DLM 03 Developing print-based Learner’s Guide including all related documents
Notes Format of Learner’s Guide
Course: AUTOMOTIVE SERVICING (NC II)
Unit of competency: SERVICE BATTERY SYSTEM
SERVICING BATTERY SYSTEM
Module: At the end of the session, learners should be able to:
Learning outcomes:
Duration: 1. Test Automotive Battery
Situating Learning: 2. Remove Battery
3. Charged Battery
4. Check functionability of battery
40 hrs.
You are hired as an apprentice of an automotive servicing industry. Working
as an apprentice, you don’t have an area of a very specific competency in
the field of automotive that you will be working with. The supervisor of the
said industry had decided that you being the newly hired apprentice would
want you to focus on the service of automotive battery, given a two weeks
specific training for you to be able to learn and be mastered for the said task.
Before you performed the task, you have to learned the following:
1. Appropriate testing of battery
2. Accurate procedure in removing a battery.
3. Correct steps in charging a battery.
4. Appropriate testing of functionality of battery
5. Correct usage of tools and testing instrument.
After the said specific training, as per statement of the supervisor, that you
will be assessed in accordance to progress of your performance as
competent and he would recommend you for a provisionary in status for
employment.
Assessment Criteria: 1. Battery is tested without causing damage to any workplace property
or vehicle.
2. Correct information is accessed and interpreted base on
manufacturer specification.
3. Appropriate test equipment is selected
4. Tests are performed and results analyzed
5. Findings are reported to direct supervisor
6. Battery is removed and replaced without causing damage to any
workplace property or vehicle.
7. Appropriate tools and equipment are selected and used.
8. Action is taken to prevent loss of vehicles electronic memory if
applicable.
9. Battery is charged using the appropriate battery charger.
10. Electrolyte levels are checked and topped up
11. Battery and its terminals are cleaned
12. Multiple connectors are repaired and replaced to restore integrity of
the involved circuit.
13. Leads are connected/disconnected in sequence as per polarity.
14. Vehicle is jump started without causing damage to any workplace
property or vehicle.
15. Jumper leads are selected and used ensuring spike protection is
employed when necessary.
Pedagogical Training in Instructional Design & Delivery for TVET Page 1
© 2010, Institute of Technical Education, Singapore
DLM 03 Developing print-based Learner’s Guide including all related documents
Notes Format of Learner’s Guide
Learning chunk Performance Criteria Learning Activities Learning documents
(Brief description of
1. Determine chemical Main Components of strategies, sequence (Documents
properties of battery are of lesson, evaluation)
automotive battery identified. 1.1 Determine the referenced by each
2. Identify/ Explain Kinds of battery Different types of learning activity)
safety handling of according to battery and its
tools, equipment composition and classification Read Info –Sheet
and instrument function are 1.1.1 types of battery
differentiated. 1.2 State OH&S and its classification
3. Explain Procedures legislation and Answer work sheet
in testing Uses of different principle Test 1.1.2 Questions
Automotive Battery batteries according Read Info –Sheet
to vehicle 1.3 State the Safe 1.2.1 OH&S legislation
classification are handling of battery and principle
explained. electrolyte and Work sheet 1.2.1
acids and Industry Questions
Safe handling and codes of practice. Read Info –Sheet
hazards associated 1.3.1 safe handling
with batteries are 2.1 Determine and disposal of
observed appropriate used battery electrolyte and
of tools equipment acids
Appropriate tools and instrument Answer work sheet
used as per job Test 1.3.2 Questions
requirement. 3.1 Determine Read Info –Sheet
procedure in testing 2.1.1 Tools/
Appropriate automotive battery equipment and
instrument used as instrument and its
per job requirements safety handling.
Answer Work sheet
Tools and 2.1.2 Questions
equipment safety Read Operation
requirement was Sheet 2.1.3
applied. Testing Instruments
Read Operation
Observed personal Sheet 2.1.4
safety Use of Multi-tester
Read Info –Sheet
Battery is tested 3.1.1 Automotive
without causing Battery Testing
damage to any
workplace property Answer Worksheet
or vehicle. Test 3.1.2 Questions
Correct information Use Job Sheet 3.1.3a
is accessed and Battery Testing
interpreted based on Procedure
manufacturer
specifications. Use Job Sheet 3.1.4b
Battery Testing
Appropriate test Procedure
equipment is
selected.
Perform Tests and
results are analyzed
Findings is reported
to direct supervisor
Pedagogical Training in Instructional Design & Delivery for TVET Page 2
© 2010, Institute of Technical Education, Singapore
DLM 03 Developing print-based Learner’s Guide including all related documents
Notes Format of Learner’s Guide
Learning chunk Performance Criteria Learning Activities Learning documents
(Brief description of (Documents
4. Explain procedures Battery is removed strategies, sequence
in removing without causing of lesson, evaluation) referenced by each
Automotive battery damage to any 4.1 Determine the learning activity)
workplace property
5. Apply Electrical or vehicle procedure in Read Info –Sheet
Safety in Charging removing 4.1.1 Removing
Automotive Battery Appropriate tools automotive battery Automotive Battery
and equipment are
6. Explain Procedures selected and used 5.1 Determine electrical Answer Worksheet
in Charging safety in charging Test 4.1.2 - Questions
Automotive Battery. Action is taken to /handling
prevent loss of automotive battery. Use Job Sheet 4.1.3
7. Explain the vehicles electronic Battery removing
Procedures on memory if, 6.1 Determine the Procedure
Testing the applicable procedure in
functionality of charging Read Info –Sheet
Battery Electrical safety in automotive battery 5.1.1 Electrical safety
charging battery is in Charging Battery
observed. 7.1 Determine
procedure in testing Answer Worksheet
Battery is charged the functionality of Test 5.1.2 - Questions
using the battery Read Info –Sheet
appropriate battery 6.1.1 charging
charge Automotive battery
Electrolyte levels are Answer Worksheet
checked and topped Test 6.1.2 –
up Questions
Battery and its Use Job Sheet 6.1.3
terminals are Automotive charging
cleaned. battery procedure
Leads are Read Info –Sheet
connected/disconne 7.1.1 Testing
cted in sequence as Functionality of battery
per polarity
Answer Worksheet
Perform testing the Test 7.1.2 –
functionality of Questions
battery in
accordance to step
and procedure.
Use Job Sheet 7.1.3
Functionality Testing
of Battery Procedure
Pedagogical Training in Instructional Design & Delivery for TVET Page 3
© 2010, Institute of Technical Education, Singapore
DLM 03 Developing print-based Learner’s Guide including all related documents
Notes Format of Learner’s Guide
Learning chunk Performance Criteria Learning Activities Learning documents
(Brief description of (Documents
8. Explain Procedures Replacing battery in strategies, sequence
in replacing the accordance to steps of lesson, evaluation) referenced by each
battery and procedure is learning activity)
performed. 8.1 Discuss procedure
in replacing battery. Read Info –Sheet
8.1.1 Replacing
battery
Answer Worksheet
Test 8.1.2 –
Questions
9. Explain the Vehicle is jump 9.1 Discuss the Use Job Sheet
procedure on how 8.1.3
Procedures on how started without to jumpstart the Replacing Battery
battery. Procedure
to jump start battery causing damage to Read Info-Sheet
9.1.1 -
any work place Jump Start battery
property or vehicle Answer Worksheet
Jumper leads are Test 9.1.2 –
Questions
selected and used
Use Job Sheet
ensuring spike 9.1.3
Jump start battery
protection is procedure
employed when
necessary
Leads are
connected/disconne
cted in correct
according to
sequence and
polarity
Pedagogical Training in Instructional Design & Delivery for TVET Page 4
© 2010, Institute of Technical Education, Singapore
Information Sheet 1.1.1: Types and Classification of Battery
Learning outcomes:
1 Test automotive battery
Learning Activity:
1.1 Types of battery and its classification
Automotive Battery
An automotive battery is an electrochemical device that stores and provides electrical energy.
When the battery is connected to an external load, an energy conversion occurs that results in
current flow through the circuit to operate the load. Electrical energy is produced in the battery
by the chemical reaction that occurs between two dissimilar metal plates that are immersed in
an electrolyte solution.
When the battery is discharging, it changes chemical energy into electrical energy. It is
through this change that the battery releases stored energy. During charging, electrical energy
is converted into chemical energy. as a result, the battery can store energy until it is needed.
The storage battery is the heart of a vehicle’s electrical and electronic systems. It plays
an important role in the operation of the starting, charging (Figure 1), ignition, and accessory
circuits. The largest demand placed on the battery occurs when it must supply current to
operate the starter motor. The amperage requirements of a starter motor may be over several
hundred amps.
Figure 1 The starter motor is the largest drain on a battery,
and the AC generator replenishes that drain.
Code No. Servicing Automotive Battery Date: Developed Date: Revised Page #
ALT723303 September 19, 2010 01
Information Sheet 1.1.1: Types and Classification of Battery
After the engine has started, the vehicle’s charging system recharges the battery.
It also provides the power to run the electrical accessories.
If the vehicle’s charging system fails, the battery must supply all the current needed to
run the vehicle. Most batteries can supply 25 amperes for two hours before they
becomes so low that they are unable to keep the engine running. The amount of time a
battery can be discharged at a certain rate before the voltage drops to a specified level
is referred to as the reverse capacity of the battery.
An automotive storage battery has three main functions. It provides voltage and
serves as a source of current for starting, lighting, and ignition. It acts as a voltage
stabilizer for the entire electrical system of the vehicle. And, it provides current
whenever the vehicle’s electrical demands exceed the output of the charging system.
The battery must be able to maintain a good charge when the engine is off. The
condition of the battery determines this capability, as do the electrical demands of the
vehicle. When the engine is off, electrical power is still needed to maintain the memory
in the various computer used in the vehicle to keep clocks going. The electrical loads
present when the ignition switch is off are called parasitic loads. At times the parasitic
loads are so great that a battery will go dead if the vehicle has not been driven for a
while.
The battery in a fuel cell vehicle serves a different purpose than a battery in
atypical vehicle. In most vehicles, the battery’s primary purpose is to provide a short
powerful burst of power to start the engine. This type of battery is typically called a
starting battery. This design has a high number of thin plates. The battery in a fuel cell
vehicle and in many RVs is a deep cycle battery. This design has less instant energy
but greater long-term energy delivery. Deep-cycle batteries have thicker plates and can
survive a great number of discharge cycles. The battery in a fuel cell vehicle absorbs
the energy generated by the fuel cells and uses it to power electronic features, such as
power steering. It also is constantly cycling, which means it constantly is discharging
and being recharged.
Forty-two-volt systems are based on a single 36-volt battery but are dual voltage
systems. Part of the vehicle will be powered by 12 to 14 volts and the rest by 36 to 42
volts. The battery may have two positive connectors, one for each voltage or the voltage
will be divided by a converter.
The most common automotive batteries are lead-acid designs. The wet cell, gel
cell, and absorbed glass mat are versions of the lead-acid battery.
Code No. Servicing Automotive Battery Date: Developed Date: Revised Page #
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Information Sheet 1.1.1: Types and Classification of Battery
Other Battery Designs With the many different types of automotive power sources being
tried by the automotive industry comes new battery designs. In fact, the cost and performance
of electrical vehicles depends on battery technology. There are several types of batteries
available and under development, from advanced lead-acid batteries to nickel-metal hydride
(NiMH) to lithium polymer batteries.
Electric vehicles typically run on 200 to 300 volts. The batteries used as the power
source are 6- or 12- volt batteries connected in series. If the electric motor that power the
vehicle requires 240 volts, the vehicle would need forty 6-volt batteries of twenty 12-volt
batteries.
Battery Construction
A storage battery consists of grids, positive plates, negative plates, separators, elements,
electrolyte, a container, cell covers, vent plugs, and cell containers (Figure 2). The grids form
the basic framework of the battery plates. Grids are the lead alloy framework that supports the
active material of a plate and conducts current. Plates are typically flat, rectangular
components that are either positive or negative, depending on the active material they hold.
A positive plate consists of a grid filled with lead peroxide as it active material. Lead
peroxide (PbO2) is a dark brown, crystalline material. Its high degree of porosity allows the
liquid electrolyte to penetrate freely. The material pasted onto the grids of the negative plates
is sponge lead (Pb), a porous gray lead that allows the electrolyte to penetrate freely.
Figure 2 Components of atypical conventional storage battery.
Code No. Servicing Automotive Battery Date: Developed Date: Revised Page #
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Information Sheet 1.1.1: Types and Classification of Battery
Element and Cells
Each battery contains a number of elements. An element is a group of positive and
negative plates. The plates are formed into a plate group, which holds a number of
plates of the same polarity. The like-charged plates are welded to a lead alloy post or
plate strap. The plate groups are then alternated within the battery—positive, negative,
positive, negative. There is usually one extra set of negative plates to balance the
charge. To ensure that the different plate groups do not touch each other,
nonconductive sheets called separators are inserted between them. Separators are
porous plastic sheets that allow the transfer of ions between
plates but prevent physical contact between them, which would cause the plates to lose
their stored energy.
When the element is placed inside the battery case and immersed in electrolyte, it
becomes a cell. The lead peroxide and sponge lead that made up the elements plates
cannot become active until they are immersed in electrolyte. A 12-volt battery has six
cells that are connected in series with each other. Each cell has an open circuit voltage
of approximately 2.1 volts; a 12-volt storage battery has an actual open circuit voltage of
12.6 volts.
Electrolyte is a solution of sulfuric acid and water. The sulfuric acid of the electrolyte
supplies sulfate, which chemically reacts with both the lead and lead peroxide to release
electrical energy. In addition, the sulfuric acid is the carrier for the electrons inside the
battery between the positive and negative plates.
To achieve the chemical reaction that creates voltage in a battery, the electrolyte
solution must be the correct mixture of water and sulfuric acid. At 12.6 volts, the
electrolyte solution is 65% water and 35% sulfuric acid. Sometimes the electrolyte
breaks down and the acid moves onto the plates, so there is less acid in the water.
Whenever the percentage of acid in the solution decreases, the charge drops.
Code No. Servicing Automotive Battery Date: Developed Date: Revised Page #
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Information Sheet 1.1.1: Types and Classification of Battery
Discharging and Charging
Remember, a chemical reaction between active materials on the positive and negative plates
and the acid in the electrolyte produces electrical energy. When a battery discharges (Figure
3), lead in the lead peroxide of the positive plate combines with the sulfate radical (SO4) to
form lead sulfate (PbSO4).
Figure 3 Chemical actions that occur inside a battery during a discharge cycle.
A similar reaction takes place at the negative plate. In this plate, lead (Pb) combines with
sulfate (SO4) to also form lead sulfate (PbSO4), a neutral and inactive material. Thus, lead
sulfate forms at both plates as the battery discharges.
As the chemical reaction occurs, the oxygen from the lead peroxide and the hydrogen from
the sulfuric acid combine to form water (H2O). During discharge, the electrolyte becomes
weaker and the positive and negative plates become like one another. Since the charge of a
battery depends on the difference between the two plate materials and the concentration of the
electrolyte and this difference decreases during discharging, the battery loses power.
The recharging process (Figure 4) is the reverse of the discharging process.
Electricity from an outside source such as the vehicle’s generator or a battery recharger is
forced into the battery. The lead sulfate (PbSO4) on both plates separates into the lead (Pb)
and sulfate (SO4). As the sulfate (SO4) leaves both plates, it combine with hydrogen in the
electrolyte to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4). At the same time, the oxygen (O2) in the electrolyte
combines with the lead (Pb) at the positive plate to form lead peroxide (PbO2). As the result,
the negative plate returns to its original form of lead (Pb), and the positive plate reverts to lead
peroxide (PbO2).
Code No. Servicing Automotive Battery Date: Developed Date: Revised Page #
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Information Sheet 1.1.1: Types and Classification of Battery
Figure 4 Chemical actions inside a battery during the charge cycle.
An unsealed battery gradually loses water due to its conversion into hydrogen and
oxygen. These gases escape into the atmosphere through the vent caps. If the lost
water is not replaced, the level of the electrolyte falls below the tops of the plates. This
results in a high concentration of sulfuric acid in the electrolyte and permits the exposed
material of the plates to dry and harden. In this situation, premature failure of the battery
is certain. The electrolyte level in the battery must be checked frequently.
Casing Design
The container or shell of the battery is usually a one-piece, molded assembly of
polypropylene, hard rubber, or plastic. The case has a number of individual cell
compartments. Cell connectors are used to join the cells of a battery in series.
Figure 5 A battery with removable cell caps.
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Information Sheet 1.1.1: Types and Classification of Battery
The top of the battery is encased by a cell cover (Figure 5). The cover may be a one-
piece design or the cell might have their own individual covers. The cover has vent holes to
permit the escape of hydrogen and oxygen gases. Battery vents can be permanently fixed to
the cover or be removable, depending on battery design. Vent caps are used on some
batteries to close the openings in the cell cover and to allow for topping off the cells with water.
CAUTION!
When lifting a battery, excessive pressure on the
end walls could cause acid to spew through the
vent caps, resulting in personal injury. Lift with a
battery carrier or with your hands on opposite
corners.
Terminals
The battery has two external terminals: a positive (+) and a negative (-). These terminals are
either two tapered posts, L terminals, threaded studs on top of the case, or two internally
threaded connectors on the side (Figure 6). The terminals have either a positive (+) or a
negative (-) marking, depending on which end of the series they present.
Figure 6 The most common types of automotive battery terminals.
Code No. Servicing Automotive Battery Date: Developed Date: Revised Page #
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Information Sheet 1.1.1: Types and Classification of Battery
Tapered terminals have a given dimension in accordance with standards agreed
upon by the Battery Council International (BCI) and the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE). This ensures that all positive and negative cable clamps would fit any
corresponding battery terminal, regardless of the battery’s manufacturer. The positive
terminal is slightly larger, usually around 11/16 inch in diameter at the top, while the
negative terminal usually has a 5/8 inch diameter. This design minimizes the danger of
installing the battery cables in reverse polarity.
Side terminal are positioned near the top of the battery case. These terminal are
threaded and require a special bolt to connect the cables. Some batteries are fitted with
both top inside terminals to allow them to be used in many different vehicles.
BATTERY DESIGNS
In many lead-acid batteries, the grids are made of lead alloyed with approximately 6%
antimony for strength. Antimony added to the lead grids acts as a catalyst but makes
outgassing (the loss of hydrogen and oxygen during use) worse, and frequent water
replenishing is required.
Maintenance Free and Low Maintenance Batteries
Most batteries sold and installed today are either low-maintenance or maintenance-free
designs (Figure 7). A maintenance free battery is similar in design to a conventional
battery, but many of the components have thicker construction. Different, more durable
materials are used in low-maintenance batteries and the amount of antimony is reduced
to about 3%. In maintenance-free batteries, the antimony is eliminated and replaced by
calcium or strontium (Figure 8). Reducing the amount of antimony or replacing it with
calcium or strontium alloy reduces both the battery’s internal heat and the amount of
gassing that occurs during charging. Since heat and gassing are the principal reasons
for battery water loss, these changes reduce or eliminate the need to periodically add
water.
Figure 7 A maintenance-free battery.
Code No. Servicing Automotive Battery Date: Developed Date: Revised Page #
ALT723303 September 19, 2010 08
Information Sheet 1.1.1: Types and Classification of Battery
Figure 8 Maintenance-free battery grids with support bars give
increased strength and faster electrical delivery.
Additionally, non-antimony-lead alloys have better conductivity, so a maintenance–free
battery has about a 20% higher cold-cranking power rating than a comparably sized
conventional battery. Calcium lead alloy grids are somewhat prone to grid growth and
cranking. These problems can be controlled by modifying the alloy and roll hardening the
positive grid, or through the use of calcium/silver alloys.
Maintenance-free batteries are equipped with a small gas vents that prevents gas-
pressure buildup in the case (Figure 9). Water is never added to maintenance free batteries.
Low-maintenance batteries are still equipped with vent holes and caps, which allow
water to be added to the cells. A low-maintenance battery requires additional water
substantially less often than a conventional battery.
Figure 9 Construction of a maintenance-free battery showing the location of the gas vent
Code No. Servicing Automotive Battery Date: Developed Date: Revised Page #
ALT723303 September 19, 2010 09
Information Sheet 1.1.1: Types and Classification of Battery
Hybrid Batteries
A hybrid battery can withstand six deep cycles and still retain 100% of its original
reverse capacity. The grid construction of the hybrid battery consists of approximately
2.75% antimony alloy on the positive plates and a calcium alloy on the negative
plates. This allows the battery to withstand deep cycling while retaining reverse
capacity for improved cranking performance. Also, the use of antimony alloys reduces
grid growth, corrosion, and water loss.
Grid construction differs from other batteries in that the plates have a lug located
near the center of the grid. In addition, the vertical and horizontal grid bars are
arranged in a radial design (Figure 10). With this grid design, current has less
resistance and a shorter path to follow, which means the battery is capable of
providing more current at a faster rate.
The separators used are constructed of glass covered with a resin or fiberglass.
The separators offer low electrical resistance with high resistance to chemical
contamination. This type of construction provides for increased cranking performance
and battery life.
Figure 10 Hybrid battery grid and separator construction.
Code No. Servicing Automotive Battery Date: Developed Date: Revised Page #
ALT723303 September 19, 2010 0 10
Information Sheet 1.1.1: Types and Classification of Battery
Recombination Batteries
A recombination battery is a completely sealed maintenance-free battery that uses an
electrolyte in a gel form. In a gel-cell battery, gassing is minimized and vents are not needed.
During charging, the negative plates never reach a fully charged condition and therefore
cause little or no release of hydrogen. Oxygen is released at the positive plates, but it passes
through the separators and recombines with the negative plates. Because the oxygen released
by the electrolyte is forced to recombine with the negative plate, these batteries are called
recombination batteries.
Absorbed Glass Mat Batteries
The electrolyte in absorbed glass mat (AGM) batteries is held in moistened fiberglass matting
instead of existing as a liquid or gel. The matting is sandwiched between the battery’s lead
plates, where it also serves as a vibration dampener (Figure 11).
Figure 11 The construction of an AGM battery.
Rolls of high-purity lead plates are tightly compressed into six spiral-wound cells. The
plates are separated by acid-permeated vitreous separators. Vitreous separators absorb acid
the same way a paper towel absorb water. A small amount of silver is added to the plates and
some sodium sulfate is added to the electrolyte.
Code No. Servicing Automotive Battery Date: Developed Date: Revised Page #
ALT723303 September 19, 2010 0 11
Information Sheet 1.1.1: Types and Classification of Battery
Each of the six spiral cells in enclosed in its own cylinder within the battery case,
forming a sealed, closed system that resembles a six-pack of soda. During normal use,
hydrogen, and oxygen within the battery are captured and recombined to form the water
supply within the bound electrolyte, eliminating the need to ever add water to the
battery.
Even if cracked, broken, or punctured, AGM batteries will never leak. They also
have short recharging times and low internal resistance, which provides increased
output. AGM batteries also have exceptional durability in both high-heat and subzero
climate.
Battery hardware
In order to connect the battery to the vehicle’s electrical system, battery cables are
used. Battery hold-downs are used to prevent damage to the battery, and heat shields
are sometimes used to keep battery temperatures low.
Battery Cables
Battery cables must be of sufficient capacity to carry the current required to meet all
demands (Figure 17-12). The normal 12-volt cable size is 4 or 6 gauge. Various forms
of clamps are used to ensure a good electrical connection at each end of the cable.
Connections must be clean and tight to prevent arcing between the terminal and clamp,
corrosion, and high-voltage drops.
Figure 12 The battery cable is designed to carry the high current required to start the
engine and supply the vehicle’s electrical systems.
Code No. Servicing Automotive Battery Date: Developed Date: Revised Page #
ALT723303 September 19, 2010 0 12
Information Sheet 1.1.1: Types and Classification of Battery
The positive cable is normally red and the negative cable is black. The positive cable
fastens to the battery and the starter solenoid or relay. The negative cable fastens to the
ground on the engine block or chassis.
Battery Hold-downs
All batteries must be held securely in the vehicle to prevent the possibility of shorting across
the terminals if they move or fall. Normal vibrations causes the plates to shed their active
materials. Hold-down reduce the amount of vibration and help increase the life of the battery.
Battery hold-down are made of metal or plastic (Figure 13).
Figure 13 Examples of the different types of hold-down used with batteries.
Heat Shields
Some vehicles have a heat shield made of plastic or another material to protect the battery
from high underhood temperatures. While heat shields do not need to be removed for most
testing and inspection procedures, they must be removed and then correctly installed during
battery replacement.
Vehicle equipped for cold climates may have a battery blanket or heater to keep the
battery warm during extremely cold weather.
Code No. Servicing Automotive Battery Date: Developed Date: Revised Page #
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Information Sheet 1.1.1: Types and Classification of Battery
BATTERY VOLTAGE AND CAPACITY
Cell size, state of charge, rate of discharge, battery condition and design, and electrolyte
temperature all strongly influence the voltage of a cell during discharge. When cranking an
engine, the voltage of an average battery at 80OF may be about 11.5 to 12 volts. At 0OF (-
17.7OC), the voltage is significantly lower.
At low temperatures, the viscosity of the electrolyte increases, making it more difficult
for the acid to move freely into the plate pores and around the separators. This slows the rate
of the chemical reaction and lowers battery voltage, limiting the output of the battery, especially
at cranking rates.
Battery capacity is the ability to deliver a given amount of current over a period of time.
It depends on the number and size of the plates used in the cells and the amount of acid used
in the electrolyte.
BATTERY RATING METHODS
The BCI rates batteries according to reserve capacity and cold-cranking power. When
replacing a battery, always refer to an application chart to select a battery with the correct BCI
group number. Vehicle options, such as air conditioning and a number of major electrical
accessories, may indicate the need for an optional heavy-duty battery with a higher rating.
Remember, to handle cranking power and the vehicle’s other electrical needs, the replacement
units should never have a lower rating than the original battery.
Reserve Capacity
A reserve capacity (RC) rating represents the approximate time n minutes it is possible to
travel at night with battery ignition and minimum electrical load, but without a charging system
in operation. The time in minutes is based on a current draw of 25 amperes while maintaining
a minimum battery terminal voltage of 10.5 volts (12-volt batteries) at 80OF (26.7OC). A battery
with a reserve capacity of 100 would be able to deliver 25 amps for 100 minutes before the
voltage would drop below 10.5 volts. This rating represents the electrical load that must be
supplied by the battery in the event of a charging system failure.
Ampere-Hour Rating
The ampere-hour rating is the amount of steady current that a fully charged battery can
supply for 20 hours at 80OF (26.7OC) without the cell voltage falling below 1.75 volts or 10.5
volts at the terminals. For example, if a battery can be discharged for 20 hours at a rate of 4.0
amperes before its terminal voltage reads 10.5 volts, it would have a rating of 80 ampere-
hours.
Watt-Hour Rating Some battery manufacturers rate their batteries in watt-hours. The watt-
hours rating is determined at 0OF (-17.7OC) because the battery capacity changes with
temperature. The rating is determined by the multiplying a battery’s amp-hour rating by the
battery’s voltage.
Code No. Servicing Automotive Battery Date: Developed Date: Revised Page #
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Information Sheet 1.1.1: Types and Classification of Battery
Cold Cranking
A cold-cranking amperes (CCA) rating specifies the minimum amperes available at 0OF
(-17.7OC) and at -20OF (-28.8OC). CCA is the common standard for low maintenance batteries.
The previous standard, amp-hour rating is no longer used except with some imported vehicles.
This rating allow cranking capability to be related to such significant variables as engine
displacement, compression ratio, temperature, cranking time, condition, of engine and
electrical system, and lowest practical voltage for cranking and ignition. This rating indicates
the amperes that a fully charged battery will maintain for 30 seconds without the terminal
voltage falling below 7.2 volts for a 12 volt battery. The cold-cranking rating is given in total
amperage and is identified as 300 CCA, 400 CCA, and so on. The usual range for passenger
cars and light trucks is between 300 and 600 CCA; some batteries have a rating as high as
1,100 CCA.
Cranking AMP rating This rating is similar to CCA and is a measure of the number of
amperes a battery can deliver at 32OF for 30 seconds and maintain at least 1.2 volts per cell
(7.2 volts in a 12 volt battery). This rating is more commonly used in climates that rarely see
close to 0OF temperatures.
BATTERY SIZE SELECTION
Besides selecting a battery based on its capacity and rating, the proper battery is also one that
fits. The battery should fit the battery holding fixture and the hold-down must be able to be
installed. It is important that the height of the battery not allow the terminals to short across the
vehicle’s hood when it is closed. BCI group numbers are normally given on the battery (Figure
14) and are used to indicate the physical size and other features of the battery (Figure 15).
The size of the battery does not always indicates the current capacity of a battery.
Figure 14 Battery sticker with identification and warnings.
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Information Sheet 1.1.1: Types and Classification of Battery
Figure 15 BCI battery group numbers indicate the size and features of the battery.
The label may also include the date the battery was shipped from the manufacturer.
This information may also appear on a label on the side of the battery. The letter on the label
corresponds with the month, starting with A for January, B for February, and so on. The letter I
is skipped, so September is represented by the letter J. The number represents the year, with
8 standing for 1998, 1 for 2001, and so on.
FACTORY AFFECTING BATTERY LIFE
All storage batteries have a limited service life, but many conditions can decrease service life.
Improper Electrolyte Levels
With nonsealed batteries, water should be the only portion of the electrolyte lost due to
evaporation during hot weather and gassing during charging. Maintaining an adequate
electrolyte level is the basic step in extending battery life for these designs.
Temperature
Batteries do not work when they are cold. At 0OF battery is only capable of working at 40% of
its capacity. Like everything else, the electrons find it hard to move when they are cold. Also in
the cold, the engine’s oil is thicker and it is harder crank the engine; therefore, the demands on
the starter and battery are much higher.
There is a possibility that the battery will freeze when it is low on charge and subjected
to very cold weather. When the weather is extremely hot, the electrons get hyperactive and
there is a possibility of boiling over as the electrons move rapidly. Plus, at high temperature the
water tends to evaporate and heat causes the positive plate grids to corrode more rapidly.
Batteries used in hot climates need to have their electrolyte level checked often and distilled
water added if necessary.
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Information Sheet 1.1.1: Types and Classification of Battery
Corrosion
Battery corrosion is commonly caused by spilled electrolyte or electrolyte condensation from
gassing. In either case, the sulfuric acid from the electrolyte corrodes, attacks, and can destroy
not only connectors and terminals but hold-down straps and the battery tray as well.
Corroded connections increase resistance at the battery terminals, which reduces the
applied voltage to the vehicle’s electrical system. Corrosion, on the battery cover can also
create a path for current, which can allow the battery to slowly discharge. Finally, corrosion can
destroy the hold-down straps and battery tray, which can result in physical damage to the
battery.
Overcharging
Batteries can be overcharged by either the vehicle’s charging system. or a battery charger. In
either case, the result is a violent chemical reaction within the battery that causes a loss of
water in the cells. This can permanently reduce the capacity of the battery. Overcharging can
also cause excessive heat, which can oxidize the positive plate grid material and even buckle
the plates, resulting in a loss of cell capacity and early battery failure.
Undercharge/Sulfation
The vehicle’s charging system might not fully recharge the battery due to stop-and-go driving
or a fault in the charging system. In these cases, the battery operates in a partially discharged
condition. A battery in this condition will become sulfated when the sulfate normally formed on
the plates becomes dense, hard, and chemically irreversible. This happens because the
sulfate has been allowed to remain in the plates for a long period.
Sulfation of the plates causes two problems. First, it lowers the specific gravity levels
and increases the danger of freezing at low temperatures. Second, in cold weather a sulfated
battery often fails to crank the engine because of its lack of reserve power.
Poor Mounting
Loose hold-down straps allow the battery to vibrate or bounce during vehicle operation. This
vibration can shake the active materials off the grid plates, severely shortening battery life. It
can also loosen the plate connections to the plate strap, loosen cable connections, or even
crack the battery case.
Cycling
Heavy and repeated cycling can cause the positive plate material to break away from its grids
and fall into the sediment chambers at the base of the case. This problem reduces battery
capacity and can lead to short circuiting between the plates.
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Information Sheet 1.2.1: Occupational Health and Safety Legislation and Principle
Learning outcomes:
1 Test automotive battery
Learning Activity:
1.2. Occupational Health and Safety Legislation and Principle
OSH Standards are mandatory rules and standards set and enforced to eliminate or reduce
occupational safety and health hazards in the workplace.
What is the purpose of OSH Standards?
OSH Standards aim to provide at least the minimum acceptable degree of protection that
must be afforded to every worker in relation to the working conditions and dangers of injury,
sickness or death that may arise by reason of his or her occupation. The provision of OSH
Standards by the State is an exercise of the police power, with the intention of promoting the
welfare and well-being of workers.
What are covered by the General OSH Standards?
All establishments, workplaces and other undertakings are covered, including agricultural
enterprises whether operating for profit or not, except:
Residential places exclusively devoted to dwelling purposes;
Those directly engaged in land, sea and air transportation, except their dry dockers,
garages, hangers and maintenance, and repair shops and offices;
The activities of a lessee regarding the safety of the mining claim or lease, including
mines safety, mineral conservation and pollution in establishments or work places falling
under mining industry.
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Information Sheet 1.2.1: Occupational Health and Safety Legislation and Principle
Who enforces OSH Health Standards?
The Secretary of Labor and Employment, through the Regional Director or other
authorized representative, enforces the OSH Standards in the exercise of victorial and
enforcement powers.
What are the duties and responsibilities of the employers and the employees in
relation to enforcement and compliance with OSH Standards in the workplace?
Duties of the employers
Adopt administrative policies on safety in accordance with the provisions of the
Standards;
Report to the Regional Director or his/her duly authorized representative the
policies adopted and the safety organization established;
Submit report to the Regional Director or his/her duly authorized representative
once in every three months on the safety performance, safety committee
meetings and its recommendations and measures taken to implement the
recommendation;
Act on recommended safety measures;
Provide access to appropriate authorities.
Duties of the employees
Follow safety policies;
Report unsafe conditions and practices to the Supervisor;
Serve as member of the Health and Safety Committee;
Cooperate with Health and Safety Committee;
Assist government agencies in the conduct of safety and health inspection.
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Information Sheet 1.2.1: Occupational Health and Safety Legislation and Principle
INTRODUCTION
Utilizing Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) to protect employees from
injury should be used as the last option. Before implementing the use of
PPE, engineering, work practice, and administrative controls must first be
considered. When PPE is used, it means the hazard still exists, and
failure to correctly use the PPE can result in injury.
OSHA OSHA standards require that a hazard-free work environment be
Documentation provided for employees. Employees exposed to hazardous
conditions must be protected against the potential hazards. Personal
protective clothing and equipment (PPE) protects individuals from
chemical, physical, and biological hazards that cannot be controlled
through other means (i.e. engineering, work practice, and
administrative controls) in the workplace.
A hazard assessment and training documentation are the only
written requirements in the PPE regulations for eye/face, head, foot,
electrical, and hand protection. However, writing a PPE program that
documents your company’s PPE use makes it easier to:
Determine necessary PPE based on workplace hazards
Ensure proper use of PPE in the workplace
Document your PPE efforts should you be inspected by
OSHA
The basic element of any PPE program should be an in-depth
evaluation of the equipment needed to protect against the hazards at
the workplace. This is the initial Hazard Assessment for which written
documentation is required. The two basic objectives of any PPE
program should be to protect the PPE user from safety and health
hazards, and to prevent injury from incorrect use and/or malfunction
of the PPE.
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Information Sheet 1.2.1: Occupational Health and Safety Legislation and Principle
Hazard Assessment According to 1910.132(d), the workplace must be assessed to
determine if hazards are present, or are likely to be present, which
necessitate the use of PPE. The assessment must thoroughly
evaluate hazards and must be documented.
Your dealership must verify that the assessment has been
completed through a written certification that identifies the workplace,
the designated individual certifying that the evaluation has been
performed, the date of the assessment, and a statement that
identifies the document as certification of hazard assessment
(sample assessment form is included at end of section). If it is
determined that such hazards are present, the employer must select
protective equipment for the employees and communicate the
selection decisions to them. For the hazard assessment process,
conduct a walk-through survey of workplace areas where hazards
may be. The purpose of the survey is to identify sources of hazards
to employees. Consider the following hazard categories:
Assessment Form Impact
Penetration
Compression (roll-over)
Chemical
Heat
Bloodborne exposure
Light (optical) radiation
Respiratory
Noise
A form is required to record the assessment. A sample assessment
form is included at the end of this section. During the walk-through
survey, observe and record all potential sources of hazard and injury
and note situations where PPE is currently used, what type, and for
what purpose. Keep in mind that effective safety programs rely upon
PPE as a last option for employee protection. OSHA also expects
that engineering, work practice, and administrative controls be
utilized where possible before choosing to use PPE.
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Information Sheet 1.2.1: Occupational Health and Safety Legislation and Principle
PPE Requirements Various forms of PPE are needed in the Automotive Service industry.
Included below are examples of common PPE used in each
department:
Service
Safety glasses, goggles and/or face shields to protect face
and eyes from debris at bench grinder or brake lathe. Same
PPE for working under automobiles while hoisted or in service
area.
Steel toe boots while working in, around or under a vehicle.
Bump caps while working under vehicles.
Latex or nitrile gloves as a standard precaution when potential
exposure to chemicals or substances, i.e. adhesives,
solvents, parts washing, etc.
Body Shop
Safety glasses, goggles and/or face shields to protect face
and eyes from debris at bench grinder or during vehicle
grinding.
Respirator protection during painting or sanding of filler
material in preparation for painting.
Aprons or gloves in mixing areas could be required depending
on hazard rating of material and manufacturers
recommendation for PPE.
Steel toe boots while working in frame shop.
Welding mask for welders and welding curtains to protect any
workers adjacent to welding operations.
Detail
Safety glasses and/or face shields when there is a potential
for splashing or contact with the face and eyes from caustics,
acids or detergents.
Latex or nitrile gloves when using rim or tire cleaners
containing caustics or acids.
Housekeeping
Safety glasses, face shield, and neoprene or nitrile when
handling bleach and other cleaners.
Earplugs or muffs when exposed to long periods of loud
noises such as dryer and/or washing machines.
Non-slip shoes when mopping or waxing floors
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Information Sheet 1.2.1: Occupational Health and Safety Legislation and Principle
Elements of a Written A written PPE program should contain the following:
PPE Program Purpose – A statement of the program’s purpose.
Hazard assessment – A description of the hazard
assessment required to be completed in the workplace. You
must document the hazard assessment via a written
certification that identifies the workplace evaluated, the
person certifying that the evaluation has been performed,
the date(s) of the hazard assessment, and that the
document is a certification of hazard assessment.
PPE selection guidelines – The guidelines your dealership
uses to select PPE. The selection must be based on the
hazard assessment.
Employee training - A description of how employees will be
trained on the specific types of PPE that they will wear. The
regulation requires that they be trained on proper use.
Cleaning and maintenance- A summary of the cleaning and
maintenance practices that you will follow at your facility to
keep PPE in good working condition.
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Information Sheet 1.2.1: Occupational Health and Safety Legislation and Principle
Different Personal Protective Equipment used in Automotive Shops:
Goggles or safety glasses are forms of protective eyewear that usually enclose or protect the
area surrounding the eye in order to prevent particulates, water or chemicals from striking the
eyes . They are used in chemistry laboratories and in woodworking. They are often used in
snow sports as well, and in swimming. Goggles are often worn when using power tools such
as drills or chainsaws to prevent flying particles from damaging the eyes . Many types of
goggles are available as prescription goggles for those with vision problems.( see Figure 1. –
Below)
Figure 1
Gloves protect and comfort hands against cold or heat, Damage by friction, abrasion or
chemicals, and disease; or in turn to provide a guard for what a bare hand should
not touch. ( see Figure 2 –Below)
Figure 2
An apron is an outer protective garment that covers primarily the front of the body. It may
be worn for hygienic reasons as well as in order to protect clothes from wear and tear.
( see Figure 3. –Below)
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Information Sheet 1.2.1: Occupational Health and Safety Legislation and Principle
Figure 3.
A steel-toe boot (also known as a safety toe boot, steel-capped boot or safety shoe)
is a durable boot or shoe that has a protective reinforcement in the toe, usually combined
with a sole plate, which protects the foot from falling objects and punctures from below.
(See Figure 4 –Below)
Figure 4.
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Worksheet 1.1.2 : Types of Battery and its Classification
Learning outcomes:
1 Test Automotive battery
Learning Activity:
1.1 Determine the different types of battery and its classification
Select / determine the correct answer given below;
1. Battery electrolyte is a mixture of water and:
A. Lead peroxide
B. Sulphuric acids
C. Lead sulphate
D. All of the above
2. Which of the following is true of a 12-volt automobile battery?
A. It has six cells connected in series.
B. It has three cells connected in series.
C. It has six cells connected in parallel.
D. It has three cells connected in parallel.
3. The correct ratio of water to sulfuric acid in battery electrolyte is approximately:
A. 80 percent water to 20 percent sulfuric acid.
B. 65 percent water to 35 percent sulfuric acid.
C. 35 percent water to 65 percent sulfuric acid.
D. 20 percent water to 80 percent sulfuric acid.
4. The capacity of a battery is determined by its:
A. number of plates.
B. size of plates
C. both a and b.
D. neither a nor.
5. A battery that is undercharged for a long period of time will become:
A. cycled.
B. overheated.
C. sulfated.
D. none of the above.
6. A group of positive and negative plates.
A. Lead
B. Cells
C. Element
D. separator
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Worksheet 1.1.2 : Types of Battery and its Classification
7. Are porous plastic sheet that allow the transfer of ions between plates but
prevent physical contact.
A. Separator
B. Case
C. Terminal strap
D. Element
8. A completely sealed maintenance-free battery that uses an electrolyte in a gel
form.
A. Low maintenance battery
B. Free- maintenance battery
C. Recombination battery
D. Hybrid battery
9. An amount of steady current that a fully charged battery can supply for 20 hours
at 80ºF without the cell voltage falling below 1.75 or 10.5 volts at the terminal.
A. Ampere-hour rating
B. Reverse capacity
C. Watt-hour rating
D. Cold cranking
10. Commonly caused by spilled electrolyte condensation from gassing.
A. Overcharging
B. Improper electrolyte level
C. Temperature
D. Corrosion
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Worksheet 1.1.2 : Types of Battery and its Classification
ANSWER KEY
1. D
2. A
3. B
4. A
5. C
6. C
7. A
8. C
9. A
10. D
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Worksheet 1.2.2 : Occupational Health and Safety Legislation and Principle
Learning outcomes:
1 Test Automotive battery
Learning Activity:
1.2 Test on Occupational Health and Safety Legislation and Principle
Select / determine the correct answer given below:
1. Mandatory rule of standards set and enforced to eliminate occupational safety hazard in
the workplace.
a. Occupational Health and Safety Standard
b. Safety Standard
c. Health Standard
d. Occupational Standard
2. All are covered by General OHS Standard except:
a. Hotel and Restaurant
b. School and Universities
c. Residential places exclusively devoted to dwelling purposes
3. Who enforces Occupational Health and Safety?
a. Secretary of Health
b. Secretary of Labor and Employment
c. Secretary of Trade and Industry
d. President
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Worksheet 1.2.2 : Occupational Health and Safety Legislation and Principle
ANSWER KEY
1. A
2. B
3. A
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Information Sheet 1.3.1: Safe Handling and Disposal of Battery Electrolyte and Acids
Learning outcomes:
3. Test automotive battery
Learning Activity:
1.3 Safe Handling and Disposal of Battery Electrolyte and acids
Introduction
This fact sheet is intended for users of various types of batteries. It provides general
information on proper handling, disposition and disposal, and Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) regulations regarding battery hazardous waste determinations and recycling.
Types of Batteries
Batteries come in different configurations, sizes, and voltages. The specific constituents of
each battery type influence the requirements for final disposition. The following descriptions
provide an overview of the major battery types.
Alkaline Batteries
Alkaline batteries are primary or non-rechargeable batteries. The positive pole (anode) of the
battery contains zinc, while the negative pole (cathode) contains manganese dioxide. The
electrolyte used in alkaline batteries is either potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide. Both
are strong alkalis. If alkaline batteries are damaged or mishandled, the alkali electrolyte may
leak out of the battery cell. Severe chemical burns can result if the electrolyte comes into
contact with the skin or eyes.
Carbon-Zinc (LeClanche) Batteries
Carbon zinc batteries are also primary or non-rechargeable batteries. The anode contains zinc
and the cathode contains manganese. The electrolyte is an aqueous solution of ammonium
chloride and zinc chloride. Ammonium chloride is a severe eye irritant and zinc chloride is a
corrosive material. Depleted batteries may continue to vent hydrogen gas after use or if stored
above 130 degrees Fahrenheit.
Lead-Acid Batteries
Lead-acid batteries have a lead anode, a lead dioxide cathode, and an aqueous sulfuric acid
electrolyte. The battery cell contains 60 to 75 percent lead and lead oxide, by weight, and the
electrolyte contains between 28 and 51 percent sulfuric acid, by weight. The electrolyte is a
strong oxidizing agent and can cause severe skin burns or irritation upon contact. If acid
contacts eyes, it can cause severe damage and/or blindness. Contact lenses and smoking
should be prohibited in areas where lead-acid batteries are stored or handled.
Lithium Batteries
Lithium battery types include lithium-manganese dioxide, lithium-sulfur dioxide, and lithium-
thionyl chloride. The anode is composed of lithium and the cathode is composed of
manganese dioxide (or sulfur dioxide, or thionyl chloride). The electrolyte of the lithium-
manganese dioxide battery is composed of an organic solvent (propylene carbonate and 1,2
dimethoxyethane) solution of lithium perchlorate. In the case of lithium-sulfur dioxide, the
electrolyte is also an organic solvent (acetonitrile) solution with lithium bromide. Lithium-thionyl
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Information Sheet 1.3.1: Safe Handling and Disposal of Battery Electrolyte and Acids
chloride batteries have a non-aqueous thionyl chloride solution containing lithium aluminum
chloride. Lithium-sulfur dioxide batteries contain pressurized sulfur dioxide gas and lithium-
thionyl chloride batteries contain liquid thionyl chloride which vaporizes upon exposure to air,
both of which are highly toxic.
Magnesium Batteries
Magnesium batteries have a magnesium anode, manganese dioxide cathode, and an
electrolyte of an aqueous solution of magnesium bromide or magnesium perchlorate. These
chemicals can emit highly toxic fumes when heated. If batteries show signs of leakage, proper
eye and skin protection is recommended during handling.
Mercury Batteries
Mercury batteries have a zinc anode, mercuric oxide cathode, and an electrolyte of an
aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide. The cell has a solid cathode of
mercuric oxide and contains 20 to 50 percent mercury or mercuric oxide, by weight. The
battery cell contains a caustic electrolyte and can have the same adverse health effects as
alkaline batteries.
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
Nickel-cadmium (ni-cad) batteries have a cadmium anode, nickel oxyhydroxide cathode, and
an electrolyte of an aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide. The battery cells typically
contain 13-15 percent cadmium and 20-30 percent nickel, by weight. The electrolyte is a
caustic solution and is capable of causing the same health effects as alkaline batteries
addressed above.
Silver Batteries
Silver batteries have a zinc anode, silver chloride cathode, and an electrolyte of an aqueous
solution of lithium chloride or zinc chloride and zinc sulfate. The electrolyte is a mild acid (20 to
30 percent by weight) and can cause serious chemical burns to the skin and/or eyes.
Thermal Batteries
Thermal batteries have a calcium anode, calcium chromate cathode, and a solid lithium
chloride and potassium chloride electrolyte which are strong oxidizers or caustics capable of
causing skin irritation. These batteries may also contain asbestos. If batteries show signs of
leakage, proper eye and skin protection is recommended during handling.
The battery manufacturer's Material Safety Data Sheet should always be reviewed for specific
environmental and health hazards for the actual battery being used.
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Information Sheet 1.3.1: Safe Handling and Disposal of Battery Electrolyte and Acids
Federal Hazardous Waste Requirements
As a generator of a solid waste, the generator is required to make a determination as to
whether the solid waste is a hazardous waste. This may be accomplished by applying user
knowledge or testing the waste.
Typically, hazardous waste classification is based upon the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA) Characteristics of Hazardous Waste. Title 40 Code of Federal
Regulations (CFR) Part 261, "Identification and Listing of Hazardous Waste," addresses
the four hazardous waste characteristics: ignitability; corrosivity; reactivity; and toxicity. A
waste is considered a hazardous waste if it exhibits any one or more of these
characteristics. The following criteria are used to make these determinations:
Ignitability
A solid waste exhibits the characteristic of ignitability (Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) Hazardous Waste Number D001) if a representative sample of the waste has any of
the following properties:
It is a liquid and has a flash point of less than 140 degrees Fahrenheit;
It is not a liquid and is capable, under standard temperature and pressure, of causing fire
through friction, absorption of moisture, or spontaneous chemical changes and, when
ignited, burns so vigorously and persistently that it creates a hazard;
It is an ignitable compressed gas (as defined in Title 40 CFR 173.300); or
It is an oxidizer (as defined in Title 49 CFR 173.151).
Corrosivity
A solid waste exhibits the characteristic of corrosivity (EPA Hazardous Waste Number
D002) if a representative sample of the waste is aqueous and has a pH less than or equal
to 2 or greater than or equal to 12.5
Reactivity
A solid waste exhibits the characteristic of reactivity (EPA Hazardous Waste Number D003)
if a representative sample of the waste has any of the following properties:
It is normally unstable and readily undergoes violent changes without detonating;
It reacts violently with water;
It forms potentially explosive mixtures with water;
When mixed with water, it generates toxic gases, vapors, or fumes in a quantity sufficient to
present a danger to human health or the environment;
It is a cyanide or sulfide bearing waste which, when exposed to pH conditions between 2
and 12.5, can generate toxic gases, vapors, or fumes in a quantity sufficient to present a
danger to human health or the environment; or
It is capable of detonation or explosive decomposition or reaction at standard temperature
and pressure.
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Information Sheet 1.3.1: Safe Handling and Disposal of Battery Electrolyte and Acids
Toxicity
A solid waste exhibits the characteristic of toxicity if, using the Toxicity Characteristic
Leaching Procedure (TCLP), the extract from a representative sample of the waste
contains any of the contaminants equal to or greater than the concentrations listed below:
Concentration EPA Hazardous
Contaminant (milligrams per liter) Waste Number
Cadmium 1.0 mg/L D006
Chromium 5.0 mg/L D007
Lead 5.0 mg/L D008
Mercury 0.2 mg/L D009
Silver 5.0 mg/L D011
Note: Only the contaminants of interest in batteries are listed in the above table.
State Hazardous Waste Requirements
All but three states (Alaska, Hawaii, and Iowa) are authorized by the EPA to administer
their own hazardous waste programs. As a result, these states have promulgated
hazardous waste regulations that may be more stringent than the Federal regulations.
For example, California regulates zinc, a component of alkaline batteries, under the
Toxicity characteristic. Both Washington and California hazardous waste regulations
include bioassay characterization criteria. Bioassay characterization is a method of
determining the potential toxicity of a material by observing its effect on the growth of a
suitable animal, plant, or microorganism under controlled conditions. Under this waste
criteria, alkaline and carbon-zinc batteries may be considered a state-regulated
hazardous waste. Therefore, the generator must ensure he applies the most stringent
regulations when considering hazardous waste disposal.
Federal Hazardous Waste Determinations
Batteries (except lead-acid batteries) are not specifically regulated under Federal RCRA
regulations. However, many batteries may exhibit one or more of the characteristics of a
hazardous waste and require management as such. The following information is
provided to assist you in making the proper waste determinations:
Alkaline Batteries: Alkaline batteries are not considered a RCRA-regulated hazardous
waste. The electrolyte of an alkaline battery does not meet the definition of an aqueous
solution or free liquid; therefore, they are not, by definition, a corrosive waste. However,
aquatic bioassay analysis conducted (Martin Mariettta, 1992) to further characterize the
toxicity of the battery leachates indicates alkaline batteries would be classified as
hazardous waste in those states which use bioassay characterization criteria. Your state
regulatory authorities should be contacted to obtain a current interpretation.
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Information Sheet 1.3.1: Safe Handling and Disposal of Battery Electrolyte and Acids
Carbon-Zinc Batteries: Carbon-zinc batteries are not considered a RCRA-regulated
hazardous waste. As with alkaline batteries, these batteries may be subject to state-
regulation as a result of bioassay characterization criteria.
Lead-Acid Batteries: Lead-acid batteries destined for disposal are considered a RCRA-
regulated hazardous waste due to their lead content (EPA Hazardous Waste Number
D008).
Lithium Batteries: Lithium batteries are subdivided into the following categories:
Lithium-manganese dioxide batteries are non-hazardous solid wastes;
Lithium-sulfur dioxide batteries (single-cell) are non-hazardous solid wastes;
Lithium-sulfur dioxide batteries (multi-cell) may be non-hazardous solid waste or
characteristic hazardous wastes. If equipped with a Complete Discharge Device
(CDD), the batteries are considered a non-hazardous solid waste after discharging.
If not equipped with a CDD, multi-cell lithium-sulfur dioxide batteries are
characteristic hazardous wastes due to ignitability (D001) and reactivity (D003).
Lithium-thionyl chloride batteries (multi-cell) are characteristic hazardous wastes. If
these batteries have a CDD, after discharge, these batteries are a characteristic
hazardous waste due to toxicity (chromium, D007). Batteries without a CDD are
considered a characteristic hazardous waste due to toxicity (chromium D007),
ignitability (D001), and reactivity (D003).
Magnesium Batteries: Batteries with 50 percent or greater remaining charge are
considered a RCRA-regulated hazardous waste due to the characteristic of toxicity
(chromium, EPA Hazardous Waste Number D007). Batteries with less remaining charge
are not considered RCRA-regulated hazardous waste. In some cases, the charge may be
determined using a Battery Test Set. In those cases where the charge cannot be
determined, the batteries should be disposed of as a characteristic hazardous waste.
Mercury Batteries: Mercury batteries are considered a RCRA-regulated hazardous waste
due to the characteristic of toxicity (mercury, EPA Hazardous Waste Number D009).
Ni-Cad Batteries: Ni-cad batteries are considered a RCRA-regulated hazardous waste
due to the characteristic of toxicity (cadmium, EPA Hazardous Waste Number D006).
Silver Batteries: Silver batteries are considered a RCRA-regulated hazardous waste due
to the characteristic of toxicity (silver, EPA Hazardous Waste Number D011, and mercury,
EPA Hazardous Waste Number D009).
Thermal Batteries: Thermal batteries are considered a RCRA-regulated hazardous waste
due to the characteristic of toxicity (chromium, EPA Hazardous Waste Number D007).
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Information Sheet 1.3.1: Safe Handling and Disposal of Battery Electrolyte and Acids
Regulatory Exemptions
RCRA either reduces the regulatory requirements or exempts certain spent solid wastes
from regulation if the materials are recycled by use, reuse, or reclamation. In regards to
batteries, the following batteries or recycling methods are exempt:
Spent lead-acid batteries that are being reclaimed;
Batteries from which precious metals are reclaimed (silver, under the Precious
Metals Program);
Batteries returned to the manufacturer for regeneration; or
Batteries managed as universal waste.
On 11 May 1995, the EPA promulgated the Universal Waste Rule codified in Title 40
CFR Part 273. The rule established streamlined management practices for universal
wastes and provides relief from the full regulatory aspects of RCRA. Currently, all
kinds/types of batteries are covered under the universal waste regulations as long as
they are hazardous wastes. The only types of battery exempt from universal waste
regulations are lead-acid batteries managed under Title 40 CFR Part 266, Subpart G,
"Spent Lead-Acid Batteries Being Reclaimed." Additional information on the Universal
Waste Rule is contained in the PRO-ACT Fact Sheet "Universal Waste Rule" (currently
under revision).
The Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act (Battery Act) was
signed into law (Public Law PL-104-142) on 13 May 1996. The purpose of this law is to:
Phase out the use of mercury-containing batteries;
Provide for the efficient and cost-effective collection and recycling of batteries (lead
and cadmium-containing batteries); and
Implement a national, uniform system for labelling batteries.
Although in general the Universal Waste Rule does not apply in all States, the Battery
Act mandates that batteries, covered by the act, be managed in accordance with
standards established in the Universal Waste Rule regardless of whether or not other
portions of the rule have been adopted. The purpose of this action is to create a
consistent program for collection, accumulation, and transportation of batteries
nationwide. The EPA has not codified any regulations pertaining to the Battery Act nor
established a date for this action.
Battery Recycling Companies
Many batteries can be recycled rather than disposed of as either a solid or hazardous
waste. The following is a partial listing of battery recycling companies:
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Information Sheet 1.3.1: Safe Handling and Disposal of Battery Electrolyte and Acids
Mercury Refining Company (MERCO), (800) 833-3505. They accept mercury, silver,
and carbon-zinc batteries for recycling. They also have agreements with battery
recyclers who can process ni-cad and lithium batteries.
Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC), (540) 720-9225. They have a
contract with the International Metals Reclamation Company Incorporated to recycle ni-
cad batteries.
Battery Conservation Technologies, Incorporated, (915) 447-3272. They will recycle
alkaline, carbon-zinc, mercury, silver, ni-cad, and lead-acid batteries.
Sound Management Practices
PRO-ACT suggests coordinating with the following installation organizations prior to disposing
or recycling used batteries:
The installation Environmental Management Office to ensure conformance with
environmental regulations;
The installation Transportation Office to ensure conformance with transportation
regulations;
The servicing DRMO to ensure conformance with DoD polices; and,
The base Safety and Bioenvironmental Engineering offices to ensure proper personal
protective equipment are available for safe handling.
General Battery Storage Requirements
Batteries require some care to ensure proper and safe storage. The following suggestions are
offered:
Batteries require cool, well ventilated, dry storage areas.
Temperatures should not exceed 130 degrees Fahrenheit.
Protect batteries against being damaged, crushed, punctured, or short-circuited.
Do not smoke or eat in battery storage areas.
Store batteries separately from other hazardous material.
____________________________________________________________________
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Information Sheet 1.3.1: Safe Handling and Disposal of Battery Electrolyte and Acids
Definitions:
The following definitions will assist you in understanding battery terminology and making
proper waste determinations:
Anode: The terminal of a battery or cell that releases electrons during the production of
any external current; the negative terminal of a primary cell or battery.
Battery: Technically, a combination of two or more cells electrically connected to
transform chemical energy into electrical energy. In everyday usage, a single cell such as
the one found in a flashlight is also referred to as a battery.
Cathode: The terminal of a battery or cell that accepts electrons during the production of
an electric current; the positive terminal of a primary cell or battery.
Cell: A device, which generates electricity, consisting of two different substances placed
in an electrolyte.
Dry Cell: A cell, in which the electrolyte exists in a paste and is absorbed in a porous
medium, or is otherwise restrained from flowing.
Electrolyte: The conducting medium for the flow of current in a cell.
Non-Rechargeable: A characteristic of a primary battery that can convert chemical
energy into electrical energy irreversibly.
Primary Battery: One that can convert chemical energy into electrical energy irreversibly.
Rechargeable: A characteristic of a storage battery that can convert chemical energy into
electrical energy and vice versa.
Secondary battery: One that can convert chemical energy into electrical energy and vice
versa.
Serviceable Battery: One that can be used for its originally intended purpose.
Storage battery: Same as secondary battery.
Unserviceable Battery: One that is in such a condition or state that it cannot be used for
its originally intended purpose.
Wet Cell: A cell whose electrolyte is in liquid form and free to flow.
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Worksheet 1.3.2 : Safe Handling and Disposal of Battery Electrolyte and acids
Learning outcomes:
1 Test Automotive battery
Learning Activity:
1.3 Determine the different types of battery and its classification
Select / determine the correct answer given below:
1. The terminal of a battery or cell that releases electrons during the production of any
external current; the negative terminal of a primary cell or battery.
a. Anode
b. Cathode
c. Battery
d. Cell
2. The terminal of a battery or cell that accepts electrons during the production of an
electric current; the positive terminal of a primary cell or battery.
a. Anode
b. Cathode
c. Battery
d. Cell
3. A cell, in which the electrolyte exists in a paste and is absorbed in a porous
medium, or is otherwise restrained from flowing.
a. Battery
b. Cell
c. drycell
d. electrolyte
4. Technically, a combination of two or more cells electrically connected to transform
chemical energy into electrical energy. In everyday usage, a single cell such as the
one found in a flashlight is also referred to as a battery.
a. Battery
b. Cell
c. Electrolyte
d. Dry cell
5. A device, which generates electricity, consisting of two different substances placed
in an electrolyte.
a. Dry cell
b. Cell
c. Anode
d. Battery
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Worksheet 1.3.2 : Safe Handling and Disposal of Battery Electrolyte and acids
6. A cell whose electrolyte is in liquid form and free to flow.
a. Wet cell
b. Dry cell
c. Cell
d. Water cell
7. The conducting medium for the flow of current in a cell
a. Water solution
b. Electrolyte
c. Cell
d. Battery
8. One that convert chemical energy into electrical energy irreversibly
a. Battery
b. Secondary battery
c. Serviceable battery
d. Primary battery
9. One that is such a condition or state that it cannot be used for its originally intended
purposes.
a. Primary battery
b. Secondary battery
c. Unserviceable battery
d. Storage battery
10. One that can convert chemical energy into electrical energy and vice versa
a. Secondary battery
b. Primary battery
c. Storage battery
d. Battery
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Worksheet 1.3.2 : Safe Handling and Disposal of Battery Electrolyte and acids
ANSWER KEY
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. A
5. B
6. A
7. B
8. D
9. C
10. A
Code No. Servicing Automotive Battery Date: Developed Date: Revised Page #
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Sept. 19,2010 3
Information Sheet 2.1.1: Identify and Explain Safety handling of tools and equipment
Learning outcomes:
2 Test automotive battery
Learning Activity:
2.1 Identify and Explain Safety handling of tools and equipment and instrument
Battery Service: Automotive Battery Service Tools and Equipment
Battery Brush - The external brush Fig.1 battery Brush
cleans cable clamps and internal brush Fig.2 Battery Handler
cleans terminal posts. Case is made of high Fig.3 Lisle Wire Terminal Tool
impact plastic that will not weaken in
cleaning solutions
Battery Handler - Tighten the threaded
handle to securely grip all automotive
batteries. Unlike conventional battery
carriers, you have positive control. The sure
grip and low profile design allow you to
maneuver the battery in and out of most
under-the-hood battery compartments.
Jaws extend from 6 1/4" to 10 1/4".
Lisle Wire Terminal Tools are designed to
remove wires from terminals without
damage to either. 56500 prongs depress
the "barbs" on conventional terminals. Tool
can also retrieve trouble codes from engine
computer on late model GM vehicles
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Information Sheet 2.1.1: Identify and Explain Safety handling of tools and equipment
Battery puller tool - A dual-purpose Fig.4 Battery Puller Tool
puller. Easily removes stuck battery Fig.5 Battery Strap
terminals. Tighten knurled cone to force
jaws under the cable clamp. Turn center
screw to lift clamp off terminal. Also
removes bolted on windshield wiper arms
that fit over a tapered spline. The puller
screw pad is designed to fit the top of the
spline post for easy pulling.
Battery Strap - Makes Carrying Side-
Mount and Top Terminal Batteries Safe and
Easy. Heavy-duty 14” plastic strap resists
damage from battery acid. The ends of the
strap are marked for easy identification of
positive and negative terminals. The built-in
studs can also be used to attach a charger
to side-mounted terminals.
Battery Terminal Cleaner - Sharp steel
blades on this tool remove corrosion and
put a correct angle on terminal clamps and
posts. Use the 6-blade, tapered reamer to
quickly clean terminal clamps. Post
cleaners are marked positive and negative,
and are sized to accurately fit terminal
posts and cut the correct angle. Proper
cleaning of terminals and posts ensures
perfect contact.
Fig.6 Battery Terminal cleaner
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Information Sheet 2.1.1: Identify and Explain Safety handling of tools and equipment
Multimeter or Multi-tester
A multitester or multimeter is a device which can be used to gather data about electrical
circuits. A basic multitester can measure resistance, voltage, and continuity; while more
advanced versions may be able to provide additional data. This tool can be very useful to
have around the house, and anyone who plans on doing electrical repairs should most
definitely use a multitester for safety reasons. Multitesters can be used with the current off or
on in most cases, although using the device with the current on can sometimes result in
damage to the device.
This device is hand held, and powered by batteries. It consists of two probes attached to a
central pack which can be digital or analog. The device has a series of buttons or switches
which can be used to set the type of measurement being performed. A rubber housing may
be used to make the multimeter easier to handle.
Continuity, the most basic measurement provided by a multitester, determines whether or not
a circuit is complete. For a continuity test, the device is set to “ohms” and AC or DC,
depending on the current being measured, before the probes on the device are inserted into
the circuit. If the circuit is complete, the readout will measure between 0 and .05 ohms. A
measurement of infinity indicates that the circuit is open, which means there is a problem.
In addition to being used as a basic continuity tester, a multimeter can also be used to test for
a ground fault, a very dangerous electrical problem. To use the device to look for a ground
fault, the “ohms” setting should be selected before one probe is inserted into a terminal, and
the other is placed on the housing of the circuit. The reading should be infinity, indicating that
the circuit is open. Next, the probe should be moved to the other terminal, returning another
reading of infinity.
PARTS OFAN ANALOG TESTER
Ask your facilitator to provide you a working analog tester which you will use for this activity.
Observe the figure below and note the position of each part.
Note: The placement of parts on some testers may be different from the one shown below,
ask the facilitator to identify the equivalent parts.
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Information Sheet 2.1.1: Identify and Explain Safety handling of tools and equipment
Fig.7 Multi-meter
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Information Sheet 2.1.1: Identify and Explain Safety handling of tools and equipment
Battery hydrometer
The state of charge of a lead-acid battery can be estimated from the density of the sulfuric
acid solution used as electrolyte. A hydrometer calibrated to read specific gravity relative to
water at 60 degrees Fahrenheit is a standard tool for servicing automobile batteries. Tables
are used to correct the reading to the standard temperature.
On unsealed batteries, the specific gravity of the electrolyte can be measured to give a fairly
good indication of the battery’s state of charge. A hydrometer (Figure 8) consists of a glass
tube or barrel, rubber bulb, rubber tube, and a glass float or hydrometer with a scale built into
its upper stem. The glass encases the float and forms a reservoir for the test electrolyte.
Squeezing the bulb pulls electrolyte into the reservoir.
Figure 8 Two types of battery hydrometers.
When filled with test electrolyte, the sealed hydrometer float bobs in the electrolyte. The
depth to which the glass float sinks in the test electrolyte indicates its relative weight
compared to water (see Figure 9). The reading is taken off the scale by sighting along the
level of the electrolyte.
Figure 9 (A) When the scales sinks in the electrolyte, the specific gravity
is low; (B) when it floats high, the specific gravity is high.
Code No. Servicing Automotive Battery Date: Developed Date: Revised Page # 5
ALT723303 September 19, 2010 0
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