Note-making

Note making

Dr. Umesh D. Pradhan

1

About the book

In different examinations note-making is a compulsory
question now. It is not only important for any examination but it is
an essential study skill which would help us for the life time. The skill
can be developed only with practice. Here are 52 passages
which would provide you sufficient practice to form the habit and
develop the essential efficiency. A passage for every Sunday
throughout the year!

The passages here are from the simple one to more
challenging one, suited to the demands of the different age
group and for building in confidence as well. More over some of
these passages have appeared for the different exams, therefore
they are tested one. Some of the passages are fresh and have not
appeared for any examinations.

Read the variety of instructions which expects you to
respond differently. Preparing a note requires detailed
understanding of the passage, therefore comprehensive reading
is expected at every level. The detailed note on how to go about
for the note-making and what, why and how about the skill will
help sufficiently to get a good start. Wish you all the best in your
efforts to master the skill.

Dr. Umesh D. Pradhan

2

Note-making

Why to study note-making?

Before we learn any skill or technique the reason why
are we expected to study or develop it should be clear. If
the purpose of studying note-making is clear then we will
be able to grasp that quickly and easily. It is an important
skill which will help us in many different ways.

Note helps us to remember many more things very
easily. Knowledge and information goes on increasing and
it becomes difficult to memorise many more things. With
the help of a note we put in short the major ideas in the
passage and it becomes possible to recollect them. A note
helps us to recapitulate and revise the points quickly. In
this sense a note making is an important study skill. Note
saves time and space. You can quickly look at the relevant
points. Lot of information can be stored in a small place.
When the study goes on increasing in its volume, it is
essential to refer to many more books in that case the art
of note-making helps to have the essential reference skill.

The information prepared in form of a note helps for
understanding the topic in a better way. The matter is
presented in a tabular or in form of branches which helps
in getting clear idea about the relation amongst the
various points. The graphical presentation in this way
simplifies the process of understanding. In this way a note
becomes manageable to deal with the topic. Note making
is especially a study skill. A note prepared on the topic of
our studies helps us to understand what we are trying to
learn. The skill of note making if linked with other subjects
you will be able to refer to many books at a time.

3

A note is always for the personal use and note is not
made for someone. Therefore, one has to follow clear
ways of presenting which will help later on. The technique
of note making further helps in developing the skill
required for writing essays or other kind of writings.

It also should be borne in mind that note-making is
for the personal use. That is a note made by one may not
be essentially helpful for the others to understand. The
note-maker might have given importance to something
different than you think. It all depends on the purpose of
note-making.

What is note-making?

Note making means writing down the bare essentials,
the main ideas, and the supporting details of a text. Notes
are often presented in point form. We use abbreviations
and symbols while making notes. The main ideas and
related points are numbered. Note is always presented in
a graphical form. Therefore, we call it putting verbal
information in form of non-verbal form. It is a shortening of
the message.

What are the types of note-making?

A note can be presented in different forms. Tree-
diagram is one common way of presenting a note. Major
point is presented first and points and the sub-points are
presented in form of branches and sub branches. The
relation amongst the sub-points is established through lines
and arrows.

Another way is to present a note in form of points
and sub points. The main point and sub points are
presented in form of a table or chart. The comparative sort
of presentation is possible through such tables. The
information is essentially in form of points and the

4

sentences are avoided.

The other graphical form such as graph is also useful
to present the information. Here, with the minimum use of
words lot of information is provided. Pie-chart, table, are
the different forms in which a note can be developed.

What are the stages and steps in making a note?

1. Read the passage again and again.
2. Ask the question what is the passage about? What does

the writer say about it?
3. Suggest a suitable title.
4. Title can be in the beginning of the passage or at the

end of the passage. The title is always about the central
sentence or theme. Search for the most common point,
which in turn will help you to decide on the title or root
of the tree diagram. Specify the title. The title has to be
catchy, attractive and must be in few words. Avoid
giving one word as a title. The title has to be bit
explanatory as it will give some idea about the whole
note. The title should summarise the passage. It is
summary of a summary.
5. Consider the major divisions, the branches and the sub
branches, their titles, headings. The very second or third
line will help you to decide on the number of branches
and sub-branches. The structure of the paragraph will
also sometimes help in deciding on the branches.
6. Consider the examples given. Try to underline the major points.
7. Note-making is largely based on selecting the major point
and avoid certain things. The note-maker will have to use his
power of understanding on deciding the points that could be
avoided. Only pay attention to information giving points. While
selecting major points avoid repetitions, literary use of a
language, explanations, etc.
8. Look at the link that is being established amongst the various

5

points. The relation between the different points help to decide
on the way to present a note.
9. Once you are ready with these ideas do not hesitate to
prepare a rough draft.
10. It is only after confirming all about the points and presentation
you should develop the final draft.
How to present a note?

While presenting a note, that is writing it, you will
have to pay attention to the size of a note and therefore,
how you are expected to hold the paper. If the note has
many branches then it is advisable to hold the paper
landscape style or horizontal manner. If the branches are
few but lot of information is to be written then the paper
may be considered vertically or in a portrait manner. Make
the layout of the note as clear and as immediately
comprehensible as possible.

• Put the title in bold manner. You can rewrite on the title
to make it bold. You can also think of increasing the
font size bigger than the other points. Put the title at the
centre of the page. You may put a box around the title.

• Put proper symbols and make use of different types of
bullet points. For example: * ® · ± ¯ Æ

• Put proper lines and arrows to show relation amongst
the different points. You may use a pencil to make it
more attractive.

• Use bit smaller size of writing for the points

• You can use symbols or signs instead of using more
words

Some dos and don’ts in note-making:

• Make use of only words or smaller group of words

• Don’t use sentences

6

• The most common points should be given first
preference

• Don’t add anything of your own. Base your note on the
given point only.

• Don’t use the same words repeatedly
• Note should be only on one page so that it becomes a

graphical picture
• Use the possible devices of highlighting
What is a difference between a note making and summary
writing?

Summary is general and any reader can follow it.
However, a note is a personal affair. Summary covers
specific, highlighting points whereas a note covers all the
important point. Summary is more of verbal nature while as
a note uses more of symbols, marks and points. Summary
appears to be more formal in nature where as a note is
more informal.
Where do you go wrong?

Normally while preparing a note the following are the
areas where you may go wrong. Avoid such mistakes. For
instance, proper branching of the main and sub-points is
not done. All the essential points are not covered. The
passage is not fully comprehended which leads to use
unnecessary details. There is no neat and attractive
presentation. Preparing a rough draft is neglected and
directly the note is prepared. While practicing be sure as
to avoid these mistakes.

7

Passage No. 1

Read the following passage and make note of it in form of a tree-diagram

If edible fats like ghee, butter and oil are the modern equivalent of sin,
how is it that only some cooking oils claim to be good for you? The truth is, all
fats are not created equal. All of them are equally fattening. But in terms of
cholesterol, some types of fats are healthier for you than others.

The worst company to keep are saturated fats. These are oils that harden
as soon as the weather turns cool. Saturated fats lurk in foods of animal origin,
such as meat, poultry, cheese, ghee, butter, cream lard and eggs. Some
vegetable fats are also in the same league-coconut oil, palm oil and vegetable
ghee.

Unsaturated fats, which remain liquid even in cool weather, are more
heart-friendly. Mono-unsaturated are the healthiest because they lower only the
‘bad’ cholesterol. Mono-fats are groundnut, mustard and olive oils.
Polyunsaturated oils are corn, safflower, sunflower, soybean and sesame. These
also bring down ‘bad’ cholesterol but they end up lowering good cholesterol as
well. So monos remain your best choice.

8

Passage No. 2

Read the following passage and make note of it in form of a tree-digram

There are three main groups of oils-animal, vegetable and mineral.
Great quantities of oil comes from whale those enormous creatures of the sea
which are the largest remaining animals in the world. To protect the whale from
the cold of the arctic sea’s nature has provided it with a thick covering of fat
called blubber. When the whale is killed, the blubber is stripped off and boiled
down. It produces a great quantity of oil which can be made into food.

Vegetable oil has been in use from very ancient times. No household
can get on without it, for it is used in cooking. Perfumes may be made from the
oils of certain flowers. Soaps are made from vegetable and animal oils. Mineral
oil is one that drives tanks, aeroplanes and warships, motor cars and diesel
locomotives. This is the oil that has changed the life of common man. It has
changed the methods of warfare on the land and sea. This kind of oil comes out
of the earth. Because it burns well, it is used as fuel. Scientists are doubtful
about the origin of oil. They think that the oil under the surface of the earth
originated from living things in the sea. Most of the chief oil fields of the world
are close to the oceans of today. The rocks in which oil is found are of marine
origin too.

9

Passage No. 3.
Read the following passage and make note of it in form of a tree-diagram

The Cat fancy club in Britain has grouped cats into two categories. They
are short haired cats and long haired cats. The first category involved British
short haired cats and Foreign short haired cats. British short haired breed has a
compact, powerfully muscled body with a broad chest. White British short
haired cats and Blue British short haired cats are their examples. Foreign short
haired cats have sleek coats and slim elegant bodies. Siamese and Burmese cats
fall under this category. Siamese cats’ ground colour is always pale. Blue point
Siamese and Lilac point Siamese are their examples. Burmese cats are heavy
and muscular. Blue cream Burmese and Red Burmese are their examples.

The second category of cats is usually found in Turkey and Persia. The
Turkish type has a wedge-shaped body. The cats of this type are hard animals
with long sturdy bodies. The Persian has a massive body and a rounder head.
White long haired and Peke faced cats are their examples.

10

Passage No. 4

Read the following passage and make note of it in form of a tree-diagram

Science is a systematized body of knowledge which collects facts,
analyses them and establishes a causal relationship of a particular phenomenon.
Sciences can be divided into natural and social sciences. Natural Science is
mainly connected with the Physical world. It includes both physical and
biological sciences. Physical sciences consist of physics, chemistry, geography,
etc. and deal with inanimate or non-living things. Biological Science includes
biology, zoology, physiology, etc. and deals with the living beings or
organisms. In natural sciences experiments can be conducted under controlled
conditions to find out the causal relationship between different factors or
elements to establish principle or law. Under social sciences we study subjects
like economics, sociology, history, philosophy, etc. Social Sciences study
interaction of persons with society. It deals with questions concerning social
life. A person’s behaviours in society, that is his social life can not be
experimented under controlled conditions. Therefore, there cannot be exact,
precise laws of principles in social sciences.

11

Passage No. 5

Read the following passage and develop a note in form of a tree-diagram.

Developed countries have a good transport systems because food, raw
materials and manufactured goods must be moved quickly and cheaply from
one part of the country to another. There are three main kinds of transport: land,
water and air transport.

In early times, animal transport was important in the world. However, in
the course of time, railways, roads and pipelines have become the chief forms
of land transport. Railways are used for fast and safe transport of goods and
people. In the past, railways had no rivals for transporting heavy and bulky
loads such as coal, iron and grain. Lorries and vans can also carry goods
quickly from door to door. Yet road transport costs more than rail transport.
Pipelines are recently used to transport petroleum, gas and water across the
country.

Inland water transport is important in some lakes like the Great lakes of
North America and the rivers like the Danube and the Rhine in Europe. Canals
are important in some countries like Belgium and Betherlands. Around coasts,
many ships carry freight from one part to another. The oceans are also essential
to world trade.

Air transport is the fastest. It has made the world shrink because
passengers can speed from one continent to another in a few hours.

12

Passage No. 6
Read the following passage and make note of it in form of a tree-diagram

The type of test varies according to the purpose for which it is used.
Placement tests are forward looking tests designed to group learners at the start
of a course. These tests deal with the general abilities of the learners rather than
specific skills. These tests are often brief as they have to be marked quickly.
Diagnostic tests are designed to diagnose whether the learner has learnt
something well . These tests do not always deal with the ‘failure’ of a learner to
do or learn something. They test very specific area. Achievement tests are the
types all teacher and learners are familiar with. These tests look over a longer
period of time than the diagnostic test and it aims at finding out the standard
which learners have reached. Proficiency test tests the learner’s ability to apply
what s/he knows or has learnt in real situations. For example, if a person says s/
he knows how to speak Hindi. A proficiency test is not based upon any
syllabus or a teacher.

13

Passage No. 7

Read the following passage and make a note of it using the points given
below:

The original materials from which soil has been formed through long
ages are the rocks of the earth’s crust. There are three kinds of rocks, made in
three different ways. Igneous rocks were made when the molten material of
which the earth consisted long ago became cooler and solidified; granite, is one
of these. Another kind of rock is sedimentary rock, formed when rivers brought
down small pieces of material with them as they flowed into the sea. The matter
which they brought down with them fell to the bottom of the sea, and this
sediment was slowly pressed and cemented together by other substances into
rock. Shale, limestone, and chalk are sedimentary rocks. The third kind of rock
is metamorphic rock. This was formed for instance, when the lava thrown out
by volcanoes affected the material over which it flowed. The heat changed the
surface underneath and produced different kinds of rocks, of which slate and
marble are two examples.

Title:

Types Formed by Examples

1

2

3

14

Passage No. 8

Read the following passage and make note of it in form of a tree-
diagram

William Shakespeare (1564-1616) who remains the most widely
known and admired writer in English literature, was born at
Warwickshire. He wrote many plays, historical plays and poems. His
plays include tragedies as well as comedies. He wrote his first plays, ‘A
Comedy of Errors’ and ‘Titus Andronicus’, which is a tragedy, in 1589.
He had established himself as a playwright and actor in London by 1592.
‘The life and Death of King John’ and ‘The Life of King Henry V’ are
examples of historical plays written by him. He wrote many poems like
‘Venus and Adonis’, ‘ A Lover’s Complaint’ sonnets, etc. ‘Macbeth’,
Romeo and Juliet’, ‘Hamlet’ etc. are some of his famous tragic plays
which were performed at the Globe Theatre. ‘The Taming of the Shrew’,
‘As You Like It’. ‘The Tempest’ are some of his popular comedies.

15

Passage No. 9

Read the following passage and complete the note in form of a table.

According to Ayurveda, the human body has three doshas - vata, pitta
and kapaha. A vata person is usually lean and tall. The skin of such people is
dry and they are sleepless. Chronic constipation, pains, emotional disturbance,
contraction or muscles spasms, high blood pressure, diseases of small gut are
problems face by people with vata dosha. These people should avoid dry and
salty, seed, unripe bananas, pungent, bitter tasting food, potatoes and beans.
They can enjoy radish, carrot, garlic, onion, cucumber, warm soup, warm
foods, ginger tea, etc. A person with pitta constitution would be of middle
height with a chest that is neither flat nor big. Having good digestive capacity,
the person consumes lots of fruits. Stomach ulcers, gastric, duodenal prob-
lems, skin diseases like eczema, acidity, hair fall and heart problems are dis-
eases that affect these people. These people should avoid highly pungent, sour,
salty foods. Pickles, milk cream, coffees, red meat fried foods are not good for
them. Instead they should eat gapes, apples, bitter vegetables, ghee, milk,
sweets, cauliflower, green beans, etc. a person with kapha prakriti has a bulky
physique. He has good hair growth on his scalp . The person has a very good
memory. Frequent cold, obesity, diabetes, arthritis, allergy are the common
ailments of these kind persons. Heavy foods, dry food coconut are not good for
them. They should have easily digestible foods like vegetables, sheat, barley
etc.

Title

Meaning Physic of a Problems faced Precautions
person or Avoid

1

2

3

16

Passage No. 10

Read the following passage and make note of it by completing the points
given below:

An optical fiber is a glass or plastic fiber. It is much finer even than a
hair and very flexible. It can be bent any way we like. When light rays enter it
at one end, they are repeatedly reflected from its sides back into the fiber. The
rays come out only from the other tip of the fiber. Hence, the fiber can go
wherever the fiber goes!

Wonderful things can be done by bending or piping light in this way. It
is used to make a gastro scope for operations. Optical fibers have been used in
communications. At the same moment all over the world at the same moment,
the hundred of TV channels are seen due to this fiber. They are also useful in
the fields like chemical and marine engineering.

Meaning:
Specialty:
Uses:

17

Passage No. 11

Read the following passage and develop a note in form of a tree-
diagram.

We have two different types of memory. One is for
remembering things over a short period. For example, we remember
the beginning of a sentence until we have heard the end of it. This
type of a memory is called short-term memory, because we use it for
things we want to remember for a short time only. The number of
items we can remember at the same time in this way is extremely
small, and we forget them quickly if our attention is diverted. We
have a second memory system, which is called the long-term
memory. This is a permanent store of learning. There is no obvious
limit to the amount that can be stored in the long-term memory, but it
is sometimes difficult to find the remembered item. Whereas
forgetting in the short-term memory is caused by distraction, in the
long-term memory forgetting is caused by the difficulty in finding
the material. Whereas forgotten material is permanently lost from the
short-term memory. The information is still stored in the long -term
memory system but we cannot get it out.

Title:
Types:
Purpose:
Amount of data:

18

Passage No. 12

Input devices are hardware used to translate words, sounds,
images and actions that people understand into a form that the system
unit can process. In addition to keyboards and mice, there are a wide
variety of other input devices. These include pointing, scanning,
image capturing and audio-input devices. There are a wide variety of
different keyboard designs. They range from the full-sized to
miniature and from rigid to flexible. Trigonal keyboards are fullsized,
rigid rectangular keyboards that include function, navigational and
numeric keys. Flexible keyboards fold or roll up for easy packing or
star keyboard with minimal storage requirements. Ergonomic
keyboards are similar to traditional keyboards. The keyboard
arrangement is not rectangular a palm rest is provided. Wireless
keyboards transmit input to the system unit through the air. By
eliminating connecting wires to the system unit, these keyboards
provide greater flexibility and convenience. PDA keyboards are
miniature keyboards for PDAs used to send e-mail, create documents
and more. The features of a keyboard include numeric keypad, toggle
keys, combination keys.

19

Passage No. 13

Read the following passage and prepare a note:
We come across computers everywhere. According their capacity, speed

and function they are of different types. Supercomputers are the most powerful
type of computer. These machines are special high-capacity computers used by
very large organisations. For example, NASA uses supercomputers to track and
control space explorations. Mainframe computers occupy specially wired, air-
conditioned rooms. Although not nearly as powerful as supercomputers, main-
frame computers are capable of great processing speeds and data storage. For
example, insurance companies use mainframes to process information about
millions of policyholders. Minicomputers. Also known as midrange computers,
are refrigerator-sized machines. Mediumsized companies or departments of
large companies typically use them for specific purposes. For example, produc-
tion departments use minicomputers to monitor certain manufacturing process-
es and assembly line operations. Microcomputers are the least powerful, yet the
most widely used and fastest-growing, type of computer. There are four types
of microcomputers: desktop, notebook, tablet PC and hand held computers

20

Passage No 14.
Read the following passage and make a note in form of a tree diagram:

Television hasn’t been with us all that long, but we are already
beginning to forget what the world was like without it. Before we admitted the
one-eyed monster into our homes, we never found it difficult to occupy our
spare time. We used to enjoy civilized pleasures. For instance, we used to
have hobbies; we used to entertain our friends and be entertained by them; we
used to go for our amusements and sporting events. We used to read books and
listen to music. All that belongs to the past. Now all our free time is regulated
by the “goggle box”. We rush home or gulp down our meals to be in time for
this or that progrmme. We have given up sitting at table and having a leisurely
evening meal, exchanging the news of the day. The monster demands and
obtains absolute silence and attention. If any member of the family dares to
open his mouth during a programme, he is quickly silenced.

21

Passage No. 15

Read the following passage

Pottery is the name given to all kinds of pots and utensils made from
clay and other minerals when they have been ’fired’, that is, hardened cups and
saucers, cooking dishes, wall and floor tiles, chemical storage jars, bathroom
fittings, filters, drain pies, electrical insulators and ornaments for the home.

Pottery is one of the oldest crafts, which began to be practised as soon
as man learned to control fire, and long before the melting of metals. It enabled
him from very early times to make vessels for strong and cooking food, for car-
rying water, and for ritual burial purposes. Early vessels were shaped by hand
and probably ‘fired’ in a big bonfire by covering them over with dried grass
and dead branches, which were then set alight.

A great advance in pottery followed the invention of the potter’s wheel
and the kiln. It is not certainly known where the potter’s wheel was first used,
but it is thought that by about 3500 B.C. potters in Central Asia were using
some kind of wheel. From there its use spread west and east to Egypt, Crete,
China and then to ancient Greece and Rome.

At first the wheel was nothing more than a small disc, turned on a pivot
by hand, but later it was improved by raising it and providing it with a larger
circular platform near the ground as well which could be rotated by the potter
with his feet. Such a wheel was probably in it was certainly still in use in Eu-
rope at the beginning of the nineteenth century. In the eighteenth century, how-
ever, the potter’s wheel was improved so that it could be worked by a treadle,
or tuned by an assistant. Modern potters’ wheels are power driven.
Pottery definition:
Purpose:
Vessels shaped by:
Invention of Potter’s wheel of:
Improvement to Potter’s wheel:

22

Passage No 16.
Read the following passage and make note of it in a form of tree diagram.

Hepatitis means inflammation of the liver, which leads to jaundice.
The common causes of hepatitis are viral hepatitis (especially A and C
followed by B) and alcoholic hepatitis. In rare cases on encounters hepatitis due
to parasites, chemicals drugs and malignant deposits.
Hepatitis A and C are transmitted by contaminated water and food
whereas Hepatitis B is transmitted by injections, injuries, surgery, blood trans-
fusions, sexual contact with patients suffering from this disease.
The symptoms of hepatitis differ from virus to virus but generally in the
initial stages the patient gets fever without a septic focus i.e. sore throat, cold
etc. The fever is associated with body ache, headache and loss of appetite and is
moderate to high grade and generally doesn’t respond easily to routine medica-
tions.

23

Passage No. 17.

Read the following passage

Plant disease s are different from attack by pests. Most common causes
of diseases are excessively dry or humid air, lack of air movement among
crowded plants and over watering of plants. There are three kinds of plant dis-
eases. Fungus diseases are caused by the attack of fungus parasites: e.g club
roots of cabbages, potato scab and apple scab or blackening of leaves e. g pota-
to light. These parasitic fungi are microscopic and hence can’t be seen with the
naked eye.

A virus disease is caused by infection with a virus, which is so small
that it cannot be seen with an ordinary microscope. hence its detection is not
easy. Virus disease are spread by biting and sucking insects. In the gardens and
nurseries, they can be carried from plant to plant by pruning knives or by the
fingers in the process of trimming plants. The commonest virus symptoms is
mosaic, in which the leaves show light green or yellow patches scattered in ir-
regular fashion as in onion, cabbage, cucumber, tomato, etc.

A very important point about these virus diseases is that every part of the
plant is quickly infected. The virus is present in all parts, so it is useless to
propagate from a virus infected plants. Functional disorders of plants are not
infectious, since it does not involve any parasite. Faulty cultivation or unsuita-
ble environment is usually the cause and plants are adversely affected either
because of soil conditions or climatic factors.

24

Passage No. 18

Read the following passage

Palm oil is a cheap edible oil commonly used these days as a
cooking medium by the poor and middle class. The crude oil is
coloured, varying from orange-yellow to deep orange, due to the
presence of carotenes. Its colour is reduced to acceptable levels by
absorption of pigments on activated natural earths. The treatment
yields almost white oil. It develops a typical smell due to the
presence of iodine, which is chemically related to carotenes.

It has a poor taste keep ability index. This puts a restriction on its
use in quality products. Also, its relatively slow melting property
restricts its utility because the finished products show a tendency to
develop texture deterioration. During storage, the product becomes
hard or grains and lumps are formed.

Palm oil is widely used in the manufacture of soaps, candles,
margarine, etc. Hydrogenated palm oil has a better market value as it
has an excellent taste, flavour and stability and is also light in colour
because during the hardening process, carotenes are hydrogenated to
non-coloured compounds. Due to shortage of edible oils in the
country, refined palm oil is mostly imported; the palm is grown as a
plantation crop in other countries with low-coast labour

Title:

i. Colour
ii. Smell:
iii. Taste
iv. Keep ability index:
v. melting property
vi. uses

25

Passage No. 19
Read the passage and make a note in point form under the subheadings
provided at the end of the passage.

Minerals are important in human life for many reasons. Mineral are
found in varied forms in nature, ranging from the hardest diamond to the softest
tale. For general and commercial purposes, minerals can be classified as metal-
lic, nonmetallic and energy minerals. Minerals are usually found in ores. Min-
erals like iron, copper, zinc, etc. are called metallic minerals. Metallic minerals
may be ferrous, nonferrous or precious. Gold, silver, platinum, etc. are precious
minerals. Minerals containing iron, like ore, manganese, nickel, etc. are known
as ferrous minerals. Copper, tin, bauxite, etc. which don’t contain iron, are non-
ferrous minerals. Mica, salt, sulphur are non-metallic minerals. Energy miner-
als like coal, petroleum and natural gas produce energy.

26

Passage No. 20

Read the following extract and make a note of it with the help of clues pro-
vide:

With the advent of aviation in the early 20th century, clouds
were classified into three main types, according to height and appear-
ance.

High-altitude clouds are wispy and thin and composed of tiny
ice crystals, with their bases 5-12 km (16,000 - 39,000 ft) above
ground. They are known as cirrostratus, cirrus and cirrocumulus.
Sheet or lump-like, mid-level clouds at 2-5 km (7,000 - 16,000 ft),
presage rain or snow. They are altostratus, cumulonimbus and altocu-
mulus. Low-lying clouds below 2 km (7,000 ft) are heap-like, or form
sheets. These are stratocumulus, cumulus, nimbostratus and stratus.
Cloud bases can, however, be affected by location, season, or item of
day.

27

Passage No 21.

Read the following passage

Different systems of irrigation like over the surface or
under the surface to soil by using different methods like furrow,
channel, basin or ring, flooding, sprinkler, drip irrigation, etc. ae in
the use.

Furrow and channel systems are used where the land is fairly
level and amount of water is plenty. These are in common use.

Flooding is in general use for most of the crops where water is
not a problem. Water is allowed to flow over the field to a certain
depth of its absorption, measured in terms of acre-inch. On slopy is-
lands, the nutrients may collect at lower places so upper places may
have less fertility. There can be soil erosion. This is suitable for flat
lands with enought but assured water supply. Ring or basin method is
usually employed for irrigating fruit and other trees. Individual tree
is given water at a time. There is no loss of soil and nutrients but the
method is time consuming and laborious. amount of water given to a
plant is more than its requirement as some of it is likely to be lost
through evaporation and seepage.

Sprinklet method requires less water as compared to the above
methods and needs no preparation of the soil before irrigation. There
is no soil erosion and no loss of nutrients from the soil.

Drip irrigation method is also known as trickle irrigation wyw-
tem since every drop of water is made to trickle down into the soil
near the root zone of the plant which is utilized by the plant.

Under this system, water is directly made available to the root
zone where it seeps down slowly into the soil. Water is allowed to
seep drop by drop at a uniform speed. In this way almost whole of the
water emant for a particular plant or plot is utilized to its maximum.

28

Passage No 22
Read the following passage and make a note of it.

Fibers are thin long pieces of material which are spun into
threads for making cloth, ropes, etc. Fibers can broadly be classified
into two categories: fibers of natural origin and fibers of artificial
origin. Artificial fibers are further subdivided into two groups:
modified forms of natural fibers and synthetic fibers which are
directly sythesised. Fibers of natural origin are further classified
into two groups those of vegetable origin and those of animal origin.
The vegetable origin fibers are cotton, jute, hemp and flax. Amongst
the animal fibers, wool from sheep and from a breed of goats found
in Kashmir is the most common. The natural fibers of vegetable
origin are mostly cellulose whereas the animal fibers are protein
compounds and contain Sulphur. The commonly sythesised fibers are
rayon, nylon and terylene. The artificial fibers have numerous
advantages over cotton, silk and wool.

29

Passage No. 23

Draw a tree diagram that contains the main points and important
supporting details from the following text about the ‘Laser’

Laser is a device that amplifies light. A laser produces a thin intensive
beam of light that can burn a hole in a diamond or carry the signals of different
television pictures at the same time.

There are three major kinds of lasers based on their light amplifying
substance-solid lasers, gas lasers and liquid lasers. Solid lasers use a crystal, a
glass or a semiconductor as the light amplifying substance. Crystal lasers,
glass lasers, semiconductor lasers are different types of solid lasers. Gas lasers
have a gas or a mixture of gases as their light amplifying substance. Helium,
neon, argon, ion and carbon dioxide lasers are the most widely used types of
gas lasers. Liquid lasers produce both bursts of light and continuous light.
Liquid lasers that produce bursts of light use a flash tube as their source of
power. Those that produce continuous light get their power from a gas laser.

30

Passage No. 24

Read the following passage and make a note of it in form of a tree
diagram.

In order to understand the mechanism of speech production and
to appreciate the difference between various contrasting sound
categories, one has to be acquainted with the different organs related
to speech mechanism. The mechanism of speech involves production
of sound and articulation of the sounds produced . While all animals
are blessed with the capability of producing sounds only human
beings have the power to articulate them into a comprehendible
language.

The production of sound involves the Lungs (Motor), the Vocal
Cords (Vibrator) and the Nasal Cavity (Resonator). The sounds
produced are articulated with the help of Jaws, soft and hard Palate,
Teeth, Lips, and above all Tongue. These are all the parts involved in
our speech.

31

Passage No. 25

Read the following passage and make a note of it with the clues
provided in the table given below.

Soils in India have been formed due to various processes.
Most of the soil types have been formed under tropical climatic con-
ditions. In humid areas of the western coastal areas and Western
Ghats, they have been formed by the chemical weathering of rocks.
Laterite soils develoed through this process have been formed due to
the washing of silica, salts and organic matter and accumulation of
sesqui-oxides into the soil. The sandy desert soils have come into
existence due to the action of winds. The black cotton soils have
been formed due to the mechanical weathering of ingenious rocks.

Alluvial soils, which are the most important soils, have been
formed due to the depositing processes of the rivers. They are thus
transported soils.

Types of soil Formation
1
2
3
4

32

Passage No. 26

Read the following passage and make a note of it in form of a tree
diagram.

The fruits are classified int three groups: simple, aggregate and
compound or composite fruits

The simple fruit develops from a single flower having a
gynoecium which may be monocarpellary it is necessarily
syncarpous.

The aggregate fruit is formed from a single flower which has a
polycarpellary, apocarps gynoecium.

The compound fruit is formed from the gynoecia of a number
of flowers, i.e. it results from the entire inflorescence.

The simple fruits are further classified into: Dehiscent and
Indehiscent. The pericarp of dehiscent fruit at maturity bursts,
automatically liberating seeds. They are generally dry. Indehiscent
fruit does not split open at maturity. The seeds are liberated either
after the decomposition of the pericarp or accidental breaking of the
pericarp. Indehiscent fruits are further classified into two groups,
namely, dry and fleshy.

33

Passage No. 27

Read the following passage and make a note of it in form of a tree
diagram.

Several methods are used for sale of goods. Some are direct
and straight, while others are round about. Broadly speaking, we may
classify these methods into three: Negotiated sale - where the sale is
completed by negotiation between the buyer and the seller. Auction
sale - where direct sale takes place but there is no negotiation and
the third method is a system of Consumer Credit Facility which again
has two systems (A) The Hire Purchase System (b) Instalment Meth-
od, both of which have some advantages and disadvantages.

Under negotiated sale, there are several methods like sale by
Inspection, sale by description, sale by sample, sale by tender, sale
by approval or return basis and sale on consignment. Auction sales
are carried out in two methods namely, Open Auction and Closed
auction. In the first method, buyers purchase by bidding and the
highest bidder gets the goods and in the second method the buyer in-
spects the goods on sale and then fills in a secret tender quoting his
offered price. Here too the highest bidder receives the goods.

34

Passage No. 28

Read the following passage

Psychology has a new application in the field of medicine.
Many doctors together with their patients, are looking for alternative
methods of treatment of physical problems. In large hospitals and
research centres modern methods of therapy seem to focus on the
physical disease without considering the patient’s mental state.
Patients may feel that they are being treated impersonally like
broken machines. Some doctors have recognised this as a problem.
They are now using psychological therapy with patients in the
treatment of their disorders. The physicians are helping patients to
use their own minds to fight their disorders. Because the patient is
working with the medicine and the doctors against the disease, his or
her attitude changes. The patient does not wait for the medicine and
treatment to cure him or her, but instead the patient joins the fight.

Doctors have learned that this use of psychology is helpful for
both adults and children. Sometimes the adult patient worries about
illness so much that the anxiety keeps him from getting well. The
right suggestions may help the patient to stop being anxious,
Psychology is very useful in greeting children, as they respond
quickly to the treatment because they are fascinated by it.

Points: ii.
1. Types of treatment: i.
2. Uses of psychological therapy:

i. ii.
iii. iv.
v.

35

Passage No. 29

Read the following passage and make a note of it in form of a
tree diagram.

The ancient Greeks believed that Volcanic eruptions occurred
when Vulcan, the God of the Underworld, stoked his subterranean
furnace beneath Volcano, a small volcanic island off Sicily, from
which the present word Volcano is derived. Of course, we no longer
believe this is true.

There are three types of volcanoes: active, dormant and
extinct. Volcanoes are said to be active when they frequently erupt
or at least when they have erupted within recent time. Those that
have been known to erupt and show signs of possible eruption in the
future anre described as dormant. Volcanoes that have not erupted at
all in historic time but retain the features of volcanoes are termed
extinct. all Volcanoes pass through active, dormant and extinct
stages but we can never be thoroughly sure when they are extinct.
Mt Vesuvius and Mt Krakatau were once thought by people to be
extinct and yet both erupted most violently.

36

Passage No. 30
Read the following passage and make a note of it in form of a tree
diagram.

Storms are given many different names depending on their
nature and where they take place. If it is air alone, it is called wind
storm. If i has picked up dust along the way, it is called a dust storm.
Hurricanes are storms that start in the tropics. When the same kind of
storm takes place in the East Indies and the China Sea, it is called a
typhoon. In a hurricane the storm area is usually from one to four
hundred miles in diameter. Another type of circular storm is the
tornado. Tornadoes are formed most often in the Central Mississippi
valley of the United States.

37

Passage No. 31

Read the following passage and draw a tree diagram that contains
the main points and important supporting details from the
following text about the “Causes of Migration of Birds”.

Several theories have been put forth to explain the causes of
migration in birds. Gonadial Stimli: It is said that the ripening of sex
organs in birds causes a physiological change, which leads to an
impulse for migration and the bird is evoked to leave its winter
quarter and reach the breeding grounds. Rowan (1922) proposed that
the migration is stimulated by the bormones secreted by the testes
and ovaries.

Environmental stimuli: The heat glare and draught also
provoke migration. The external stimuli, like growing scarcity of
food, decrease of day length or sun glare, increased cold and story my
weather, etc. excite birds to migrate to the better suited places.

Thyroid hypothesis: The hormones secreted by thyroid gland
regulate the metabolic activities of the bird and at the time of
migration the thyroid hormone produces necessary changes in the
metabolic activities, which compel the bird to migrate.

Ant pituitary hormones: The ant pituitary hormones regulate
the migration and instinct to migrate.

Metabolic aspect: Prior to migration fat deposition occurs due
to changes in metabolic process. These changed metabolic conditions
provoke migration.

38

Passage No. 32

Read the following passage and make a note of it in form of a tree
diagram.

The whole process of the circulation of water between the land,
sea and atmosphere is known as the hydrological cycle. When rain
falls on the earth it is distributed in various ways. Some is
immediately evaporated and thus returns to the atmosphere as water
vapour. Some is absorbed by plants and only gradually returned to the
atmosphere by transpiration from the leaves of plants. Much of it
flows directly off slips to join streams and rivers, eventually reaching
the seas and oceans. This is known as run-off. A considerable
proportion of the water received from rain or snow, however,
percolates downwards into the soil and rocks, filling up joints and
pore-spaces and forming what is known as groundwater. Groundwater
plays an important part in weathering and mass movement and is also
important as a means of natural water storage. it re-enters the
hydrological cycle by way of springs.

39

Passage No. 33

Read the following passage
The small village of Somnathpur contains an extraordinary temple, built

around 1268 A. D. by the Hoyasalas of Karnataka — one of the most prolific
temple builders. Belur and Helebid are among their better-known works.
While these suffered during the invasion of the 14th century, the Somnathpur
temple stands more or less intact in near-original condition. The small temple
captivates with the beauty and vitality of its detailed sculpture covering almost
every inch of the walls, pillars and even ceilings. It has three Shikhars and
stands on a star-shaped raised platform with 24 edges. The outer walls have a
profusion of detailed carvings: the entire surface run over by carved plaques of
stone. There were vertical panels covered by exquisite figures of God and
Goddesses, with many incarnations being depicted. There were nymphs too,
some carrying an ear of maize, a symbol of plenty and prosperity. The
elaborate ornamentation, very characteristic of Hoyasala sculptures was a
remarkable feature. On closer look — and it is worth it — the series of friezes
on the outer walls revealed intricately carved caparisoned elephants, charging
horsemen, stylized flowers and warriors.

—————————-
Location: ……………………………………………..
Year: …………………………….
Built by:………………………………………
Captivates with: …………………………
Structural features:
(i) Three Shikhars: …………………………….
(ii) Star-shaped platform ……………………………...
(iii) Outer wall carvings, ……………………….charging horsemen, ………… and
warriors.
(iv) Nymphs-symbol of ………………...

40

Passage no. 34

Read the following passage

The brief, bright streaks of light in the lit sky are known as meteors.
Those that fall all the way to the ground are called meteorites. Meterorites can
be divided into three broad categories: iron, stony iron and stony.

Iron meteorites are mostly made of meals nickel and iron. They are not
very common. Nearly 50,000 years ago, an iron meteorite, Canyon Diablo,
which created a crater nearly a mile wide and 6 feet deep, known as Meteor
Crater, was found in Arizona.

Stony-iron meteorites rarely land on our planet. They are made of iron-
nickel alloy mixed with non-metallic matter similar to the outer layers of the
earth. Such a meteorite weighing more than one and a half tons was found in
Huckitta, Australia in 1924.

There are three sub-types of stony meteorites. The first is the
chondrites which make up 86percent of meteorites. Carbonaceous chondrites
are another rare type of stony meteorites. The most famous of these fell in
Murchison, Australia in 1969. It contains evidence that life on earth did not
begin here. The last type, the anchondrites are also rare. Scientists say that
such matter was once part of Mars and our own moon.

41

Passage No. 35

Read the following passage
Dairy Farming is a major livelihood followed by many households in

rural areas. This includes rearing milk cattle-cows, buffaloes, goats and sheep.
Dairying is an important source of subsidiary income to marginal farmers and
agricultural labours. They play a very important role in milk production of the
country. The manure from animals provides a good source of organic matter
for improving soil fertility and crop yields. The gobar gas obtained by
processing during is used as a fuel for domestic purposes and also for running
engines to draw water from wells. The surplus fodder and agricultural by
products are gainfully utilized for feeding the animals. Since agriculture is
mostly seasonal, there is a possibility of finding employment through out the
year for many persons through dairy farming.

The milk processing industry is a small one. Only 10 percent of all the
milk produced to deliver some 400 dairy plants. A specific Indian
phenomenon is the unorganised sector of milkmen and vendors, which
handles around 65-70 percent of the national milk production. They collect
milk from local producers and sell it in both urban and no-urban areas.

42

Passage No. 36

Read the following passage

The evil effects of tobacco are not confined to children alone. They are
equally injurious to adults too as is strongly maintained by medical men who
have given this matter their special consideration. Excessive smoking give rise
to chronic pharyngitis with irritability of the throat and cough and might
ultimate redispose to tuberculosis. The blood becomes impoverished and
circulation affected; palpitation of the heart and pain over the heart region,
being the chief results. Sometimes, though rarely, the cardiac pain may be so
intense as to stimulate angina pectoris. Tobacco-heart is a dangerous affection
rendering the victim unfit of thousands of would be recruits to the late wars,
and colleges and universities have recognised that cigarette-smoking has
seriously interfered with the efficiency of their athletic teams, and whoever
desires to be in the best form should abstain from smoking. Confirmed
smokers have never been amongst long distance swimmers or rowers or
cyclists. It is observed that non-smoking students made far better records in
physical development than smokers, their increase I nheight was 24 percent
more than the others, while in their chest or breathing capacity their
superiority was more than 77 percent.

43

Passage No. 37

Read the following
Trees in India known for their grandeur and majesty are like the green

pearl in the Indian crown. Trees occupy the important place in the history of
India. Trees have always been associated with wisdom and immorality in
India. Banyan is the National Tree of India. India's medicinal are no less
diverse. Peepal, banyan (Bodhi tree), and Neem are some of the major plants.

Banyan tree is a huge tree with very extensive branches. It is said that
at one time more than 10, 000 people can sit under its shade at one time. It is
a evergreen tree. It branches spread out and send trunk like roots to the
ground in order to support itself. It grows to a height of more than 21 meters
and lives for many years. The leaves are 10 -20 cm long and has many aerial
roots. The leaves are broad, oval and glossy.

Peepal is a large, fast growing deciduous tree. It has a heart shaped
leaves. It is a medium size tree and has a large crown with the wonderful wide
spreading branches. It shed its leaves in the month of March and April. The
fruits of the Peepal are hidden with the figs. The figs are ripen in the month of
May. The figs which contain the flowers grow in pairs just below the leaves
and look like the berries. Its bark is light gray and peels in patches.

It is a tall evergreen tree with the small bright green leaves. It is up to
100 feet tall. It blossoms in spring with the small white flowers. It has a
straight trunk. Its bark is hard rough and scaly, fissured even in small trees.
The colour of the bark is brown grayish. The leaves are alternate and consists
of several leaflets with serrated edges. Its flowers are small and white in
colour. The loive like edible fruit is oval, round and thin skinned.

44

Passage No. 38

Read the following passage

Supercomputers are the fastest and the most expensive computers.
These huge computers are used to solve very complex science and engineering
problems. Supercomputers get their processing power by taking advantage
of parallel processing; they use lots of CPUs at the same time on one problem.
A typical supercomputer can do up to ten trillion individual calculations every
second. Example Supercomputers:

Mainframe computers are similar to supercomputers in many aspects, the
main difference between them is the fact that a supercomputer use all its raw
power to focus on very few tasks, while a mainframe purpose is to perform
thousands or millions of operations concurrently. Due to its nature,
mainframes are often employed by large organizations for bulk data
processing, such as census, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise
resource planning and transaction processing.

A server is a central computer that contains collections of data and programs.
Also called a network server, this system allows all connected users to share
and store electronic data and applications. Two important types of servers are
file servers and application servers.

Servers are a step under supercomputers, because they don't focus on trying
to solve one very complex problem, but try to solve many many similar smaller
ones. An example of servers would be the computers that Wikipedia stores its
encyclopedia on. Those computers have to go and find the page you're looking
for and send it to you. In itself it's not a big task, but it becomes a job for a
server when the computers have to go and find lots of pages for a lot of
people and send them to the right place

Workstation computers are high-end, expensive computers that are made for
more complex procedures and are intended for one user at a time. Some of
the complex procedures consist of science, math and engineering calculations
and are useful for computer design and manufacturing. Workstations are
sometimes improperly named for marketing reasons. Real workstations are
not usually sold in retail, but this is starting to change; Apple's Mac Pro would
be considered a workstation.

PC is an abbreviation for a Personal Computer, it is also known as a
Microcomputer. Its physical characteristics and low cost are appealing and
useful for its users. The capabilities of a personal computer have changed
greatly since the introduction of electronic computers. The introduction 4o5f
the microprocessor, a single chip with all the circuitry that formerly occupied

Passage No. 39

Read the following passage

Pollution has become common in our surrounding. Air pollution refers
to the release of pollutants like toxic gases, biological molecules, and
particulate matter into the atmosphere. The pollutants can be derived from
both natural processes and human activity. Volcanic eruptions, automobile,
and industrial effluents, etc., are some examples of air pollution sources.
Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, aerosol sprays, etc.,
are some examples of air pollutants. Such pollution can be highly detrimental
to the health and well-being of all life forms on earth.

When the environment is filled with unnecessary or unpleasant sounds
that are harmful to animals and plants, it is called noise pollution. Transport
vehicles, machinery, industries, loud music, people yelling, etc., are some of
the most common sources of noise pollution. This type of pollution gives rise
to chronic diseases like cardiovascular diseases. The psychological health of
people can also be affected by noise.

In simple terms, the contamination of water bodies likes lakes, rivers,
ponds, etc., by pollutants is called water pollution. It can have extremely
disastrous consequences for all living beings using the contaminated water.
Toxic wastes released by industries, pathogens released in sewage, harmful
chemicals present in agricultural runoffs, etc., are some of the top water
pollutants. The contamination of water can lead to epidemics. Water pollution
has a highly adverse impact on the environment, society, and economy of a
place.

46

Passage No. 40

Read the following
The pollution of the night environment by anthropogenic light is known

as light pollution. This type of pollution is caused by an excessive lighting of
the streets, flood lights used in stadiums, lights used in an industrial area, etc.
The negative effects of this pollution include the spoilage of the aesthetic
environment of a place, creating disturbances in the ecosystem, and also
harming the health of living creatures.

Everyone loves to see clean and green spaces and beautiful vistas.
When human activity installs ugly barriers to this vision of open and clutter-
free landscapes, it is called visual pollution. The installation of billboards, open
storage of trash, networks of electric wires crisscrossing each other above the
street, etc., create visual pollution. This type of pollution generates distraction,
eye fatigues, diversity in opinions, and other psychological problems.

The plastic pollution is caused by plastic accumulation in the
environment. Plastic, a non-biodegradable substance, is extremely harmful to
all life on earth. Ingestion of plastics or entanglement in plastic objects kill
these animals. Most of the plastic waste generated in the world end up in the
oceans where they cause great harm to the marine ecosystem.

An induced change in the temperature of large volumes of water
causes thermal pollution. This type of pollution leads to the degradation of
water quality as the warm water does not provide ideal living conditions for
aquatic flora and fauna. The aquatic life experiences a thermal shock due to
the sudden change in its environment.

3

47

Passage No. 41

Read the following

Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells anywhere in a
body. These abnormal cells are termed cancer cells, malignant cells, or
tumour cells. These cells can infiltrate normal body tissues. Many cancers and
the abnormal cells that compose the cancer tissue are further identified by the
name of the tissue that the abnormal cells originated from. Cancer is not
confined to humans; animals and other living organisms can get cancer.
Cancers are named for the area in which they begin and the type of cell they
are made of, even if they spread to other parts of the body. For example, a
cancer that begins in the lungs and spreads to the liver is still called lung
cancer. There are also several clinical terms used for certain general types of
cancer: Carcinoma is a cancer that starts in the skin or the tissues that line
other organs. Sarcoma is a cancer of connective tissues such as bones,
muscles, cartilage, and blood vessels. Leukemia is a cancer of bone marrow,
which creates blood cells. Lymphoma and myeloma are cancers of the immune
system.

The majority of cancers, some 90–95% of cases, are due to genetic
mutations from environmental and lifestyle factors. The remaining 5–10% are
due to inherited genetics. Environmental, as used by cancer researchers,
means any cause that is not inherited genetically, such as lifestyle, economic,
and behavioral factors and not merely pollution.[31] Common environmental
factors that contribute to cancer death include tobacco (25–30%), diet
and obesity (30–35%), infections (15–20%), radiation (both ionizing and non-
ionizing, up to 10%), lack of physical activity, and pollution. Psychological
stress does not appear to be a risk factor for the onset of cancer.

48

Passage No. 43.

Read the following passage

Pollution

When radioactive substances are present in areas where their pres-
ence is undesirable or unintended, it results in a type of pollution called radio-
active contamination. Such substances are highly toxic to all life on earth. Radi-
oactive substances trigger mutations in the genetic material of living organ-
isms, leading to different types of cancers. Exposure to such toxins can also
adversely impact the different systems of the body. Death or disfiguration are
common effects of exposure to radioactive waste.. Irresponsible management
of such wastes or radioactive disasters are the common causes of radioactive
contamination.

When the soil of an area is contaminated, it leads to soil pollution. or
land degradation. The soil is essential to the growth of all plants including
crops. Thus, a degradation in the soil quality translates to lower yields and
poor health of crops grown on such soil. Industrial and agricultural chemicals
are the common pollutants contaminating the soil.

When waste products generated by humans is not disposed of proper-
ly, it is called littering. Here, waste can include anything that is discarded by
humans after use like bottles, glass, packaging material, electronic waste, met-
al waste, etc. Some of these pollutants like electronics, batteries, tires, etc.,
are hazardous to the health of the environment. When chemicals from such
wastes leach into the soil or enter the water bodies, they cause soil contami-
nation and water pollution. Finally, these chemicals enter the bodies of organ-
isms to cause disease and death.

49

Passage No. 44

Read the following passage

There are five instruments of expression. Each human being exists in
five forms of bodies and not one. The most obvious is the physical body which
is made up of cells. This body is made up of various organs and systems of
organs which cooperate in their functioning. The second body is the energy
body, which is made up on the vital energy of life called bioenergy or pran.
Human thought, perception, word and action depend on this energy. It
includes all conscious and subconscious functions. There are two more subtle
bodies that survive the personality after death on the physical lane. These
higher intellect and the causal body. Together they compromise the soul,
which is connecting link from one life to another. When a personality leaves
the body, the conscious and subconscious mental contents are transferred to
and stored in the causal body. Finally the personality which is a projection of
some of those tendencies and characteristics that exist in the soul. These
characteristics develop in the mind, through both hereditary factors and
environmental influences.

50