identifiability. By not identifying oneself, the agent the #MeToo. Whistle-blower culture too has
of anonymous speech or action makes herself witnessed anonymous action by groups like the
unreachable in a communicative network. The hacktivist collective- Anonymous, WikiLeaks etc.
concealment of identity may be complete or
partial based on the actor’s own agency. Gotz The political adaptation of anonymity as a
Bachmann, Michi Knecht and Andreas Wittel communicative model and its increasing
understand anonymity as constellations of partial popularity can be attributed to the endangering of
unknowability, invisibility and untrackability. free communication in modern democracies. In
These shield the anonymous agent from personal both democratic and non-democratic regimes,
accountability, scrutiny and punitive repercussions states use censorship and surveillance to limit
which is why anonymity has been gradually individual freedoms in the name of interests like
shaped as a political tool. security. Technological developments like sensory
devices, have contributed to the broadening of
The intersection of anonymity and democracy States’ surveillance apparatus. The internet is
produces many outcomes. The secret ballot is an particularly deployed by governments as a
instance of democracies around the world surveillance machine, using technologies ranging
introducing anonymity into politics. Anonymous from low level traffic inspection to higher level
party or campaign funding is also legitimate in monitoring of social networking. Anonymity, in
some democracies. Anonymous protest, however, this context, presents itself as a platform to
has evoked different reactions. Having emerged in circumvent surveillance and for the expression of
the form of anonymous writings and publications, political aspirations. The Surveillance State, intent
the scope of anonymous political assertions has on controlling its citizens through identification,
grown in popularity and diversity of forms, over enumeration and classification sits uncomfortably
the years. It has come to include graffiti- with the idea of anonymous protest. Bachmann,
unauthorised markings on public spaces meant for Knecht and Wittel argue that anonymity is socially
visual communication; masked protests as a produced and is socially productive as it
means of shielding the identity of protesters as
seen in movements like the Occupy, Zapatista,

21

Sabab 2020

contributes to radical politics and the remoulding In using its form publicly, anonymous protest
of the socio-political world. It is in this context makes aesthetic contributions. Aidan McGarry,
that both the opposition to anonymous protest Itir Erhart, Hande Eslen-Ziya, Olu Jenzen and
and its merit needs to be evaluated through the Umut Korkut argue that the aesthetics of protest
various contradictions it produces. are influential in the expression of ideas and
existence of the protesters and help transcend
1. Anonymity in Private and Public protests from merely a series of demands.
Apprehension towards anonymity in political Employing a broad view of aesthetics beyond
discourse stems in part from its confusion with considerations of beauty, they understand
privacy. Privacy deals with the proper aesthetics to have an instrumental role in shaping
management of the boundary that separates a socio-political life and in creating new possibilities,
person from public access. Steve Matthews ideas and c ‘collectivities’. They argue that
understands it as a control over one’s physical and aesthetics consists of communicative and
informational self-presentations. performative elements which through visuals,
materiality, rhythms and silences lead protests to
Anonymity overlaps with privacy at times. This be a ‘performance of politics’. Anonymous
overlap manifests itself in the desire to remain protests, using this view of the aesthetics of
unknown due to fear of repercussions or punitive protest, can be understood to constitute a unique
action. The protection of personal identity and aesthetic based on intrigue. The concealment of
information from external access is common to identity produces intrigue and curiosity in the
both privacy and anonymity, and allows political minds of spectators, inviting them in the political
actors to act and transact without personal discourse and forming larger solidarity. Embodied
accountability or scrutiny. The use of anonymous in elements like masks, pseudonyms etc., it creates
social media handles by women to call out sexual new images and performances which point
harassment during #MeToo or the use of face simultaneously to the constraints placed on actors
masks to prevent recognition through surveillance and the creative engagement of their political
technology by anti-government protesters in voice with it.
Hong Kong serve as instances of the same.
Anonymity, thus, when understood in relation to Theoretical inquiries into the idea of the public
privacy as identity negation appears as a negative shed light on anonymity’s potential as a
freedom. democratic tool for free expression. Jürgen
Habermas’s in his conceptualisation of the public
Anonymity’s connection with the private however sphere describes it as an arena for discursive
should not eclipse its nature as an instrument interaction and democratic associations, distinct
meant essentially for the public domain. While from the state and the economy. He defines it as a
privacy withdraws both identity and informational body of private persons assembled to discuss
content from the public domain, anonymity matters of public concern or common interest.
shields only identity, letting content be Nancy Fraser in her feminist critique of the
communicated publicly. The intent of anonymous concept argues that Habermas’s’ public sphere
assertions to address political issues publicly was constituted by the exclusion of women and
erodes the binary between private and public feminine values from it. While agreeing on the
locations. It introduces elements of the private, indispensability of public deliberation for
namely the concealment of identity, into public democracies, she argues against viewing the public
discourse. Further, the need for anonymity as a sphere as a singular entity, citing the example of
negative freedom arises from constraints placed in women who found public outlets through
the public domain circumvented by mechanism women-only associations, street protests etc. She
like the replacement of blank spaces in nameless suggests that multiple public spheres exist which
publications by the word ‘Anonymous’.. access the public domain in different ways and
Anonymity, hence, makes use not only of content should not be viewed as undesirable or
but also its form to register protest publicly. fragmentary. The various publics serve to contest
the exclusionary norms of the dominant public,
creating counter-publics and including those

22

Sabab 2020

excluded by the constitutive nature of the imagery in the form of pseudonyms or common
dominant public. Anonymous groups can then be graphic symbols or masks.
interpreted as one of Fraser’s counter-publics that
compete with other publics and in doing so, The identity lent to protesters by anonymous
evolve alternate political norms and behaviours. action is rooted more in political commitment
They facilitate deliberation in new ways and than ascriptive features which allows it to acquire
among new actors, thus expanding the scope of a more fluid and dynamic form. It also tends to
more deliberative and participative forms of privilege the collective, by acting more as a
democracy. common identity than an individualistic one. Such
identities, thus, serve to unite actors and invite
2. Anonymity as Freedom others into political discourse. A common identity
The intermingling of elements of the private and of a victim of sexual harassment and assault was
public allow anonymity to simultaneously cause forged by the #MeToo movement and even
identity negation and creation. The protection and underlined by its nomenclature. The Guy Fawkes
concealment of personal identity can be mask is another common symbol, first introduced
interpreted as a form of identity denial in political in the film ‘V for Vendetta’. It was first worn by
sphere. Identity negation is a definitional the hacktivist group Anonymous and then made
characteristic of anonymity. It affords negative popular by the Occupy movement protesters.
freedoms like freedom of expression to actors Since then the mask has made appearances in
who can act free of external interference and protests in Thailand, Egypt etc., underlining its
intrusion. This expands the contours of political significance as an embodiment of the shared
space and has led to anonymity’s evolution into a identity of democratic protesters.
protest tool. Whistle-blowing, or the practice of
making public secretive information or action that Though anonymity of a group of protesters, by
is considered illegal or unethical, is often rooted in focussing on their collective identity, seemingly
anonymity as that allows circumventing punitive imparts them a sense of uniformity, Ruiz argues
action. Edward Snowden’s initially anonymous that it allows for the articulation of political
disclosure of classified information about the difference as well. Dissent highlights the
American National Security Agency’s global differences of protesters from the mainstream
surveillance programmes is a striking case of while preserving internal political disagreements.
recent political whistle-blowing. Publication of A banner, she argues, acts as a textually
texts anonymously or under a pseudonym is prescriptive device while the mask allows an open
another manifestation of the freedom facilitated range of protesting positions. The black balaclava
by anonymity. wearing Zapatistas in Mexico adopted diverse,
nuanced political positions while subscribing to a
Though it withholds the informational aspects of common symbol and sentiment. Anonymous- an
identity, anonymity’s engagement with the public anonymous decentralised hacktivist group known
domain is interpreted by Hans Asenbaum as a for launching cyber-attacks on governments,
means of identity creation. The constructive corporations etc. in the interest of free speech and
elements of anonymity, he argues, offer positive opposition to governmental control- exhibits
liberties for realisation of political aspirations that similar tendencies. Gabriella Coleman notes, “In
are often manifested in the form of new identities some ways, it may be impossible to gauge the
for protesters. These may take the form of intent and motives of thousands of participants
pseudonyms or new physical avatars, as in the many of who don’t even bother to leave a trace of
case of masked protests. These new anonymous their thoughts, motivations and reactions. Among
identities are formed in opposition to the those that do, opinions vary considerably.”
mainstream and are understood by Polyanna Ruiz, Anonymous protest can then be understood as
in her work on masked protest, as an ‘articulation serving the cause of freedom of speech and
of power from below’. The distinction between expression by allowing people, particularly from
the mainstream and its anonymous dissidents is marginalised groups, to overcome constraints to
emphasised by such identities and their voicing their opinions while maintaining
anonymous form and reinforced by associated individual political positions.

23

Sabab 2020

The interplay of collective commonalities and protests tends to also lend them an inclusive
nuanced differences facilitated by anonymous character by focussing on the formation of new
protest lead it to acquire a discursive nature in the collectives. Slogans like ‘We are you’ and ‘We are
public domain. The ingenuity of the form lies in all Pussy Riot’ employed by the masked
its lack of explicit rules or protocols, which serve movements of the Mexican Zapatistas and the
to invite discussion. The freedom from fear of Russian Pussy Riot are indicative of the attempt to
repercussion further emboldens people to create a common political effort, transcending
participate openly in discussion. The negative and social identity.
positive freedoms associated with anonymity
combine to lend it greater accessibility. The In addition to the broadening of participation by
participation of anonymous social media handles anonymous discourse, its nature also adds to its
in political conversation displays the discursive inclusivity. The absence of indicators of social
potential in anonymity. #MeToo saw several status allows the temporary suspension of social
disagreements and debates take shape among hierarchies from communication. New assertions
social media users over questions like the severity and identities, hence, tend to privilege their
of harassment to warrant punishment etc. political credentials and commitments over
Amardo Rodriguez and Robin Patric Clair in their ascriptive ones which equalises participants.
study of graffiti in an American, predominantly Guerrilla Girls, a group of masked feminist
black university space, reaffirm the discursive activist artists state that keeping the focus on their
tensions that characterise anonymous text. work rather than themselves as the reason for
Additionally, by studying chains of graffiti, their adoption of anonymity. The emphasis on
especially in washrooms that respond to one content is accompanied by more unbiased ways of
another Rodriguez and Clair point out that perceiving and evaluating it. Hans Asenbaum
marginalised groups often make use of anonymity argues that anonymous communication upholds
to oppress other marginalised sections. The the principle of meritocracy as it is judged only by
homophobic content of many graffiti and the value of its content. Preconceived notions about
desire to discipline others evoked response and the social status of its agent are precluded from
opposition. Thus, though anonymous discourse judgement and deliberation is thus made fairer.
may not always be emancipatory by allowing free The belief in merit over identity is shared by
speech, it hopes to support deliberation. Anonymous who promote discussions on the
digital images they share, rather than their authors.
3. Is Anonymity Inclusive?
The public, discursive nature of anonymous Anonymous discourse, however, is not free of all
action and communication raises the requirement biases and can be credited with being exclusive
of inclusion, for anonymity to qualify as too at times. The absence of repercussions and
constitutive of an alternate democratic space. personal accountability provides dominant groups
Anonymous assertions, however, are based in with the freedom to oppress and exclude.
simultaneous inclusion and exclusion. Anonymity, Rodriguez and Clair’s study of discursive graffiti
in its different forms, is inclusive as it is available illustrates the way dominant social groups assert
and accessible to people from different social, their power to discipline and punish those
political and economic backgrounds. It is attempting to alter status quo. Identities created
particularly amenable to those facing oppression by anonymous protest may also be employed in
in the form of constraints to free communication. exclusionary tasks. Racist hate crimes like masked
Arab Spring- a series of anti-government uprisings public lynching by Ku Klux Klan- an American
in African and West Asian countries in 2011- saw white supremacist group- are an instance of the
citizens making use of online anonymous creation of a discriminatory identity.
networks like Tor to mobilise political action.
Anonymity, therefore, facilitated the entry of Anonymity also excludes the potential carried by
citizens facing repressive measures like extreme identity and context to inform democratic
censorship into political discourse as cyber- deliberation. Feminist epistemology argues that
dissidents. The creation of new identities by knowledge should be viewed in relation with the
knower’s specific social location as it influences
one’s perspective. It favours ‘situated knowledge’

24

Sabab 2020

and a conception of objectivity as constructed American man. Checking the authenticity of
from the partial and situated perspectives of personal accounts, especially, remains a challenge,
differently positioned actors. Iris Marion Young as was pointed out by the critics of #MeToo who
argues that situated knowledge - based suggested that false allegations can be easily levied
judgements act as resources for deliberative by anonymous users. Anonymous #MeToo
models of democracy as they reveal the partiality experiences and allegations against male
of each experience as perspectival and help find perpetrators of sexual violence were dismissed as
particular responses to particular situations. unreliable at times and social media platforms like
Anonymity by concealing identity excludes its Instagram have been ordered to take down
resourcefulness in such deliberations among allegations from an anonymous account by the
socially differentiated positions. By extension, the Delhi High Court in a defamation case. Although
privileging of dominant modes of knowledge may reliability is a valid concern in the interest of
exclude some as ‘knowers’ possessing epistemic democratic deliberation, it does not singularly
authority. All anonymous assertions, however, do apply to anonymous communication. Assertions
not conceal identity completely but only to a by revealed authors or actors may also be
degree. By letting some aspect of identity like sex, unauthentic and false and hence deception cannot
nationality etc. be known, actors may make warrant a dismissal of anonymous outcries.
assertions in a way that allows the contextualising
of perspectives. Anonymous outcries are, thus, The issue of law enforcement and security is also
neither inherently inclusive nor exclusive and cited to challenge anonymity. Security needs
exhibit both aspects in contemporary politics versus the rights of individual internet users acts
dependent on the context in which they play out. as a conflict between different democratic ends.
States like Canada and Hong Kong have
4. Anonymity and Protests introduced anti-masking laws to challenge masked
Anonymity’s novelty as a means of protest rests in protests, which are viewed as a security threat.
its contradicting constituting features, which also The cyberspace is also characterised by crimes like
lead it to face unique criticisms and challenges. child pornography, sale of regulated substances
Deliberation is commonly recognised as a etc. that anonymity makes difficult to tackle.
necessary democratic feature and a debate arises
over viewing anonymous political action as an While concerns about security raise legitimate
enabler or disabler of democratic discourse. questions over the undemocratic ends to which
Critics are sceptical of the absence of anonymity can be put, reactions to anonymity in
accountability and unrestricted freedoms other contexts demonstrate that sweeping
embedded in anonymity which they fear may hurt dismissals of it should not be accepted uncritically.
other’s freedoms or interests. The spread of Despite States’ introduction of anti-anonymity
politically motivated fake news and online trolling measures like anti-masking laws, taking down of
are instances of misuse of anonymity. It should, anonymous online posts and accounts and online
however, be noted that anonymity precludes only monitoring, it is pertinent to examine that the
personal accountability. The assertion and its resistance is mostly against protest itself rather
content can be held accountable through the very than its anonymous nature. Graffiti has been the
discourse it generates. Anonymity, hence, rests on least severely criticised as it is not associated with
a conception of accountability of claims in the level of urgency that other anonymous
democratic deliberation. assertions highlight. Anonymity, in its political
avatar, has criticised status quo and the complicity
Deception is another real possibility with of States in its maintenance in several instances
anonymous experiences as means of verification around the globe. States’ opposition to
remain elusive. The blog A Gay Girl in Damascus anonymous protest is rooted in the difficulty of
acts as a case in point. It gained popularity, at an locating and controlling through its surveillance
international level, as an account of a lesbian apparatus, the chief opposition being against its
activist in Syria in 2011 which ultimately turned content not form.
out to be written by a white heterosexual
Though images like those of the masked terrorist
or hacker are popularised to intentionally

25

Sabab 2020

demonise anonymity in favour of identity and nymity-tool-india-metoo- movement-
revealed communication, it is pertinent to refer to 191014112350666.html
the new notions of identity created by anonymous
protest. By linking identity to political Matthews, Steve. “Anonymity and the Social
commitments and collective endeavours and Self." American Philosophical Quarterly, 47(4)
including people through its offer of negative and (2010): 351-63, www.jstor.org/stable/25734161.
positive freedoms, anonymity generates new,
robust forms of democratic deliberation. As a McGarry, Aidan, Erhart, Itir, Eslen-Ziya, Hande,
form- a model of political communication- it is Jenzen, Olu, and Korkut, Umut. "Introduction:
mostly compatible with and serves democratic The Aesthetics of Global Protest: Visual Culture
values and its acceptance should be contextually and Communication." In The Aesthetics of
determined. Only in instances when anonymity as Global Protest: Visual Culture and
a form hinders democratic objectives like law and Communication, edited by McGarry, Aidan,
order or security should it be rejected. The Erhart, Itir, Eslen-Ziya, Hande, Jenzen, Olu, and
content of anonymous protest should not be used Korkut, Umut. Amsterdam: Amsterdam
to argue against it. State restrictions against University Press, 2020.
anonymous assertions in such contexts should be
removed so as to ensure a flourishing dissent, Nickelsburg, Monica, “A Brief History of the Guy
expressed in unique ways, in a modern democracy. Fawkes Mask,” The Week, July 3, 2013,
https://theweek.com/articles/463151/brief-
. history-guy-fawkes-mask

BIBLIOGRAPHY Rodriguez, Armado, and Robin Clair. 1999.
“Graffiti as Communication: Exploring the
Akdeniz, Yaman. “Anonymity, Democracy, and Discursive Tensions of Anonymous Texts.” The
Cyberspace.” Social Research, 69(1) (2002): 223- Southern Communication Journal, 65(1) (1999):
37, www.jstor.org/stable/40971545. 1–15.

Asenbaum, Hans. “Anonymity and Democracy: Ruiz, Pollyanna. “Revealing Power: Masked
Absence as Presence in the Public Sphere.” Protest and the Blank Figure.” Cultural Politics,
American Political Science Review, 112(3) (2018): 9(3) (2013): 263–79.
459-472.
Ryan, Yasmine, “Anonymous and the Arab
Bachmann, Gotz, Knecht, Michi, and Wittel, Uprisings,” Aljazeera, May19, 2011
Andreas. “The Social Productivity of Anonymity.” https://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/20
Ephemera, 17(2) (2017). 11/05/201151917634659824.html

Coleman, Gabriella, “What It’s Like to Participate Young, Iris Marion. “Situated Knowledge and
in Anonymous’ Actions,” The Atlantic, December Democratic Discussions.” In The Politics of
10, 2010, Inclusion and Empowerment, edited by John,
https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive Anderson, Birte, Siim. New York: Palgrave
/2010/12/what-its-like-to-participate-in- Macmillan, 2004.
anonymous-actions/67860/

Fraser, Nancy. "Rethinking the Public Sphere: A
Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing
Democracy." Social Text, no. 25/26 (1990): 56-80,
www.jstor.org/stable/466240.

Guerrilla Girls. “Guerrilla Girls: Reinventing the
‘F’ Word: Feminism.” Accessed January 26, 2020,
https://www.guerrillagirls.com

Jayawardane, Neelika, “Anonymity is a necessary
tool for India's #MeToo movement,” Aljazeera,
October 14, 2019,
https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/ano

26

Sabab 2020

From Philosopher-Kings to Data Sinks

The Allegory of the Digital Cave

Raksha Gopal
Department of Political Science

Data Science and Machine learning are the unchallenged kings of the 21st century. Data is ubiquitous and the quantum of data
produced by individuals every second of the day is so large that no single mind can grasp its significance. This is where data
analytics systems and machine learning take charge – they aspire to help us interpret this data and serve it to us in comprehensive
formats. As the virtual world gradually takes precedence over our lives, we turn to the vast expanse of data that surrounds us, for
knowledge. As the tools to analyse and interpret data change – through crowdsourcing, machine learning, induction software – the
meaning and conception of knowledge are also changing. In an attempt to unveil the parallels between Plato’s philosopher-kings
and the data sciences, this paper aims to analyse the evolution and relevance of Plato’s epistemology in the contemporary world by
contrasting the Allegory of the Cave with an Allegory of the Digital Cave. In this ‘Age of Data’, knowledge is exteriorised
outside the human mind and located in artificial intelligence; the use of mathematical algorithms replaces the significance of
individual reason; the quest for truth is of secondary importance to effective action, and the fabricated-self substitutes the supreme
self. The value and worth of what constitutes knowledge are changing as is the location of this knowledge. Is it time to crown data
analytics as the contemporary philosopher-kings and hope that they can guide us on how towards leading a just life?

Introduction knowledge are also changing. This contemporary
phenomenon challenges the existing
In the 21st century, the world has progressed to epistemologies in classical political philosophy.
the virtual realm, far beyond the imagination of
the philosophers of Ancient Greece theorizing Plato’s epistemology is remarkably engaging and
about life, morality, ethics and justice. The ‘Age controversial. Plato spent his life defining and
of Data Science’ is here to stay. Humans generate redefining the boundaries of his ‘ideal’ poleis, or
up to 2.5 quintillion bytes of data every day and the just city. According to him, the just city would
this pace is accelerating at a phenomenal rate be ruled by his highest class, the philosopher-
(Marr, 2019). This data exists in the form of kings, who had transcended the material world of
internet searches, our activities on social media the senses to embrace the immaterial world of
platforms, YouTube videos, text messages, Skype forms, which represented true knowledge, using
calls, Uber deliveries, voice searches, downloads – reason. The ideal city would be one where
that is, every click, swipe and double-tap which philosopher-kings would act as the moral experts
determine our online presence. Where does this guiding the citizens of the poleis to lead good, just
data go and what is its use? The virtual realm and virtuous lives. While the idea of having ‘moral
appears as the ultimate source of knowledge; it experts’ in our present-day cities who would
functions as a data bank, collecting, collating, inform us of how to lead our lives may seem
interpreting and analysing the traces we leave appalling to people, Plato’s epistemology is
through our devices and then serving it to us on a worthy of greater attention because it poses an
platter, ready to be consumed. The quantum of interesting paradox in our data-driven lives.
data produced is so vast that no single mind can
make sense of it. It is in this background that data It seems that, today, the worldwide web has
science has gained status as a tool to help us make answers to all our questions; knowledge is just a
sense of the data that surrounds us. As the tools search bar and a click away. In fact, many hail
to analyse and interpret data change – through
crowdsourcing, machine learning and induction
programmes – the meaning and conception of

27

Sabab 2020

Google as the ‘virtual guru’ - a universal teacher the imprisoned men uncritically believe that the
available at the beck and call of every one with the shadows constitute reality. This forms the lowest
answers to a simple math problem and to the level of understanding, that of the ‘Producer
question of ‘what is the difference between a good Class’. When released from the chains, the men
life and a bad life?’ Therefore, it is important to finally turn to see the objects and the source of
analyse the relevance of Plato’s epistemology and the fire. They learn that their initial understanding
its focus on the use of logos (reason) by was based on illusion and ignorance. They now
philosopher-kings in the contemporary era of data develop a second and more sophisticated level of
sciences, machine learning and the semantic web understanding of the world around them. This is
which seem to be the locus of all knowledge. the level of common sense, where men are
Have we reached an age where knowledge can be exposed to the sensory world. However, they are
abstracted from the human mind and located in still in relative darkness. But, even among them,
the blue screens we scroll through? Can reason be Plato claims that the potential philosopher-kings,
overturned by algorithms? Can data science would dare to make the difficult journey out of
reveal the secret to a just life? Is Artificial the Cave. They now gain the ability to engage in
Intelligence even a source of knowledge as Plato abstract thinking and uses mathematical tools and
imagined it to be in the past? Is it time to crown the science to develop a deeper understanding of
the data analytical systems as the contemporary the world. This is the third level of
philosopher-king? This paper aims to analyse the ‘Understanding’ but it still not true knowledge.
relevance of Plato’s epistemology by theorising Eventually, some of these men would reach the
about an ‘Allegory of the Digital Cave’ and real world where they experience daylight for the
attempting to answer these questions. first time. They are dazzled by the strong light and,
initially, are confused. When they are adjusted to
1. Understanding Plato’s Epistemology: the light, using their reason, they finally see the
Forms, The Cave and Knowledge forms of objects around them and obtain
The Allegory of the Cave helps us understand the knowledge. These men are the philosophers of
tripartite division of the classes in the just society. society who have understood forms and have
According to Plato, each person has a nature seen the source of the light, the Sun, which
(physis) which fits him for a kind of work (ergon). illuminates all the forms around them. Having
On this basis, the citizens of the just city would be experienced the real world, some among these
divided into the full guardians who are philosophers re-enter the false world of the Cave.
philosophers, the younger auxiliary guardians who Although they have an immediate urge to escape
are the soldiers and the money-makers or the Cave and return to the world of philosophical
producer class. To distinguish the Philosopher- speculation, they recognise a duty to help others
King from the guardians and the producers, Plato still shackled within the cave and trapped in the
details the difference between ‘opinions’ and realm of ignorance and imagination. These are the
‘knowledge’. True knowledge according to Plato is ‘Philosopher-Kings’. Through this analogy, Plato
the knowledge of forms. Forms are permanent justifies why those who use reason are selected to
essences or ideals of objects. They are real as rule the poleis and its citizens as philosopher-
opposed to the illusionary and transient, kings.
appearances of objects that we assume as reality.
This true knowledge can only be acquired by the Plato’s theory of forms and the Allegory of the
philosophers because they have the capacity to Cave can be complemented with another theory
use reason and transcend the material world. he discusses in Meno; wherein he draws a
distinction between knowledge and true belief.
In the allegory of the cave, Plato’s literary Socrates, According to Plato, knowledge is a true belief.
elucidates the following vision. We must imagine However, true beliefs do not ‘stay in their place’
men sitting deep within a cave shackled at their and must be ‘tethered’ by aitias logismos (the
arms and legs with their backs turned against a calculation of reason, or reasoned explanation).
fire that forms shadows of objects on the walls of “Knowledge has a reliability that true belief does
the cave. In the first instance, with an awareness not; to have confidence in your true beliefs, you
of only the shadows being cast on the cave walls, must give some sort of justification of them. This

28

Sabab 2020

justification process is what turns a belief into knowledge from this. This data cannot be used in
knowledge; it makes it reliable” (O'Hara 2002). its present form and thus represents a lower and
This tradition is often called the ‘Justified True shallow level of understanding. To understand
Belief’ theory of knowledge. It establishes the this data, data scientists have developed data
value of knowledge as belief plus ‘something’. analysis systems to analyse and interpret
According to Kieron O’Hara, this tradition thus functional relationships between the inputs.
requires any form of knowledge to have three Machine learning is the most common technique
main features. In simple words, these features are that has been developed in the presence of
that - plentiful data and cheap computing infrastructure.
These methods thrive on the volume and variety
1. X is true. of the input and can be made to wrest meaning
from big data. As explained by Dan McQuillan,
2. A believes in X. “these systems assume a functional relationship
between the input features (i.e. the data we
3. A is justified in believing that X is true. upload), which can be any number of different
measurable aspects of the context under study,
Therefore, knowledge is a psychological state and the desired output (…) (McQuillan 2017)”.
(belief), must be true and capable of justification. Algorithms are applied to datasets to arrive at an
output. Now in a more understandable form, this
. newly interpreted data is available to the cavemen
within those screens. They can access this
2. Discovering the Allegory of the Digital knowledge online on the internet. Therefore, we
Cave escape the Digital Data Cave that binds us to
To draw out a corollary to the allegory of the factual, quantified information.
Cave, the focus is now on the contemporary
world where we as humans inhabit a type of a Plato’s Cave represents the material and sensory
‘Digital Cave’. Living within this Cave, human world. However, our contemporary digital cave,
beings, in the ‘era of the Internet’, are the subjects while emulating Plato’s dichotomised world,
of analysis. The first step is to define this Digital conceives of a material world that is itself divided
Cave. It represents the virtual world we live in into two spheres; the realm of big data that is
today which stands in contrast to the real and the available to the senses but cannot be understood
sensory world. This world is represented by the by an individual mind alone in its raw form, and
vast expanse of our digital lives - the internet, the second realm of knowledge which the tools of
social media websites, computer screens and data gathering and analysis alone can transcend.
artificial intelligence. As individuals we feed scores For example, these algorithms are devoted to
of data into this virtual world. Consciously and guessing what we might buy next, and showing us
unconsciously we leave footprints and shadows of advertisements for it; based on our searches and
our activities online which AI systems collect and which links we click on, the amount of time we
store in databanks. This includes permissions, spend on them (the input – raw data), they can
personal details, the likes and comments we leave decide what pops up on our searches and which
on social media sites, online opinion polls we websites might interest us (the determined
participate in, or information collected by data outcome); they are designed to predict what we
analysis systems themselves as they track our might likely do in the future and, at times,
search history and our general virtual behaviour. influence our thought process (pre-emptive
action). Often the results are ludicrously
For the purpose of this analysis, let us imagine inaccurate; sometimes they are disturbingly
individuals who ‘reside’ within this virtual cave precise.
and whose lives are inextricably linked to digital
systems and the internet. Just like the prisoners in
Plato’s Cave are surrounded by the shadows of
objects, in this Digital Cave, individual system
users are surrounded by data that is
incomprehensible to human mind in its raw form.
They are tied by their own points of view,
opinions and preferences and cannot generate any

29

Sabab 2020

3. Plato’s Original Cave versus our Digital world. By extension, this also represents the
Cave binary between the human self and the physical
The implications of this analysis on Plato’s world (the mind-body split). In Plato’s theory of
epistemology are significant. A comparison of knowledge, forms represent the constant and
both these caves reveals the following. permanent. Using reason and contemplation, one
can understand the supreme self that is permanent
3.1 ‘Knowledge without the Knower’ and unchanging.

First, knowledge is exteriorised. According to In this contemporary epistemology that we are
Goldstein, the prevalence of machine learning developing, a similar binary in the virtual world
implies that there is now the existence of has already been mentioned–the world of raw and
knowledge without the knower. Plato locates individual data and knowledge derived from it –
knowledge in the minds of the philosopher-kings. both of which are immanentized in the material
However, in this Digital Cave, knowledge is world (Sacasas 2018). Thus, the material world is
dissociated from the human mind and planted in established as the ultimate source of all knowledge.
software that exhibit artificial intelligence. ‘Data and some magic algorithmic sauce are now
Individual minds and their training now become the key that unlocks the truth about the self
obsolete. Knowledge in this form becomes a (Sacasas 2018)’. In the digital world, we begin to
commodity. “The relationship between the search for the self in the data we create, and the
suppliers and users of knowledge to the knowledge generated by data analysis systems. It
knowledge they supply and use is now tending … is not some pre-existing form or essence or ideal
to assume the form already taken by the that must be prized using reason. It is transient
relationship of commodity producers and and can be modified as data piles up within the
consumers to the commodities they produce and cave. Sacasas suggests that in this sense the
consume - that is, the form of value” (Lyotard Platonic self is now modernized: “knowledge
1984, 6). It is, hence, not an individual who today is not simply about knowing what is there
escapes the Digital Cave, but a data analysis but about knowing what we are fabricating”
mechanism. Does this mean that artificial (Sacasas 2018). Therefore, the idea of truth that is
intelligence replaces the philosopher-kings as a central to Plato’s epistemology is now traded for a
source of knowledge? This leads to the second truth we create to fit our needs - to aid effective
observation. action above all else.

3.2 ‘Applied Mathematics over Applied A case in point to support this change in the
Reason’ nature and value of the truth is the increasing
usage of big data models by political consultancy
Plato emphasises reason as a tool to be used by services that use voter databases to predict the
the philosophers to escape the material and voting behaviour of individuals and induce
sensory world and understand the forms of behavioural changes through targeted advertising.
objects. Rational speculation alone can pave the Most recently, the Cambridge Analytica-Facebook
path to true knowledge. The data sciences replace scandal of 2018 revealed the misuse of big data in
reason with mathematical inductions and this regard. CA was able to modify voter
algorithms to look for patterns in individual user behaviour through what Alexander Nix called
behaviour. In fact, Google, the most popular ‘behavioural communication’ - crafting lies and
search engine today, practices crowdsourcing to targeting them. That is, by generating fake news,
provide the best services to its users using they target voters and educate their behaviour.
statistics to provide knowledge to its customers. Johan Ugander suggests that in the era of big data,
Clearly, numbers and mathematical algorithms there is very little space for the truth.
acquire centre-stage in escaping the Data Cave.
3.4 ‘Redefining Knowledge’
3.3 ‘The Fabricated Self and Value of
Truth’ Finally, in this ‘digital age’, the concept of what
constitutes knowledge undergoes a dynamic
As mentioned before, in the Phaedrus, Plato transformation. As mentioned earlier, Plato
creates a binary between the metaphysical world believed that true knowledge was the knowledge
of truth and forms as distinct from the material

30

Sabab 2020

of ‘forms. These forms, enlightened by the idea of these results are given to judges during criminal
the good, transcend the world of appearances and sentencing. Thus, justice is now determined using
opinions. In the contemporary world, data data sciences. A study by ProPublica, a non-profit,
analysis systems have transformed Plato’s revealed the data risks involved in using such data
conception of knowledge. Using mathematical systems: these assessments reveal racial biases are
algorithms, the emphasis is now on inducing fairly common. It was found that black
enduring patterns and relationships between defendants were far more likely than white
datasets. Knowledge as justified true beliefs has defendants to be incorrectly judged to be at a
been replaced by a conception of knowledge as higher risk of recidivism, while white defendants
useful information. Moreover, the value of truth is were more likely than black defendants to be
replaced by the value of effectiveness in incorrectly flagged as low risk (Angwin, Kirchner,
extracting meaning from the vast expanse of data et al., Machine Bias 2016). Incapable of applying
that is now available. Efficiency and effectiveness critical thinking and reason, data sciences cannot
become the virtues of this era. Thus, “Knowledge convert bad input into good output. Thus, there is
is that information which is usable for the a high risk of data carrying the embedded social
purposes of supporting or suggesting action; it is a biases and prejudice of those who developed the
stepping stone to some end” (O'Hara 2002). software. Therefore, it is important to question
the validity of the knowledge that is generated by
4. Evolution of the Knowledge AI. This is an area of possible research in the
It is evident from the above analysis that the future to gauge the effectiveness of AI as claimed
nature of knowledge is rapidly changing in by data scientists.
contemporary times with advancements on the
fronts of artificial intelligence and the data 4.2 ‘Fake World, Fake Lives?’
sciences. With the classical conceptions of
knowledge, other metaphysical dimensions such The second question that arises is that does this
as truth and the self must be challenged and, if ‘knowledge’ free us from our digital caves and
needed, redefined to develop an understanding of allow us to make sense of the data around us? In
philosophy that is applicable in contemporary one sense, by quantifying all data and deriving
times. Yet, in the background of Platonic functional relationships, knowledge is now
philosophy, the above analysis raises some accessible to all those who can afford the internet.
questions. The software engineer, Marcus, in Rebecca
Goldstein’s fictional dialogue in a conversation
4.1 ‘Using Data Analytics to Administer with Plato says that, “(...) the kind of knowledge
Justice’ you think belongs in the domain of philosophical
experts belongs in the hands of the crowd
First, are data analysis systems the new-age (Goldstein 2014, 124-125).” While the idea of
philosopher-kings capable of guiding individuals having moral experts or philosopher-kings
towards the ‘good’, ‘virtuous’ and ‘just’ life? Let us educating us about how to lead a good life is
consider an example of the Criminal Justice absurd in today’s world, this position is now
System in the United States of America which occupied by AI and the internet. One argument
uses expansive data analysis software called put forward on an Alibaba Cloud by an
COMPAS to determine recidivism rates among anonymous author identifies a major data trap.
criminal offenders in the country. The knowledge Due to limited tools available for measurement
derived from the data of prisoners (offences and learning and the assumptions that AI may
committed, family history, social circle etc.) is make while analysing datasets, it is possible that
used to score them – known as risk assessments. the results may reveal only certain and specific
The use of these scores is common in courtrooms aspects of objects. This means that our data may
across the country. They are used to inform be incapable of presenting the full picture of
decisions about who can be set free at every stage anything regardless of how much data is collected
of the criminal justice system, for assigning bond and what tools are used. Another extreme
amounts and other crucial decisions about possibility that we may derive is that of data
defendants’ freedom. In several state judiciaries, overload. Since the entire system depends on
individual inputs by users, each data set may have

31

Sabab 2020

multiple dimensions, each of which represents 5. Conclusion
some form of truth. Thus, each dataset may get This paper shows that in the era of data science
represented so many times that it may be difficult and machine learning, it seems as though data
to arrive at any consensus on what is true and analytical software alone can help us understand
what is knowledge. This is a battle of the extremes the data that surrounds us. Using mathematical
– either we risk a situation where the system algorithms, they derive meaning from the data and
reveals a false world, or a situation where multiple present it to us as knowledge, which is now ready
dimensions exists leading to a difficulty to derive to be consumed by us. The conception of
patterns. Therefore, as answer to this second knowledge then has undergone a complete
question, it is possible that data science and transformation. Not only is it now exteriorised
machine learning may not free us from our digital outside the human mind and devoid of reason, it
caves. The emphasis on fabricated knowledge also guides us towards a conception of the self
means that AI delimitates the boundaries of that changes as the inputs change. This new-age
knowledge by making assumptions and quantizing definition of knowledge poses a direct challenge
everything. By applying attributes of anything to to Plato and his theory of forms and justified true
other things using appropriate codes, AI creates a beliefs as the source of knowledge. Data science
homogeneous world. Assuming big data to be threatens to usurp the status occupied by the
homogeneous and wholly representative of reality philosopher-king. This analysis of the relevance of
seems idealistic. Thus, according to Sacasas, “the Plato’s Allegory of the Cave in the digital era only
work of climbing out the (digital) cave is opens avenues for further research and
simultaneously the work of creating a new cave in questioning. We must probe into the existing
which we now dwell (Sacasas 2018). Thus, we use theories of knowledge. On the one hand, if Plato’s
data analytics to create a tunnel leading to yet epistemology is obsolete today, do we need to
another cave. redefine our entire conception of what constitutes
knowledge? We must investigate into delineating
When the Cambridge Analytica - Facebook new boundaries for the truth and the self. On the
scandal broke out, people were shocked to know other hand, taking the existing data traps into
the level of interference in electoral campaigns consideration, and given the persistence of
around the world. The extent to which
behavioural targeting was able to influence Platonic philosophy through all these years, what
people's votes and, thereby, election results in avenues are available to us to circumvent the
several countries, particularly the US, is still being problems that AI poses in answering ethical and
investigated. But the question that we must ask moral questions such as those related to justice.
ourselves here is an important one - can any This includes issues of maladministration of
technology ever relieve us of our capacity of justice, ethical dilemmas such as behavioural
individual judgement? targeting of voters, and forging homogeneity in a
heterogeneous world. In a world of 8 billion
It appears that as we progress from the original people data analytics must also be sensitive to the
Cave (Plato’s) to our Digital Cave, there is an particular social struggles of individual and groups
unmistakable detachment from the perceptive to create a more holistic vision of the world. One
capabilities as humans. Reiterating once again - thing we can say for certain is that electing
the nature of data is too vast to be understood by philosopher-kings is not an option. As we move
a single human mind alone. Yet, to believe from theories based on the rule of philosopher
everything that data presents is a worse situation kings to the prominence of data sinks, the
to be in than having no data at all. We cannot resources required to navigate this realm of data
ignore the importance of emphasising the human must be discovered in the absence of the former.
capacity of rational thinking.

32

Sabab 2020

BIBLIOGRAPHY Plato. 2011-2012. Meno. Translated by Cathal
Woods.
Alibaba Cloud. 2018. “Big Data’s Data Trap 1:
Plato’s Allegory of the Cave.” Medium. 11 January. Sacasas, L.M. 2018. “The Allegory of The Cave
https://medium.com/@Alibaba_Cloud/big- for the Digital Age.” The Frailest Thing: Technology,
datas-data-trap-1-plato-s-allegory-of-the-cave- Culture and Ethics. 1 December.
7483426db2db. https://thefrailestthing.com/2018/12/01/the-
allegory-of-the-cave-for-the-digital-age/.
Angwin, Julia, Lauren Kirchner, Jeff Larson, and
Surya Mattu. 2016. “How We Analyzed the
COMPAS Recidivism Algorithm.” ProPublica Web
Site. 23 May.
https://www.propublica.org/article/how-we-
analyzed-the-compas-recidivism-algorithm.

Angwin, Julia, Lauren Kirchner, Jeff Larson,
Surya Mattu, and ProPublica. 2016. “Machine
Bias.” ProPublica WebSite. 23 May.
https://www.propublica.org/article/machine-
bias-risk-assessments-in-criminal-sentencing.

Bruce, Peter. 2017. “When the Big Data Meets
Big Lie.” The Scientific American. 2 March.
https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-
blog/when-the-big-lie-meets-big-data/.

Day, John. 1988. “Plato: The Republic.” In A
Guide to Political Classics - Plato to Rousseau, by
Murray Forsyth and Maurice Keens-Soper, 7-36.
Oxford University Press.

Goldstein, Rebecca. 2014. “Plato at the
Googleplex.” In Plato at the Googleplex: Why
Philosophy Won't Go Away, by Rebecca Newberger
Goldstein, 81-157. New York: Pantheon Books.

Lyotard, Jean-François. 1984. The Postmodern
Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Translated by
Geoff Bennington and Brian Massumi.
Manchester University Press.

Marr, Bernard. 2019. “How Much Data Do We
Create Every Day? The Mind-Blowing Stats
Everyone Should Read .” Forbes.
https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/201
8/05/21/how-much-data-do-we-create-every-
day-the-mind-blowing-stats-everyone-should-
read/#8532c9260ba9.

McQuillan, Daniel. 2017. “Data Science as
Machinic Neoplatonism.” Philosophy and Technology
1-20.

O'Hara, Kieron. 2002. Plato and the Internet
(Postmodern Encounters). Edited by Richard
Appignanesi. Icon Books.

33

Sabab 2020

Analysing Gender Biases in Matrilineal Societies:

A Review Paper with comparative insights from Asia and Africa
Tanya Singh

Department of Economics

The term ‘matrilineal’ is commonly mistaken for ‘matriarchal’. However, there is a major difference between the two as the former
refers to the anthropological term for patterns of inheritance and the latter, to the dominance of women. As argued by Agrawal
(1994), a number of tribes that are referred to as matriarchal are instead only matrilineal, due to the wide prevalence of
significant gender biases. She makes use of fieldwork to argue the same. This paper is an effort in the same direction. However,
the sources that have been relied upon, and the methodology adopted are markedly different. When a certain community is referred
to as ‘matrilineal’ or ‘matriarchal’, there is an inherent assumption that women in that community are empowered. As a result,
state intervention to promote gender equality is thought of as unnecessary. A number of tribes in the world practice matriliny.
However, gender biases and discrimination exist even in these societies, as presented in this paper. This paper seeks to draw
parallels between the patriarchal societies and the matrilineal ones in terms of gender discrimination. An attempt has been made
to investigate whether there are differences in the literacy, health and economic indicators between men and women amongst the
matrilineal tribes of the world and why such biases exist in societies where women command control of property as well as land.

Introduction possess enough resources to deal with them. Also,
as far as political rights are concerned, the other
A reasonable argument in favor of studying states of India are constitutionally mandated to
women living in matrilineal societies has to do reserve 33% of all seats of the local bodies for
with the fact that these women experience, what women. However, Meghalaya being a special zone
have been termed as, the ‘double negative effects’: doesn’t face any such obligation. As a result of
the kind of discrimination that is experienced by this, women are not allowed to elect individuals
all women universally, along with the additional for the positions of tribal or village chiefs, let
burden of living under the assumption that alone become one (De et.al, 2007).
women dominate and control everything and thus,
do not need attention (Wallang, 2012). Such a The assumption behind such conditions is that
scenario would entail a situation wherein women the system of matriliny, wherein ancestral descent
living in patrilineal societies attain empowerment and inheritance of property is traced through
at a rapid pace when compared to their matrilineal maternal instead of paternal lines, automatically
counterparts. translates into more powerful womenfolk. There
is no denying that having the right over and access
This is best exemplified by the case of the Khasi to property can lead to a betterment of women’s
tribes in the Indian state of Meghalaya. Despite welfare in many ways (Agarwal, 1994), but the
being a matrilineal society, the state has argument that the mere inheritance itself
shockingly high rates of domestic violence, cases translates into empowerment of women is flawed.
of desertion, rape and sexual harassment, which Rather in some matrilineal kinship systems,
have been unfortunately ignored and highly property is vested in males and passed from
understudied (Behal et.al, 2003). Dealing with mother's brother to sister's son. This has been
such phenomena become difficult given the false termed as the ‘matrilineal puzzle’ (Watson-Franke,,
belief that such practices can’t exist in a
matrilineal society and should they, women

34

Sabab 2020

et.al 1992). Also, in most of the matrilineal to the unskilled nature of the work available, a
societies, the major decisions involving women worker’s access to earning is not a function of
are taken by male members of her natal family, as educational achievements. As a result, women of
opposed to the male members of the conjugal the Khasi tribe are believed to drop out at an early
family, as in the case of patrilineal societies. stage of schooling. Since men do not bear the
Therefore, it is very much possible for a responsibility of earning or even looking after
community to be matrilineal as well as patriarchal their children, they have ample time to invest in
at the same time. education. Overtime, such processes have
translated into the creation of a more educated
1. Methods and skilled male work force, which can enter the
This paper presents an extension on a systematic formal sector in the urban areas. Mobility is thus
analysis of existing papers, based on evidence gendered. Subsequently, it has been found that
from matrilineal societies of Asia and Africa. The female-headed households earn lesser when
author has avoided carrying out a comparative compared to the male-headed households (De
study of patrilineal and matrilineal societies, as the et.al, 2007). With the expansion of education of
matrilineal societies in question happen to be men and the increasing involvement of male
tribal communities. Modern metrics of growth, members in the socio-economic activities, it has
development and gender empowerment are most been observed that the tendency of male
often displayed exclusively amongst communities domination is increasing (Das et.al, 2011).
that are at a higher stage of economic
advancement, and are incidentally patrilineal in For the Melayu clan of Nagari Bonjol in
nature. Since matrilineal societies are way behind Indonesia, which also follows a matrilineal pattern
the more economically sophisticated societies that of inheritance, education is considered to be
are majorly patrilineal, using development unimportant, with very few members completing
indicators to compare the women of the two junior and senior school. The tribe has
types of social systems, would not reveal a traditionally had a culture of early marriage, which
complete picture. Instead, a better way to reinforces low level of education amongst both
investigate the differences in gender development genders. According to Stephen Klasen, female
would be to compare the status of the two education rates show a direct correlation not just
genders in matrilineal societies on a case-to-case with age of marriage but also with birth rates: the
basis. This paper is a comprehensive review of higher the level of education, the greater the
works that adhere to a similar framework, with chance of having low birth rates. However, the
reference to the matrilineal societies of Africa and high birth rates in these societies cause more
Asia. pressure on existing resources and lead to poverty
and lack of development. Deprived of any other
2. Education means of survival, land is the only resource the
There is great variance in the level of education community falls back upon. Amongst the Melayu
attained amongst people belonging to matrilineal clan, communal management of land has
societies and the nature of gender differences in traditionally been considered an area of male
educational attainment. Amongst the Khasi tribes expertise. As a result, though land is passed
of the Indian state of Meghalaya, women living in through the female line, the actual control of land
urban areas were found to have equal access to and resources lies in the hands of men (Mutolib
education, when compared to men. Encouragingly, et.al, 2016). Since men control the resource that
they also had the freedom of developing the community depends upon for its survival,
vocational skills, a parameter on which the rest of male domination akin to that of the patrilineal
the country fares poorly. Consequently, women of societies is enabled.
the community were found to be more assertive
when it came to taking decisions that affected The African Matrilineal Belt also exhibits huge
them, including those pertaining to their disparity in literacy rates, especially when it comes
children’s lives (Wallang, 2012). The situation of to higher education (McGee, 2015). Moreover, the
rural women, however, was not as reassuring since situation gets even worse in rural areas or regions
they clearly had lesser exposure to education. Due that are located in the interiors of the land. There

35

Sabab 2020

is relative gender parity in case of enrolment but 3. Health
dropout rates are higher amongst girls (Lowes, Reproductive health refers to the physical,
2016). There also exists a gendered dimension to psychological and emotional ability of women to
the kind of subjects that women pursue, with the give birth to, as well as adequate attention to
participation of women in technical education children. It is one of the key factors in
being extremely low. Factors responsible for low determining the future of any economy and
level of female educational attainment include lack society, as it is generally believed that women who
of security and safety, dependence on a girl’s labor aren't healthy enough will produce unhealthy
in performing household chores and food children, and will also not be able to provide
production, and the widely prevalent practice of adequate material and psychological resources to
early marriage (Lowes, 2017). ensure the wellbeing of their children (Sadana,
2002).
The level of educational attainment has had
differing impacts on women of different regions The status of reproductive health amongst Khasi
that are a part of the African matrilineal belt. women is not very promising, when compared to
Comparison between the two matrilineal African the rest of the country. In fact, the state is one of
nations of Angola and Zambia is revealing in this the worst performers on parameters that are
respect. For most part of its existence, Angola concerned with maternal health. Such a situation
witnessed a violent and destructive civil war which would have been easier to understand if we were
destroyed the educational and developmental to limit ourselves to the study of rural areas as
infrastructure of the nation. This translated into they generally tend to lack adequate infrastructure
degradation of the quality of learning and teaching as well as literacy levels which are prerequisites of
that took place in the institutions of Angola, as a good reproductive health. However, even Khasi
result of which being educated didn’t endow women living in the urban areas show deplorable
significant skills to a person (Pehrsson, 2000). levels of reproductive health (Subba, 2010). This
Though men were more likely to have attained is difficult to explain, given the argument that a
formal education, it necessarily didn’t add to their matrilineal system is believed to be more
skillset when compared to women, who showed empowering for women. Even amongst the Khasi
lower rates of enrolment and education. tribe, women are made to undergo numerous
Consequently, the differences in the rates of pregnancies, in order to achieve the desired
educational attainment didn’t translate into labor number of children. Younger women have the
market segregation wherein usually women shortest space between their pregnancies
become a part of the more informal sector of the (Nongbri, 2003). Coupled with closed spaced
economy, while men assume positions in the births, numerous pregnancies erode a mother's
formal sector. Zambia, on the other hand, has nutritional status leading to conditions like anemia,
managed to maintain peace unlike most of its which threaten maternal and neonatal health.
neighbors. With men showing a greater degree of
enrolment in educational institutions, the quality The African matrilineal belt also performs poorly
of education did translate into labor market on indicators of maternal health, with some of the
segregation. This has had severe repercussions on highest maternal mortality rates in the world
women’s ability to act as full guardians of their (Pehrsson, 2000). It has been argued that factors
children, to set up and run business, to fight for such as poor diet, low access to reproductive
justice, to acquire loans or process title deeds to health services, and high incidence of malaria and
land etc. Their average monthly income is less HIV/AIDS among pregnant women and low
than half of men’s and they are mostly prevalence of family planning methods are
concentrated in the informal sector which lacks responsible for the deplorable state of maternal
job security and adequate labor standards, health in this region (Mgawadere et.al, 2017). A
rendering them less competitive. phenomenon characteristic of the African
matrilineal belt is the high prevalence of teenage
promiscuity and pregnancies, which at times leads
to complications during delivery or abortions
(Hardy, 1987). Few women of this region have a
birth interval of less than 18 months if the

36

Sabab 2020

preceding child is living at the time of the next respectively (Pande et.al, 2018). The situation in
birth. However, this proportion increases the African matrilineal belt is however, more
exponentially if the preceding birth’s status is encouraging, with female life expectancy
found deceased at the time of the next birth, exceeding male life expectancy by six years on an
which is often the case due to high rates of average, despite women of this region being
neonatal and infant mortality in the region. A massively affected by the HIV epidemic. This has
related cause of closed spaced births is preference been explained by some by emphasizing on the
for having a son. This is evident from the fact that fact that this zone has faced large-scale violence
women who gave birth to a girl show closer for a long period of time, leading to the loss of
spaced births than those women who gave birth mostly men’s lives (Pehrsson, 2000)
to a boy (Kopp et.al, 2018).
The gendered nature of HIV/AIDS reveals how
However, this trend is different in the matrilineal the social structure of the matrilineal belt of
societies of India and Indonesia. Among the Africa undermines the health of women. This can
Minangkabau population of West Sumatra as well be explained with the help of both biological as
as the Khasi women of Meghalaya, the situation is well as socio-cultural reasons. Young women
somewhat reversed, and it is instead the absence especially are more vulnerable to HIV/AIDS
of a girl child that tends to exacerbate subsequent infection than their male counterparts.
fertility, that is, women who don’t have daughters Furthermore, there is widespread prevalence of
show a greater frequency in births than those with polygamy in certain rural areas and young girls
daughters (Guilmoto, 2015). These two, to the possess limited powers when it comes to
best of my knowledge, are the only cases ever negotiating conditions for sexual activity. This is
found that indicate an “active” preference for because of the woman’s lower status in marriage
daughters, as opposed to the widely prevalent which makes it difficult to gain influence in sexual
phenomenon of daughter aversion. and reproductive matters. This has serious
implications, economically as well as
Though reproductive health is an important psychologically. An immune system weakened by
indicator of the status of women and their quality HIV infection renders both pregnancy and
of life in a society, it is not very useful when it delivery harder for women to bear physically.
comes to investigating the incidence of gender Lately, a “virgin cure” has been gaining traction
discrimination. A better indicator for this purpose wherein adult men are prescribed by traditional
is that of life expectancy at birth. It is important healers to have sexual intercourse with a virgin, as
to understand that women generally live longer it is falsely believed that such an act can cure a
than their male counterparts, on an average by six man of HIV/AIDS. Evidently, practices like these
to eight years. This is not only due to an inherent consistently undermine the general welfare of
biological advantage that women possess, but also women in the region.
due to behavioral and cultural differences such as
the degree of indulgence in health-damaging 4. Political Participation
behaviors like smoking. However, in some Political participation is another area which
societies, mainly in parts of Asia, these advantages presents a clear divide between the African
are overridden by gender-based discrimination, as matrilineal belt and the matrilineal communities of
a result of which female life expectancy at birth is Asia. Though women in the Asian matrilineal
lower than or equal to that of males, or exceeds societies of Khasi and Minangkabau are more
male life expectancy only marginally. By this active when it comes to participating in an event
argument, to be indicative of a situation of gender of social or religious importance, they show low
equality, female life expectancy must exceed that levels of awareness of political rights and are
of their male counterparts by a significant margin. reluctant to join politics and assume leadership
positions.
Applying this framework, it is easy to deduce that
life expectancy at birth signifies a disadvantageous For Khasi women, it appears to be more of a
situation for Khasi and Minangkabau women, choice that they make on their own, as they
with their life expectancies exceeding that of their consider social and economic activities to be more
male counterparts by only two and three years

37

Sabab 2020

consequential for determining the welfare of their how matriliny does not signify an empowered
families. Amongst the Khasis, political institutions women force. In recent years, there has been an
assume a secondary character (Jecinthal et.al, attempt at studying such communities and it has
2016). been found that at times matriliny actually works
to the detriment of women. This is because when
Amongst the Minangkabau women, however, this men and women in power believe that women in
state of political unawareness and absence on the a certain community are empowered, they also
political stage is a result of patriarchal pan- assume that there is no need for policy actions to
Islamism, Indonesian nation-building, ensure women’s welfare, setting us on a
modernizing ideologies as well as the policies of dangerous path of ignorance. Though there are
the Dutch colonialists. Before the advent of the areas where women of such matrilineal
colonialists, senior Minangkabau women were communities perform better than their patrilineal
active participants of political and community counterparts, they still fall behind on parameters
that are quite fundamental in nature, such as the
decision-making gatherings, wielding great power right to education, health and political
and authority within their lineage, as opposed to participation. Every society, whether patrilineal or
the norm in rest of the Indonesian cultures. matrilineal, has a long way to go before gender
Dutch colonial and later Indonesian national equity becomes a norm.
governments favored the male lineage head over
other types of community members as is evident BIBLIOGRAPHY
from the fact that the Indonesian government Agarwal, Bina. "Gender and command over
recognizes the father as the head of the household property: A critical gap in economic analysis and
policy in South Asia." World development 22, no. 10
and channels forms of development aid to men (1994): 1455-1478.
rather than to women. Compounding this was the Behal, Monisha, and Farida Warjri. "Support
influence of the processes of economic and social services to counter violence against women in
modernization, including increased emigration Meghalaya: A resource directory." Shillong: North
and the increased value of remittances from Eastern Network NEN/UNIFEM South Asia
migrants. This led to an increase in the Regional Office (2003).
importance of the nuclear family at the expense of Blackwood, E. (2000). Webs of power: Women, kin,
the extended family lineages which ultimately led and community in a Sumatran village. Rowman &
Littlefield Publishers.
to a fall in the power that senior women of the Chacko, Pariyaram Mathew, ed. Matriliny in
community used to wield in political and social Meghalaya: Tradition and change. Daya Books, 1998.
matters (Selinaswati, 2007). Das, G. and A. Bezbaruah. "Social transition and
status of women among the Khasi tribe of
The African matrilineal belt, however, boasts of Meghalaya by survey method." Global Research
an active female electorate and high participation Methodology Journal 2, no. 7 (2011).
of women in voting processes. This region also De, Utpal Kumar, and Bholanath Ghose. "Status
performs better when it comes to representation of Women in the Rural Khasi Society of
of women in parliamentary bodies. Another Meghalaya." (2007).
encouraging factor is the strong presence and Douglas, Mary, and Phyllis M. Kaberry. Man in
participation of women’s movements and non- Africa. Routledge, 2013.
governmental organizations (Pehrsson, 2000). Embassy of Sweden. “Sida Gender Country
Though there are major areas of concern such as Profile: Zambia”. Stockholm: Swedish International
underrepresentation of women in the judicial Development Cooperation Agency (2008)
system and an absence of justice-seeking behavior
on their part, the overall situation is much better
when compared to patrilineal areas with similar
levels of economic development.

5. Conclusion
This paper is an attempt at presenting a review of
studies that focus on communities practicing
matriliny in the continents of Asia and Africa, and

38

Sabab 2020

Guilmoto, Christophe Z. "Mapping the diversity Narzary, Pralip Kumar, and Shilpi Mishra Sharma.
of gender preferences and sex imbalances in "Daughter preference and contraceptive-use in
Indonesia in 2010." Population Studies 69, no. 3 matrilineal tribal societies in Meghalaya,
(2015): 299-315. India." Journal of health, population, and nutrition 31,
no. 2 (2013): 278.
Hardy, Daniel B. "Cultural practices contributing
to the transmission of human immunodeficiency Nongbri, T. "Matrilineal puzzle reexamined:
virus in Africa." Reviews of infectious diseases 9, no. 6 Dialectics of kinship and gender among the tribes
(1987): 1109-1119. of North East India." the Practice of Sociology, edited
by M. Choudhury. Delhi: Orient Longman (2003).
Jecinthal, David K, and Abhishek Tripathi.
"Discrimination Against Women in the Khasi Pande, Pekha, and Theo Van der
Matrilineal Society." Scholarly Research Journal for Weide. Handbook of research on multicultural
Interdisciplinary Studies 2699-2700, (2016) perspectives on gender and aging. Information Science
Publishing/IGI Global, 2018.
Klasen, Stephan. "Low schooling for girls, slower
growth for all? Cross‐country evidence on the Pehrsson, Kajsa, Gabriela Cohen, Henda
effect of gender inequality in education on Ducados, and Paulette Lopes. "Towards gender
economic development." The World Bank Economic equality in Angola." Luanda: Swedish Embassy in
Review 16, no. 3 (2002): 345-373. Angola and the Swedish International Development
Authority (SIDA) (2000).
Kopp, Dawn M., Agatha Bula, Suzanne Maman,
Lameck Chinula, Mercy Tsidya, Mwawi Mwale, Peters, Pauline E. "Revisiting the puzzle of
and Jennifer H. Tang. "Influences on birth matriliny in south-central Africa." Critique of
spacing intentions and desired interventions Anthropology 17, no. 2 (1997): 125-227.
among women who have experienced a poor
obstetric outcome in Lilongwe Malawi: a Sadana, Ritu. "Definition and measurement of
qualitative study." BMC pregnancy and childbirth 18, reproductive health." Bulletin of the World Health
no. 1 (2018): 197. Organization 80 (2002): 407-409.

Lowes, Sara. Kinship systems, gender norms, and Selinaswati."A Paradox of WomenRepresentatives
household bargaining: Evidence from the matrilineal belt. in a Muslim Patriarchy and Matrilineal Society in
Harvard mimeo, 2016. West Sumatra, Indonesia." PhD diss., University
of Hawaii at Manoa, 2007.
Lowes, Sara. "Matrilineal Kinship and Spousal
Cooperation: Evidence from the Matrilineal Belt." Stivens, Maila. Matriliny and modernity: Sexual politics
(2017). and social change in rural Malaysia. Allen & Unwin,
1996.
McGee, Karen. "The impact of matriarchal
traditions on the advancement of Ashanti women Subba, Tanka B. "Matriliny, reproductive health
in Ghana." 2015. and reproductive rights an essay on the Khasis of
Meghalaya, Northeast India." (2010).
Mgawadere, Florence, Regine Unkels, Abigail
Kazembe, and Nynke van den Broek. "Factors Wallang, Claris."A study of women empowerment
associated with maternal mortality in Malawi: through education in the matrilineal society of
application of the three delays model." BMC Meghalaya." (2012).
pregnancy and childbirth 17, no. 1 (2017): 219.
Watson-Franke, Maria-Barbara. "Masculinity and
Mutolib, Abdul, Yonariza Mahdi, and R. Hanung the" matrilineal puzzle"." Anthropos (1992): 475-
Ismono. "Gender inequality and the oppression of 488.
women within minangkabau matrilineal society: A
Case study of the management of ulayat forest
land in nagari bonjol, dharmasraya district, west
sumatra province, Indonesia." Asian women 32, no.
3 (2016): 23-49.

39