The Structure of Modern English - Laurel J. Brinton

328 Subject Index dependent (subordinate) 116, 188n.,
215–256
open 23, 32, 35, 43
close 23, 43 finite 214–238
argument 264–266 main 214
article 120, 121; see also definiteness nonfinite 238–256
articulation 23–25, 34–35, 54 small 260n., 288n.
manner of 24–25, 34, 54 that- 116, 216–221, 233–234, 236, 244,
place of 23–24, 35, 54
articulator 21, 35 247, 258n., 297, 298
aspect 113–115, 143, 147, 281–282, 288n.; see wh- 224–238
cleft sentence 236, 294
also perfect and progressive click 45n.
imperfective 114, 147 clipping 97, 98–99
inherent 143 co-index 208, 230
perfective 114, 147, 288n. cooperative principle 312
aspectualizer 281–282, 288n. comma intonation 232
aspiration 28, 34, 45n., 48–49, 50, 53, 54, 68 comment 291, 294, 298
assimilation 51, 52, 54, 60 comment clause 116
auxiliary (Aux) 80, 198–201, 202, 207, 209, commonization 93
communicative competence 289
213n., 239–240, 258n. competence 6, 9, 10, 13n.
complement 168, 181, 183, 184, 216, 217,
B
back formation 97–98 219, 244, 245, 248, 249, 251–255
base (morphology) 78–79 subject 183, 184, 216, 244, 248
base (syntax) 211 object 184, 254, 260n.
be 105, 198, 206, 208, 210 of adjective 216, 217, 219, 245, 249
bilabial 23, 25, 26, 29, 31 of N¯ 216, 217, 219
blend 97 of verb 217–218, 251–255
British English 33, 39, 61, 62, 135, 189n. prepositional 184
complementarity 136
C complementizer 216, 220, 222, 225, 230–231,
Canadian English 28, 39, 60, 62, 135
“Canadian” raising 39–40 232, 233–234, 237, 241, 243, 253, 258n.,
case 81–82, 107–109, 253, 266–267 259 n.
deletion of 220, 230–231, 232, 233–234
common 107 componential analysis 138
dative 108 compound 60, 93–97, 106, 181
genitive 107, 108–109, 266; see also posses- vs. phrase 93–94
amalgamated 96–97
sive head of 94
nominative 81–82, 107, 266 phrase 96
objective 81–82, 107, 253 syntax of 94–95
case grammar see thematic roles conjunction 123, 179–181, 258n.
category, lexical/phrasal 169 connotation 132, 135, 137
causative 92, 278, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, consonant 23–34, 43–44
consonant cluster 55–57
285, 286, 288n. final 56
cavity, oral/nasal 20–22 initial 55–56, 57
clause 116, 188n., 215, 256, 258n., 259n., constative 301
constituency test 167
260n., 260n., 288n.; see also question,
indirect and relative clause
adverbial 221–222, 235, 237, 247, 250,
259n., 260n.; elliptical 222–223, 259n.

constituent 165, 167, 211 Subject Index 329
contextual conditions 289
continuative 115, 282, 283, 285, 286 left- 294
contraction 78, 80 distribution 48–49, 119–123
contradiction 132, 136
contrast see stress, contrastive complementary 48–49
conversational 312–314 parallel 48
do 198, 206, 207
implicature 313, 314 do-support 205–207, 210–211, 227
maxims 312–313 domination 165
relevance, principle of 313 durative 114, 143–145
converseness 137–138
conversion see functional shift E
cooperative principle 312, 313 egressive 115, 281–282, 283, 286, 287
egressive pulmonic system 20
D “elsewhere” (phoneme/morpheme) 50, 83
D-structure (deep structure) 163, 203–204, embedding 215, 221, 229, 273

211–212, 266–267 multiple 221
dative movement 182–183, 298 -en participle see participle, past
declustering 83 enclitic 78–79, 80
definiteness 105, 110–111, 146, 291–292, 300 entailment 131, 134, 135, 137
degree, 81, 109–110 environment, phonetic 47, 48, 49
deixis 111, 112 epistemic 147–150
demonstrative 104, 111, 120 etymeme 77
denotation 132, 135 exclamation 228
dental 23, 25
dentalization 28–29, 30, 31, 34, 51, 52, 54 indirect 237
deontic (root) 147–150 expletive 169
derivation 59, 86–91, 97, 120, 280 expressed psychological state see appropiate-
determiner 106, 107, 120, 121, 170, 188n.,
ness condition, sincerity
225, 226, 227, 229, 231, 237 extension 130
interrogative 225, 226, 227, 237 extralinguistic institution 304, 306
relative 229, 231 extraction site 225
devoicing 28, 34, 52, 54, 83, 84 extraposition 218–220, 231, 232, 236, 244,
diacritic 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 50, 51, 52,
245, 260n.
53, 54 from subject 218–220, 236, 244, 245,
dialect 19, 20, 28, 33, 34, 45n., 55, 56, 61,
260n., 298, 299
110, 206 from object 219
dictionary 130, 159n. from NP 231, 232, 298, 299
diphthong 35–36, 38, 39–41, 45n. eye dialect 19

falling 35, 39–40 F
rising 36, 40 factivity 134
direction of fit 302–303 false morphological division 89
word-to-world 302, 304 features, distinctive 45n., 52, 138–151,
world-to-word 302, 303, 304
discourse 289 277–287
discourse marker 314 phonological 45n., 52
dislocation 294, 299–300 relational 140, 143
right- 299–300 semantic 138–151, 277–287
figurative language 153–158
flap 24
flapping 28, 51

330 Subject Index I
idiom 59, 100–101, 310
focusing 293, 295, 295–300 illocutionary force 302, 303, 305, 307
free variation 49, 82 imperative 116, 208–209, 307
fricative 24, 30–31, 55, 56
fronting 52, 54, 293–294 formation of 208–209
implication see entailment
of adverb 293 inchoative 92, 277–278, 280, 281, 282, 283,
of adverb, with inversion 293–294
functional shift 91–93 284, 285, 287
inclusion 131, 135
G indirect object movement see dative move-
gender 81, 105–106, 126–127n.
ment
common 105, 106, 126–127n. infinitive 122–123, 199, 239, 241, 243, 244,
feminine 105, 106
grammatical 105 245, 246, 247, 252, 297
natural 105 bare 199, 239, 252
neuter 81, 105 for- 241, 243
masculine 81, 105 to- 122–123, 239, 244, 245, 246, 247, 252
generic 105, 107, 110, 111, 112, 292 wh- 243
gerund 240, 244, 245, 259–260n. inflection 78–79, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109,
subject of 259–260n.
glide 25, 32–33, 35, 36, 38, 39–41 112, 115–116, 119–123
glottal 22, 29, 33 information 61, 290–291, 292, 293, 294, 295,
glottalic system 45n.
glottis 20, 23 296
governor 168, 169 given (old) 61, 290
grammar 7–10, 12, 13, 163–164, 259n., 260n. new 61, 290
descriptive 7, 10 information structuring 290–301
generative 12, 163–164, 259n., 260n. -ing participle see participle, present
prescriptive 8, 10 ingressive 115, 288n.
traditional 12, 13, 259n. initialism 99
grammatical 164 innateness 6–7, 9
grammatical category 103–104, 105, 107, 118 intension 130
covert 104, 105, 107 interdental 23, 25, 30–31, 51, 52
overt 104 International Phonetic Alphabet 10, 18, 26
interrogative see question
H intonation 19, 22, 62–65
h 33, 50 inversion 168, 204, 207, 227, 229, 237, 258n.,
habit 112, 113, 115, 147, 159n.
have 198, 206, 208, 210 293, 298–299
head 167, 169 subject-aux(iliary) 168, 204, 207, 227, 229,
heavy NP shift 299
homograph 19, 75 237, 258n.
homonym 75 subject-verb 293, 298–299
homonymy 133 -ist 88–89
homophone 19, 39, 41, 75, 124 it 169, 218, 254, 264, 294
homorganic 24, 33 anticipatory 169, 218
hyponymy 135–136, 150 impersonal 169, 254, 264

(co)hyponym 135–136 J
juncture 69n.

L Subject Index 331
labeled
zero 76
node 165 morpheme 75–76, 79–85, 103
bracketing 166
labialization 31, 32, 52, 54, 55 lexical 76
labiodental 23, 25, 30, 51 grammatical 76, 103
labiovelar 24, 32–33 morphemic analysis 79–82
language 3–7 morphological analysis 79–82
arbitrary nature of 5 morphological realization rule 82, 102n.
creative (infinite) nature of 7 agglutinative 82, 102n.
functions of 4, 11 fusional 82, 102n.
rule-governed nature of 6 null realization 82
larynx 20–22, 35 zero 82, 102n.
lateral 25, 32 morphology 10–11, 12
lateral release 32, 51, 69n. movement 197–198, 220, 298
lexeme 75, 124 left 298
lexicalization 277, 287 particle 197–198, 298
lexicon 211 right 220
liquid 25, 52, 54, 56
literary coinage 100 N
locative 283–286, 293; see also thematic role, N¯ 171
nasal 24, 29–30, 52, 54, 55, 56
Locative nasal release 30, 51, 69n.
logic 9 negative 80, 86–87, 136, 148, 204, 205,
loudness 22
213–214n., 281, 282, 293, 302, 303
M modal 148
meaningful 164 negative sentence 205, 210–211
metaphor 155–158 sentence negation 205
word negation 205
focus interpretation of 157 negative polarity 207
principles underlying 157–158 nominalizer 88–89
vehicle interpretation of 157 noncompositionality 100
metonymy 155 nonsyllabic 35–36, 42–44
minimal pair 47 noun 80, 104, 105–106, 107–108, 110, 117,
modal 113, 116, 147–150, 159n., 198, 199,
118, 120–121, 124, 125, 127n., 139–142,
207, 210, 239 146, 147, 169–172 , 217
adjective 116, 150 abstract 120, 124, 217
adverb 116, 150 collective 120–121, 127n., 140–141
auxiliary 116, 147–149, 198, 199, 207, 239 common 120, 124, 139–141
verb 150 concrete 120–121, 124, 139–141
modifier 167 count 104, 120–121, 124, 127n., 139–141,
monophthong 35, 36, 39 146, 147
monophthongization 41, 45n., 53 mass (noncount) 120–121, 124, 127n., 146
mood 115–116, 304; see also imperative proper 120–121, 124
indicative 115 number 80, 81, 82–83, 84, 104–105
subjunctive 115 generic 105
morph 76–77, 79–81 plural 80, 82–83, 84, 104
bound 76 singular 80, 81, 104
free 76

332 Subject Index personification 155
pharyngeal 24, 25
O phoneme 47–49
object 176, 181–182, 185–186, 201, 202, 216,
marginal 49
217, 236, 245, 249, 254, 264, 267, 268, phonetics, articulatory 10, 18, 20–23
271 phonology 10, 12, 18, 47
direct 181–182, 201, 202, 216, 217, 254, phonotactics 54–57
267, 271 phrase 59, 93–96, 100, 121, 122, 146, 147,
indirect 182, 216, 236, 268
latent 185–186, 264 169–179, 181–186, 217, 226–227, 299
of preposition 176, 245, 249 adjective 122, 172–175, 299
obstruent 32, 53, 56 adverb 175–176
orthography 18, 73 noun 121, 169–172
oxymoron (paradox) 154 prepositional 146, 147, 177–179, 217,

P 226–227; postverbal 194–197
palatal 24, 25, 32, 52 verb 169, 181–186
palatalization 53 phrase marker 167
paraphrase 131 pitch see intonation
parenthetical 65, 116, 150 pied piping 226–227, 229, 231
part of speech see word class plosive 26
part-whole 133; see also synecdoche polysemy 132, 133, 150
participle 81, 122, 174, 199, 240, 244, 245, possessive 80–81, 96, 108, 120, 170,

246, 247, 252, 255, 259n., 260n., 280, 259–260n., 283–287; see also thematic
299, 296–297 role, Possessor
“dangling” 247, 260n. potential pause 74
past 81, 122, 199, 240, 244, 246, 252, 255, pragmatics 11, 12, 289
259n., 280, 296–297 predicate 169, 264–266, 276–287, 290, 291
present 81, 122, 199, 240, 244, 245, 246, cognitive 282–283
252, 255, 259n. descriptive 276–282
particle 92, 95, 123, 146, 147 locative/possessive 283–287
passive 117, 164, 183, 184, 200–203, 213n., preposition 123, 176–179, 258n.
220–221, 239, 240, 253, 254, 258n., preposition stranding 226
296–297 presupposition 133–134
agented 296 privative 86–87, 138, 287
agentless 202, 296 PRO 241–243, 245, 247, 252, 259n., 260n.,
formation of 201–202 273
functions of 296 controlled 241, 245
notional 117 indefinite 241
of experience 296 productivity 78–79, 84, 86, 87
perfect 114–115, 199, 239 progressive 114, 115, 127n., 143, 146, 199,
continuative 114 214n., 239, 240
resultative 114 pronoun 81, 104, 105, 106, 107, 111, 117,
performance 6, 10, 13n, 19, 20 188, 208–209, 225, 226, 229, 230, 231,
performative 301 233–234, 237, 252, 259n.
performative verb 301, 307 interrogative 225, 226, 237
periphrasis, periphrastic form 103, 108, 109, reflexive 208–209, 252
112, 114, 115, 122 relative 229, 230, 231, 233–234, 259n.
person 81, 106–107 proposition 264
generic 107 propositional content 302

prospective 115 Subject Index 333
prototype 151–153
proverbial (gnomic) 112 phonological 6, 51–54
pseudocleft sentence 235, 253, 295 phrase structure 163, 165–166, 168,
punctual 114, 145
211–212, 213n.
Q regulatory 8, 163, 306
quantifier 120, 121, 299
S
postposing 299 S¯ 217, 225–226
question 64, 65, 134, 168, 204–205, 207–208, S-structure (surface structure) 164, 211–212,

209, 213–214n., 221, 225–228, 236–238, 266–267
243, 253, 259n. selectional restriction 153, 154, 211
echo 64, 228 semantics 11, 12, 129–131, 134–138, 263
indirect 134, 236–238, 243
tag 64, 168, 207–208, 209 lexical 11, 129
wh- (content) 64, 134, 225–228, 237, 243 sentence 11, 129, 263
yes/no (truth) 64, 204–205, 237, 243 structural 134–138
text (discourse) 11, 129
R traditional 129–131
r 33, 39 semivowel see glide
sense 131, 134, 138
intrusive r 33 sibilant 31
linking r 33 sign 4–5
nonrhotic dialect 33 iconic 4, 5
rhotic dialect 33 indexical 4, 5
raising 254–255, 260n. symbolic 5
recategorization 124–125 simplicity 9
reciprocity 138 situation 147, 159n.
recursive 166, 176 sonorant 52, 53
reduplication 91 sound 20–23, 35
relative clause 229–236, 237, 243, 246–247, nasal 22, 23
nasalized 22, 35
259n., 260n., 298, 300 oral 21, 23, 35
free (headless) 234–235, 243 voiced 22, 23, 35
indefinite 235 voiceless 22, 23
restrictive 231–233, 300 specificity 110, 292, 300
nonrestrictive 231–233, 236, 300 specifier 170, 176, 189n., 198, 200, 258n.
sentential 236 prepositional 176, 189n.
remnant (frozen) form 84 speech 18–19
retroflex 25, 33 speech, indirect 217, 237
reversive 138 speech act 4, 301–312
root 76–77, 100 Commissive 303, 306–307
bound 77 Declarative 304
creation 100 Directive 303, 307, 309
rule 8, 49–54, 83–85, 89, 163, 165–166, 168, Expressive 304
illocutionary 302
211–212, 213n., 306 indirect 307, 309–312, 313
constitutive 8, 163, 306 locutionary 302, 304
lexical 89 perlocutionary 302
morphemic 83–85 Representative 304
phonemic 49–51 Verdictive 304

334 Subject Index future 113
tense stranding 206
state/stative 112, 114, 127n., 143–144, 147, that 216, 217, 220, 229, 232, 233–234, 237,
159n., 203, 210, 260n., 276–277, 280,
281, 282, 283, 284, 285 259 n.
thematic grid 274–276
stem 78–79 thematic role (q-role) 266–276
stop 24, 26, 28–29, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55
stress 19, 50, 51, 57–62, 68, 74, 92–93 Agent 267, 268, 269, 276
ambiguous 273–274
contrastive 19, 61, 291, 293, 294, 295 Benefactive 268, 270, 271
functions of 58–61 dual roles 271–274
primary 58 Experiencer 267, 268, 269
secondary 58 Factitive 268, 270, 271
strong form 60 Force 267, 268, 269
subcategorization (subclassification) 120, Goal 267, 268, 269, 271
Instrument 267, 268, 269, 276
181, 211, 252, 267 Location 268, 269
subcategorization frame 181 Neutral 268, 270, 271
subject 168–169, 201, 201, 216, 244, 248, 267, Path 267, 268, 269
Patient 268, 270, 271, 276
290, 291 Possessor 268, 270
subject hierarchy 276 Range 268, 270, 271
subject selection 297 Role 268, 270
subject-to-subject raising 297 Source 267, 268, 269
superordinate term 135–136 Theme 268, 270, 271
suppletion 109 there-insertion 297–298
suprasegmental features 57–65 tone group 63
syllabic 35, 42–44, 50, 51, 54 tonic syllable 63
syllable 23, 34, 41, 42, 65–68 topic 61, 137, 291, 293, 295, 296, 297, 298
topicalization 293–298, 297
closed 41 tough-movement 260n., 297
coda of 65–68 trace 202, 226
nucleus of 23, 34, 42, 65–68 transcription 26
onset of 65–68 transformation 163, 164, 212
open 41 tree diagram 89–91, 165, 265
rhyme of 65–66 triangle notation 192
symbol 165–166, 168 trill 24, 45n.
initial 168
recursive 166 U
terminal 166 universal 6, 9–10, 138
symmetry 138 unreleased 28, 34, 50, 51, 54
synecdoche 155 uvular 24, 25
synesthesia 155
synonymy 134–135, 150 V
syntax 11, 12, 163 velar 24, 25, 26, 29, 32, 37, 38, 52
synthetic 103, 278 velaric system 45n.
velarization 32, 34, 53, 54, 69n.
T
tautology 154–155 dark (velarized) l 32, 53
velum 21–22, 23, 24, 35
apparent 155
telic 143, 145
tense 81, 104, 111–113, 115, 198–199

nonpast (present) 81, 112
past 81, 113

verb 74, 81, 94–96, 111–117, 122, 123, Subject Index 335
143–147, 181–186, 197–198, 199,
202–203, 213n., 239, 254–255, 264, 273, lax 41, 42, 53
274–276, 297, 298, 299 length 41–42, 51, 54, 68
nasalized 35, 52, 54, 68, 69n.
complex transitive 184, 203 reduced 37–38, 53, 59
copulative 122, 183, 202, 264, 299 retracted 53, 54
diprepositional 185–186, 203 rounded (pursed) 35, 38–39
ditransitive 182–183, 202–203, 299 tense 41, 42
expect-type 254–255, 273 unrounded (spread) 35, 36, 37, 39
finite 199, 213n., 215
intransitive 122, 182, 202, 264 W
lexical (main) 198 weak form 60
perception 239, 274–276 wh-movement (fronting) 225–226, 227, 228,
persuade-type 254–255
phrasal 74, 94–96, 123, 197–198, 203, 264, 229, 231, 237, 243, 258n., 259n.
long 228, 231
298 wh-word 225, 226–227, 243, 258n.
prepositional 184, 203, 264 word 19, 59, 73–75, 79, 103, 118
transitive (monotransitive) 122, 181–182, criteria for 73–75
function (grammatical) 76, 103, 118
202, 264 lexical (content) 118
want-type 254–255 morphosyntactic 75
verbalizer 88 orthographic(al) 74
vocal cords 20, 22 phonological 74
vocal tract 20–22 types of 79
vocative 65 word class 58–59, 76, 118–126
voice 117; see also passive major (open) 76, 118
voiceless vowel 33, 35, 50 minor (closed) 76, 118
voluntary 143 test for, distributional 119
vowel 23, 34–44, 51, 52, 53, 54, 59, 68, 69n. test for, inflectional 119–120
acoustic properties of 23, 34 word order 103, 108
articulation of 34–35 writing 19–20
back 35, 38–39
central 35, 37–38 Y
front 35, 36–37 yod-dropping 41, 53
function of 23, 34