The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in ...

The use of racist,
antisemitic and xenophobic
elements in political
discourse

High-level panel meeting
on the occasion of the International Day
for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
Paris, 21 March 2005

ECRI: European Commission
against Racism and Intolerance
November 2005

The opinions expressed in the study on “The use of racist, antisemitic and
xenophobic arguments in political discourse”, by Mr Jean-Yves Camus, are
the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official

policy of the Council of Europe or any of the mechanisms or monitoring
bodies established by it.

ECRI (European Commission against Racism and Intolerance)
Council of Europe
F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex
Tel.: + 33 (0)3 88 41 29 64
Fax: + 33 (0)3 88 41 39 87
E-mail : [email protected]
Internet : http://www.coe.int/ecri/
© Council of Europe, 2005
First printing: November 2005
Photos © Council of Europe, 2005
Printed at the Council of Europe

Contents

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

II. Speeches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Mr Terry Davis, Secretary General of the Council of Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Mr Michael Head, Chair of ECRI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Ms Tana de Zulueta, Member of the Parliamentary Assembly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

III. Study on the use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political
discourse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Jean-Yves Camus

IV. Appendices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Participants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
ECRI Declaration on the use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political
discourse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Charter of European Political Parties for a Non-Racist Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance 3



I. Introduction

On the occasion of the International Day and xenophobia in public opinion in many
Council of Europe member states.
for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
on 21 March 2005, the European Commis- Immigrants and refugees, especially
sion against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) those from Muslim countries, are primary
organised a high-level panel meeting on the targets of politicians who exploit feelings of
use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic insecurity in an increasingly complex and
elements in political discourse, with the multicultural world. Most worryingly, the
participation of the Secretary General of the theory of a so-called “clash of civilisations” is
Council of Europe, Mr Terry Davis, the gaining ground. At the same time,
Chair of ECRI, Mr Michael Head and antisemitism also continues to be encour-
members of the Parliamentary Assembly of aged either openly or in a coded manner by
the Council of Europe. certain political leaders and parties.

Deeply concerned by the increasing use ECRI therefore suggests in its Declara-
of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic ele- tion concrete legal and policy measures,
ments in political discourse, including by including self-regulatory measures which
mainstream political parties, ECRI adopted can be taken by political parties or national
on 17 March 2005 a Declaration condemning parliaments, to be adopted in all Council of
this alarming trend which has been Europe member states.
observed in many member states of the
Council of Europe. (The declaration appears There is no doubt that political leader-
in the appendix, p. 55). ship can play a crucial role in combating
racism and influencing public opinion in a
This trend, which is well documented in positive way. It is therefore of the utmost
ECRI’s country monitoring work, was importance that political parties be involved
further substantiated by an independent as much as possible in the fight against
study commissioned by ECRI in order to racism and intolerance as led by ECRI and
investigate this dangerous phenomenon in other national and international actors in
more depth. This study, carried out by the this field. This high-level panel meeting,
political scientist Jean-Yves Camus, pro- which brought together parliamentarians,
vides shocking evidence of numerous cases representatives of intergovernmental and
in which European or national elections non-governmental organisations, research
have given rise to the use of racist, anti- centres and academics working on the issue,
semitic and xenophobic rhetoric, or other was therefore an important opportunity for
discourse which has an impact on racism bringing this issue to the forefront of
national and international debate.

ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance 5



II. Speeches



Mr Terry Davis,
Secretary General of the Council of Europe

Ladies and gentlemen, must be constantly mobilised against
these evils and campaign against them not
As we mark the International Day for only on one day in the year, but each and
the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, every day.
let us remember the victims of the Sharpe-
ville massacre in South Africa on 21 March We in the Council of Europe have
1960 – the massacre which prompted the created the European Commission against
United Nations to commemorate this Day Racism and Intolerance, ECRI, to lead this
on 21 March every year. Let us remember campaign, and I have come here today to
at the same time all the other victims of show my active support for ECRI and its
racism throughout the world, past, mission.
present and future victims of racist vio-
lence and racial discrimination in their This panel meeting is bringing together
everyday lives. representatives of intergovernmental and
non-governmental organisations, parlia-
Racism is a violation of human rights, mentarians and academics, as part of this
rooted in dislike for someone who is dif- campaign. The study by Jean-Yves Camus
ferent, or contempt for someone who is contains some striking examples of the
deemed inferior. When this dislike or con- use of racist rhetoric during national and
tempt becomes hatred, it can lead people European elections. Since the report was
to commit unspeakable crimes as the written, there have been other examples,
horrors of the Second World War and the and there are worrying signs that we will
more recent wars in the Balkans and the see something similar in the United
South Caucasus showed to the whole Kingdom, one of the founding members of
world. the Council of Europe, during the election
which is widely expected in May.
The Council of Europe was born out of
the ashes of the Second World War, out of However, I should like to deliver two
the desire encapsulated in two words: messages of confidence:
“Never again”. It was intended to build a
new Europe, based on the shared values The first is that of the continual and
and principles of pluralist democracy, the determined commitment of the Council of
rule of law and respect for human rights, a Europe to the fight against all forms of
Europe free of racism and racial discrimi- racism. Our action is not limited only to
nation. pointing out what is wrong, far from it.
We also recommend various measures to
Today, the principles on which the remedy the situation, and propose tar-
Council of Europe was founded are still geted, concrete solutions. I expect that
far from being permanently entrenched. the Chair of ECRI will shortly give us
We must continually defend them – and some examples of these solutions.
to do so, we must have a sound under-
standing of what threatens them. The second message is that of my hope
that the sense of responsibility of our poli-
Racism and intolerance in all forms – ticians will lead them to resist the tempta-
be it antisemitism, Islamophobia or xeno- tion to play with fire. But that in itself in
phobia – strike at the heart of the idea of a not enough. At the end of the day, we
democratic society based on respect for cannot build a democracy without polit-
the equal dignity of all human beings. We ical parties. It is political parties which

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 9

can and should be our strongest allies in involved in this struggle throughout their
achieving a society free of racism. political lives.

They should be in the forefront of our Tana de Zulueta is one of them, and I
active campaign against racism, xeno- look forward to her contribution as well.
phobia, antisemitism and islamophobia.
Many European politicians have been Thank you.

10 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance

Mr Michael Head,
Chair of ECRI

“Taking a stance against the use of racist, antisemitic
and xenophobic elements in political discourse”

The findings of Jean-Yves Camus’ research groups. Only a few weeks ago, ECRI pub-
lished its third report on Austria. This
confirm just how timely and useful the prep- addresses precisely the link between a
aration of this study was. certain type of political discourse, the
decline in the general public’s support for
ECRI’s mission is to combat racism, asylum seekers and the adoption and the
antisemitism, xenophobia and intolerance. continuation of policies concerning this
But to do this we have to be able to identify group of persons, for instance in the areas of
these phenomena in the varying forms they social assistance and use of detention, the
assume over time and in different contexts. conformity of which with human rights has
These contexts include public debate and, been widely questioned.
within it, political discourse.
Racist or xenophobic political discourse,
If we want to be effective in proposing particularly where it has been fuelled by the
viable solutions against the exploitation of media, has also already favoured a situation
racism in politics, we need to be able to where discriminatory or even violent behav-
detect it: not only when politicians make iour directed against certain minority
little secret of the prejudice that inspire groups is seen as more acceptable. In a
their statements or policies; but also when report on the United Kingdom published in
the racist and discriminatory nature of 2000, ECRI specifically addressed this issue,
statements and policies lies somewhere particularly with respect to asylum-seekers.
beneath the surface and becomes apparent ECRI will be addressing the issue again in
mainly as a result of time and repetition. its report on the UK which is to be pub-
lished in June.
This study provides us with further
knowledge to enable us to do precisely this. Another of the immediate practical
effects of this sort of political discourse is
ECRI’s concern with the exploitation of that it generates a form of political paralysis.
This is turn deters measures which would
racism, antisemitism and xenophobia in be to the advantage of minority groups. It is,
political discourse has been a feature of our for example, difficult to see the failure in
work for many years now. Germany to establish an effective national
specialised body as anything other than a
We have two main concerns. There is not failure of political will. In Poland the pro-
just concern about the possible conse- tracted reluctance, so far, to prosecute
quences on social cohesion of protracted antisemitic hate speech seems to result from
and basically unchallenged racist or xeno- a straightforward unwillingness to
phobic political discourse in Europe, but acknowledge the social importance of the
there is also concern about what has already crime.
resulted from it.
According to Mr Camus’ study, there has
It is a vicious circle of cause and effect.
Political discourse inspired by racial or cul- been a stabilisation or even regression in the
tural prejudice and xenophobia has deeply rise of extremist political parties in Europe
shaped public opinion in Europe today, and which resort to explicitly racist or xeno-
this has had in turn two effects: first, it has phobic propaganda. Of course ECRI is very
favoured the adoption of measures which pleased with this development.
have impacted disproportionately on certain
minority groups; second, it has affected the
human rights of people belonging to these

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 11

Even so, there are notable exceptions to Second, they should adopt and imple-
this trend, as shown, for instance, in Bel- ment provisions penalising the leadership of
gium. a group that promotes racism, as well as
support for such a group and participation
More importantly there are grounds for in its activities.
even greater concern. Entire parts of the
political platforms of extremist parties are Third, they should establish an obliga-
being – or have been – imported, along with tion to suppress public financing of organi-
the accompanying racist or xenophobic sations which promote racism, including
rhetoric, by mainstream political parties. public financing of political parties, where
such a system is in place. There are legal
One field where this is particularly provisions in this sense in Belgium, for
apparent is immigration. Here, the tone of instance.
political debate, even among mainstream
political parties, has not only hardened con- In addition to legal measures, ECRI sup-
siderably – one only has to think about the ports self-regulatory measures that can be
political debate around immigration in taken by political parties or national parlia-
countries such as Denmark, Switzerland or ments. At the national level in the United
Italy – but it has tended to stigmatise entire Kingdom and in Ireland, for instance, volun-
communities, notably of non-citizens. tary agreements have been entered into by
campaigners before elections, generally
These communities have been targeted under the auspices of a national specialised
and stereotyped by mainstream political body for combating racism.
parties in many countries, particularly
through the use of arguments centred not At the international level, we have the
only around security (the fight against ter- Charter of European Political Parties for a
rorism) but also culture – i.e. arguments Non-racist Society, which sets out guide-
defining different cultures as pre-defined lines for acting responsibly when dealing
and monolithic entities and, even more dan- with issues related to “race”, ethnic and
gerously, entities incompatible with each national origin and religion. The Charter
other. The debate on multiculturalism in the also encourages political parties to work
Netherlands provides a telling example of towards representation of minority groups
this. at all levels of their party system. Signature
of the Charter was explicitly supported,
But, as the Secretary General so rightly inter alia, by the General Conclusions of the
European Conference against Racism of
pointed out, it is not enough just to analyse October 2000. At present, parties from some
these manifestations of racism, antisemitism 26 states have signed the Charter. However,
and xenophobia. This is not an end in itself. a mechanism for the effective implementa-
For ECRI, it is a necessary step in the tion of the Charter is still needed.
process of devising practical and viable solu-
tions for governments to adopt to counter At the end of the day, however, one
these phenomena. ECRI has already identi- cannot expect changes in political discourse
fied a number of possible solutions, which I without recognition of the problem at the
would like to share with you: very top. Ultimately, therefore, ECRI calls
for courageous and effective political leader-
First, member states should thoroughly ship which recognises the grave, long term
implement the ordinary criminal law provi- consequences of responding to challenges
sions against racist offences and racial dis- by inappropriate rhetoric based on racist,
crimination. These are applicable to all indi- antisemitic and xenophobic language and
viduals and not specifically to organisations assumptions.
or political parties. Here, I should point out
that, in order to address racism and racial I emphasise, finally, that the long-term
discrimination in all its contemporary mani- consequences on social cohesion are not all
festations, for ECRI legal provisions against that is currently at stake. Without effective
racism and racial discrimination should political leadership we face the immediate
cover behaviour based on grounds such as consequences of measures which are seen to
“race”, colour, language, religion, nationality be disproportionate or unfair by significant
(meaning citizenship of a country) and groups within our societies. This immediate
national or ethnic origin. risk requires an immediate response.

12 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance

Ms Tana de Zulueta,
Member of the Parliamentary Assembly

“The role of politicians in combating racism,
xenophobia, antisemitism and intolerance”

I will join the previous speakers in bouring countries as safe. After all, immi-
grants do not vote and do not even know
affirming in the strongest terms that racism, their rights, let alone how to enforce them.
antisemitism and xenophobia are a threat to
democracy, the rule of law and the respect of In our time, fear of terrorism is pervasive.
human rights – in a nutshell, to all the prin- What we considered as established rights
ciples which are the foundations of our are being sacrificed to security concerns. It
political systems. is exactly in times like this one that politi-
cians and political parties are more than
I am supposed to talk about the role of ever duty bound to show rigour, self-
politicians in combating these phenomena. restraint, intellectual honesty and integrity.
Instead, as a provocation, I shall start by Freedom of expression cannot be confused
reminding you how politicians contribute to with the deliberate misrepresentation of
generating them. reality; electoral popularity cannot be
obtained at the cost of encouraging racism,
Unfortunately, populism is a temptation intolerance and xenophobia and the failure
for many of us. It is easy to propose sim- of some policies cannot be ascribed exclu-
plistic and stereotyped solutions in sively to their intended beneficiaries.
response to the anxieties and uncertainties
felt by our electorate in the face of the If we do that, not only should we contra-
changes affecting our societies. It is easy to vene the fundamental principles of soli-
shift the responsibility for the failure of darity, equality, human rights and rule of
some policies onto particular sections of the law, but we would create a very dangerous
population, with the argument that they do world for ourselves to live in. Instead of
not want to integrate, do not want to partic- fighting racism and social exclusion we
ipate, do not want to adapt; basically, that would generate more, and instead of
they want to continue to be different. improving the cohesion of society we would
create fertile ground for extremism and the
In reality, “difference” is part of the Euro- rejection of democratic rules. A dangerous,
pean background. Our societies have been undemocratic and violent world is certainly
multiethnic and multicultural for a long not what our electorate wants.
time. People belonging to different religions,
races or cultures have been living together The Parliamentary Assembly of the
for decades. Migration – in the two forms of Council of Europe, assembling members
immigration and emigration – is well from the parliaments of the 46 member
embedded in our national experiences. Yet it states, has shown several times to be aware
is so much easier to say that immigrants and of the role of politicians and political parties
minority ethnic groups do not want to be in combating racism, xenophobia,
integrated, rather than admit that we have antisemitism and intolerance. An alarm bell
failed to devise effective integration and was rung in 2000 by the resurgence of
non-discrimination policies to enable them extremist parties propagating and
to participate in society with the full respect defending ideologies incompatible with
of their dignity and rights. It is so much democracy and human rights.
easier to deny the complexity of the migra-
tion phenomenon and label all those who Since then, the Political Affairs Com-
arrive in Europe illegally as economic immi- mittee – to which I belong – and the Com-
grants, or all other European and neigh- mittee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights,

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 13

have a fixed mandate to work on this issue course of exceptional gravity, political
and, when necessary, make recommenda- parties could be suspended, prohibited or
tions to member states or the Committee of dissolved.
Ministers.
Of course, all guarantees should be given
I said earlier that politicians are duty to avoid the arbitrariness of such a decision,
bound to show rigour, self-restraint, intel- which should be implemented in the full
lectual honesty and integrity. This view is respect of the rights and freedoms of the
shared by the Assembly. In one of its most European Convention on Human Rights
recent texts, the Assembly invited political and the Guidelines on Prohibition and Dis-
parties to devise a new code of ethics based solution of Political Parties adopted by the
on the following elements:1 Venice Commission.

— their programmes and activities should Council of Europe member states, how-
respect fundamental rights and freedoms, ever, should not hesitate to introduce spe-
cific legislation to this end, and to imple-
— political alliances with extremist parties ment it.
should be excluded,
We have to prevent any escalation of the
— the transparency of financing should be tone of implicitly or overtly racist rhetoric
enhanced, and among politicians, including by dissuading
them through the threat of sanctions.
— they should endeavour to propose plau-
sible solutions to the social and economic I am going to describe an emblematic
problems which cause public concern. example of a possible response to racist
rhetoric among politicians, which occurred
Moreover, political parties have a duty to in my country, Italy, a country with a long
be democratic themselves, and ensure that tradition of emigration. Many of our emi-
they are representative of all sections of our grants were the target of xenophobic behav-
societies, including groups that may be the iour in the past, which might have led us to
target of discrimination and racism. believe that we were immune to arguments
and discourse of this kind.
These recommendations, contained in a
number of Assembly instruments and in the In Verona, in the north of the country, a
Charter of European political parties for a political party, the Northern League, con-
non-racist society, are not fully imple- ducted a public campaign against the Sinti
mented, even by mainstream parties with a community, despite the fact that is has been
sound non-racist background. How many established there for a long time. Fortu-
politicians of migrant origin do we know? nately, the Sinti community was well organ-
How many of them sit in the Parliamentary ised and defended itself by bringing a legal
Assembly of the Council of Europe? Here is action under a relatively recent law (from
our first task: how can we be credible when the 1980s) punishing incitement to racial
we say that we want to fight against racism discrimination. Last February, the court not
and social exclusion if our party structures only gave the leaders of this campaign a six-
themselves do not manage to do it? month suspended prison sentence, but,
above all, banned them from holding local
As I mentioned at the beginning of my office for five years and ordered them to pay
speech, politicians can unfortunately play a 35 000 euros in damages to Sinti organisa-
role in generating racism or intolerant atti- tions. This was a first in Italy and is a clear
tudes in society. This can happen implicitly, reminder to political leaders of the accept-
through arguments which are not racist at able limits to political discourse and of their
first sight, or through explicit racist, xeno- responsibilities. In my opinion, it is impor-
phobic or intolerant discourse. tant that the law-based state should issue a
reminder of what these limits are. The
The sanctions against this type of behav- Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly
iour should be proportionate to its gravity plays an important role in this through the
and should be applied without hesitation, resolutions it adopts in this field. In this
by the party concerned in the case of actions way it plays an educational role vis-à-vis our
by isolated members, or by the State, when national parliaments.
such actions are tolerated, supported or
conducted by a political party. Secretary General of the Council of Europe,

The Assembly has clearly stated that in Ladies and Gentlemen,
cases of racist, xenophobic or intolerant dis-

1. Resolution 1344 (2003) on Threat posed to democ-
racy by extremist parties and movements in Europe.

14 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance

I am grateful to ECRI for organising this shall report the outcome of our discussions
event today in Paris and for inviting repre- today to the Political Affairs Committee and
sentatives of the Parliamentary Assembly. encourage the Assembly to take further
Above all, I am grateful for the initiative of action in this particular field.
giving visibility to the fight against the use
of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic argu- I also hope that today’s presentation will
ments in political discourse by organising a raise the interest it deserves among the
public presentation. media. A public stand against racist, antise-
mitic and xenophobic arguments in politics
Politicians and political parties should be was urgently needed. This event is good
called to order. I shall try to do my part. I news, and should be widely reported.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 15



III. Study on the use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political
discourse

Jean-Yves Camus



Xenophobic, racist and antisemitic discourse in national and European
Parliament election campaigns between June 2003 and 13 June 2004: general
analysis and national case studies

General introduction targets immigrants and refugees, especially
those from Muslim countries, and
In 2004, in both west European and central sometimes Islam itself, as a religion, often
confused with its political expression,
and east European countries, albeit with Islamism. Lastly, I shall discuss the specific
variants, parties that use racist, antisemitic case of the resurgence of antisemitic acts
and xenophobic political discourse are and statements and the discourse referring
increasingly being censured, stigmatised to them, as well as the very scattered but
and therefore sidelined. The Charter of very real instances of antisemitic prejudice
European Political Parties for a Non-Racist in political parties which nonetheless
Society adopted in 1997 and the range of remain marginal.
national legislation imposing criminal pen-
alties for expressions of racism, Finally, I shall make three case studies of
antisemitism, xenophobia and, as a rule, the use of racist, xenophobic and antise-
negation of the genocide of the Jews by the mitic discourse in countries belonging both
Nazis reflect a high degree of consensus on to the Council of Europe and to the Euro-
the subject among democratic parties and pean Union: Belgium, the Republic of
public opinion. Until recently, the use of Ireland and Latvia. To conclude this intro-
these topics in political discourse during duction, I should like to make one point
and outside election periods was more or clear. Firstly, a reference to a given political
less restricted to parties classified by polit- party or country in this report does not in
ical scientists as far-right.1 As we shall see, any sense imply an intention on my part to
these parties scored modest results in the stigmatise that party or country or make a
European elections, including in the value judgment denying its democratic
countries newly admitted to the European nature (except in the case of parties unani-
Union. But I shall show that under the mously recognised as anti-democratic). All
pressure of both the international context the parties mentioned operate legally, as evi-
(the rise of radical Islamist terrorism) and denced by their participation in the elec-
specifically European trends (the shift from toral process. Where one of them breaches
homogeneous to multicultural society in the law, it is for the courts of the country
many countries, the fact of immigrants concerned, and for them alone, to punish
settling and founding families and the that party. Likewise, all the countries men-
economic crisis), racist and xenophobic tioned are democracies which support the
discourse has been reinjected into the founding principles of the international
political agenda by traditional (conservative organisations they belong to (or of the Euro-
or liberal and sometimes even left-wing) pean Union or the Council of Europe).
political parties or at least by individual While the facts mentioned in this report call
members of those parties. I shall for discussion and possibly for changes in
demonstrate that this discourse primarily attitude, and in some cases require legal
penalties, they do not warrant a blanket
1. For a theoretical definition of the far right, see the derogatory judgment on the country con-
thesis of the Dutch political scientist Cas Mudde: cerned.
The Extreme Right Party Family; University of Leiden,
1998. For an up-to-date review of the forces within
this movement: Pierre Blaise/Patrick Moreau (ed.):
Extrême-droite et nationaux-populismes en Europe de
l’Ouest, Editions du CRISP, Brussels, 2002.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 19

Part one: The far right, the traditional vehicle for racist, antisemitic and xenophobic
discourse, has scored modest election results in recent years

Any study of the use of racist and xeno- where ex-New Democracy MP George Karat- 1. Election results: an
zaferis’ party LAOS obtained one seat with outline interpretation
phobic themes in an election campaign pre- 4.11% of the vote. It was real in Slovenia, where
supposes an analysis of the presence of far- the SNS (Slovene National Party) scored 5.2%,
right parties and their results. From this with no seats, but progressed by comparison
standpoint, the outcome of the June 2004 with the general election held in 2000 (4.4%)
elections was undistinguished and cannot be and above all confirmed this trend in the
regarded as a landslide for xenophobic general election of September 2004, when it
nationalist parties. scored 6.6%. Lastly, the Latvian Fatherland
and Freedom Party (LNKK), which ranked
A country-by-country examination shows first with a score of 29.82%, is on the border-
a decline in Austria, where the FP scored line between conservative right and far right.
6.33% and only one seat as against 23.4% and
five seats in 1999. In Germany, far-right parties There was a much smaller increase for the
remain very much on the sidelines, since the Danish Dansk Folkeparti (6.8% as against
Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands 7.1%) and the Swedish Sverigedemokraterna
(NPD) scored 0.9% and the Republikaner (1.13% as against about 1%). In the Nether-
1.9%. In France the Front National admittedly lands the only reason for the increase was that
progressed (9.81% as against 5.69% in 1999), the List Pim Fortuyn, which scored 2.6% this
but this increase should be viewed with time, did not stand in the 1999 election. Lastly,
caution because the 1999 score was not repre- the British National Party’s score of 4.9%,
sentative in the wake of the split caused by totalling 808,200 votes, must be viewed as a
Bruno Mégret leaving the party in January danger signal. While the British electoral
1999, and the FN’s score was lower than its system prevented the party from obtaining a
score of 12.9% in the 2004 regional elections. seat, its score can nevertheless be regarded as
The far right made little progress in Italy: high in view of its radical racist discourse.
Fiamma Tricolore, an unrepentant fascist
party, scored 0.7% where its predecessor, MS- However, these successes should not be
Fiamma Tricolore, had scored 1.6%, though allowed to mask two facts.
this loss was offset by the 1.2% scored by Ales-
sandra Mussolini’s Alternativa Sociale list. Firstly, there is no far right at all in some
These two parties obtained only one seat countries (Cyprus, Finland, Ireland, Luxem-
owing to the electoral system, which borders bourg) and there are merely small far-right
on full proportional representation, and while groups in several others (Spain, Estonia,
the National Alliance party moved up from Lithuania, Malta, Portugal). Secondly, in the
10.3 to 11.5%, it can no longer be regarded as new EU member countries of eastern Europe,
part of the far right. The Lega Nord (Northern xenophobic ultra-nationalist parties, many of
League) showed only a very slight increase, which are the self-proclaimed successors of
from 4.5 to 5%, perhaps due to the short-term parties of the same type that existed between
effect of sympathy for its leader Umberto 1918 and 1940, suffered setbacks which
Bossi, who was temporarily prevented from confirm the decline observed in the previous
heading the list. national elections. For example, Miroslav
Sladka’s Republikani scored only 0.79% in the
So there are few cases in which the far right Czech Republic (1% in the general election of
made significant progress. This happened in June 2002, when they lost their representation
Belgium, where the Vlaams Blok’s score rose in parliament); the Hungarian MIEP scored
from 15.1 to 23.16% of the Dutch-speaking elec- 2.35% (4.4% in the general election of April
toral college vote, while the Front National, 2002, when it lost all its seats); and in Slovakia
standing in Wallonia and Brussels, scored the SNS (Slovak National Party) imploded,
7.45% of French-speaking vote (as against with a score of only 2.01% (in the general elec-
4.1% in 1999). This success was confirmed by tion of September 2002 the SNS and its ally in
the regional elections held on the same date the European elections, the PSNS, together
and was indisputably the best result scored by scored 7%).2
a far-right party in western Europe. The
increase was also spectacular in Poland, where 2. For a synoptic table of the far right’s results in the
the League of Polish Families (LPR) scored European elections, see Searchlight Magazine, No. 349,
15.92% and the Samobroona (Self-Defence) July 2004, pp. 25-26.
party 10.78%. It was substantial in Greece,

20 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance

2. The far right: a brief As I said in the introduction, these parties’ Sharon and sub-titled “Israel eliminates the
analysis of its discourse leaders of the Palestinian liberation move-
racist, xenophobic and antisemitic dis- ment one after the other”, a reference to the
course was widely heard during the cam- Hamas leaders. In the particular context of
paign for the June 2004 European elections, Germany attention should be drawn to
as in national elections, and remains the what political scientists call the “grey area”
main source of racist political discourse between the conservative right and the far
during and outside election campaigns. To right, consisting of periodicals and organisa-
understand its scope, one must also tions that welcome contributions from
remember that even far-right movements intellectuals and elected representatives
with little electoral impact usually receive who are not members of extremist groups.
broad and sometimes disproportionate Before enlargement, the new right journal
media coverage, which focuses more atten- Junge Freiheit, on sale at newsstands, pub-
tion on them and gives them a higher profile. lished many articles on the theme of the
A series of examples will serve to illustrate “invasion” from eastern Europe, the “Roma-
the far right’s racist discourse. nian immigrants problem”, the “crime wave”
and the “cost of Poland’s accession” – all var-
The most radical expressions of racism iations on the theme of the “danger from the
and antisemitism are to be found in east”, the leitmotiv of German ultra-nation-
Germany in the propaganda of the alism.4
Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands
(NPD), which achieved significant scores in In Austria the FP continued to use the
one Land (Saxony: 3.26%) and in a number standard xenophobic rhetoric to the effect
of Kreis such as Sächsische Schweiz (7%) that enlargement of the European Union
and Riesa (7.7%), also in Saxony.3 The NPD, was dangerous because of the predictable
whose campaign slogans were Out of the influx of labour from the east. In May 2004,
European Union, A Europe of fatherlands, For a Hans Kronberger, a candidate in the Euro-
strong nationalist group in Strasbourg, is opposed pean elections, thus came out against the
to Turkey entering the European Union and Greens’ proposal that enlargement include
in the April issue of its monthly Deutsche the entire Balkans, which he described as a
Stimme published a photo of Turkish women “highly explosive powder keg”. He also
loaded with large packages walking along a voiced concern at the consequences of Slo-
road, with the caption Europe faces another vakia’s accession, pointing up the problem
Turkish assault. Another of the NPD’s major of Slovakia’s nuclear power plants. At the
concerns is Europe’s enlargement to the same time, Magda Bleckmann, the party’s
east: in an interview published in Deutsche Secretary General, spoke out against
Stimme in April 2004, a party official, Rolf Turkey’s entry into the EU, referring to
Haschke, said that “millions of people from Islamist organisations’ action against the
Poland, Hungary and the Baltic countries Turkish state’s secular system and stating
will cross into western Europe as cheap that “if Turkey joined, Europe would be
labour and seek work, especially in Ger- financially and culturally overwhelmed”.
many”. Here, this exploitation of the usual The FPÖ drew up a “ten-point platform”, a
antagonism between the German far right sort of government programme starting
and the peoples of eastern Europe takes on with the proposal to introduce a basic
special significance because the party con- monthly income of 1000 euros. But the
cerned demands a return to the 1937 borders second point is headed “Stricter regulation
and sold a “Kalender des Nationalen Wider- of immigration and the right of asylum:
standes” (National Resistance Calendar) Austria is not an immigration country”.
during the campaign, featuring an article on Along the same lines, the party launched
“the myth of the Reich and its historical bor- two campaigns on asylum-seekers, one
ders” and another on “the Waffen called “Asyl stop”, confined to the Land of
SS volunteer army”. Lastly, the NPD sets Carinthia, whose Minister-President is Jörg
itself apart from the other German parties Haider and whose slogan is “Carinthia can’t
with its use of openly antisemitic rhetoric, take in any more immigrants”, and the other
as reflected for example in an article in the called “Asyl eldorado”, calling for a halt to
June 2004 issue of Deutsche Stimme entitled the giving of social rights to asylum seekers,
“State Terror under the Star of David”, illus-
trated by a photo of Prime Minister Ariel 4. On the theme of eastern Europe in Junge Freiheit: see
“Flut aus dem Osten”, in: Antifaschistische Infoblatt
3. Full results available from: http://www.npd.de/ No. 62, spring 2004, pp. 42-43.
npd_info/ wahlen/europawahl_2004.html

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 21

who allegedly misuse the benefits given to extremist ties, as demonstrated by a text on
them by the Austrian state. Lastly, the its website (www.dendanskeforening.dk)
FPÖ’s head of list and sole MEP Andreas entitled Det nationale gennembrud; Europæiske
Mölzer had acquired a reputation in the modstandere af multikulturalismen, by Peter
past as editor of the Viennese weekly Zur Neerup Buhl, who includes among the Euro-
Zeit, which was independent of the party pean opponents of multiculturalism his own
but voiced the thinking of the national-con- organisation, the Vlaams Blok, the French
servative movement and attracted attention Front National, the FP, the Republikaner
on several occasions with its overt xeno- and even the Serb Radovan Karadzic and the
phobia and antisemitic innuendo. Before he antisemitic Russian movement Pamyat. The
was elected, Mölzer, who used to be list of recommended books on the same
Haider’s cultural adviser, proposed to website under the heading dissident litera-
several European parties including the ture includes the works of the above-men-
French Front National and the Vlaams Blok tioned parties’ leaders, and others such as La
that they set up an “anti-immigration group” Colonisation de l’Europe; discours vrai sur l’immi-
in the European Parliament. He is a key gration et l’Islam by Guillaume Faye, pub-
figure in the attempts to forge a permanent, lished in Paris in 2000 by the neo-Nazi pub-
institutionalised link between European lisher Æncre – an outright call to racial war.6
far-right parties. Just before the start of the campaign for the
European elections, the newspaper Dan-
During recent election campaigns in skeren also advertised a book by Rolf Slot-
Denmark the Dansk Folkeparti’s xeno- Henriksen, who runs various anti-Muslim
phobic ideology was expressed in the actual Websites, on the Islamist peril in Denmark.7
terms used in the party platform – the idea
that the Danish people are homogeneous in Extremist nationalist parties in Spain
religious, cultural and ethnic terms, so that also made use of xenophobic discourse, and
“the country is grounded in the Danish cul- Democracia Nacional, which aims to be the
tural heritage, and Danish culture must modern spearhead of a far right that still
therefore be reinforced and preserved”. The bears the stamp of the Falangist legacy,
platform defines culture as “the sum of the extensively imitated the slogans and pro-
Danish people’s history, experience, beliefs, gramme of the French Front National. The
language and customs”. The party says party’s slogan is “Spaniards first”. Its
“Denmark is not and has never been an favourite campaign themes are set out in a
immigration country, so we shall not allow speech by its leader, Rafael Ripoll, at a
it to be turned into a multiethnic society”. public meeting in support of the Swedish
During the election campaign the party nationalist party Ny Demokraterna on 10
newspaper Dansk Folkeblad continued to June 2004.8 Naturally, the terrorist attacks
devote extensive space to criticism of Islam, perpetrated by radical Islamists in Madrid
for instance commending Ibn Warraq’s on 11 March 2004 offer the movement an
book, Why I am no longer Muslim5 and placing excuse to claim that Spain, together with
the article next to a photograph of a crowd other parts of Europe including Serbia, has
of Muslims praying, with a few men in tradi- become a land open to conquest by Islam.
tional clothing in the foreground, though According to Ripoll, like the rest of Europe,
there is nothing to suggest that the picture our country is in a decadent downward
was taken in Denmark. The same issue of spiral and the blow can be fatal: given the
the newspaper contained an article entitled Third World’s population boom, combined
“Den evige kommissær”, a long indictment with our falling birth rate and cyclical
of Ms Beate Winkler, Director of the EUMC
in Vienna, and of the work of this centre, 6. It will be noted that the Dansk Folkeparti does not
which the article accuses of introducing a state its opposition to a multicultural society, i.e. to
new form of totalitarianism. The Dansk communitarianism, which remains a democratic
Folkeparti’s ideology should be viewed in its choice of social model. It rules out a multiethnic
proper context: it is extensively influenced society, and therefore the presence of people from
by the thinking of a private far-right founda- other countries, even if they are integrated into
tion, Danske Forening, and its newspaper Danish culture.
Danskeren. Unlike the party, which seeks to
deny any connection with extremism, 7. R. Slot-Henriksen: Muslimke ekstremistbevaegeler i Den-
Danske Forening does nothing to hide its mark, published by Rafael, 2003. The book, which
was produced for Dansk Kultur Forening, is listed
5. Dansk Folkeblad, No. 3, 2004. in Danskeren No. 1, February 2004. In his list of
extremist groups the author jumbles together Hizb
ut Tahrir, Salafists, the Sufis.

8. Posted on the party’s website:
www.democracianacional.org.

22 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance

economic crises, Europe’s peoples are clearly would put Morocco, according to the
in danger of extinction”. Like other parties Foreign Ministry, I quote, ‘halfway between
of the same ideological persuasion, the association and accession’ to the European
movement describes the European Union as Union! But why stop halfway! When one is
a “tower of Babel dreamed up by halfway, one doesn’t usually turn back, one
internationalist oligarchs”. But its use of the carries on to the finishing line, and the
“Muslim peril” theme (since Democracia finishing line is Morocco’s entry into the
Nacional is also against Turkey’s entry into European Union, which would at least have
the European Union) remains an isolated the advantage of being logical in view of the
case although Spain was so deeply affected number of Moroccans already living in the
by the March terrorist attacks: the entire Union, or who have dual nationality, that of
political spectrum showed definite restraint their host country, France, and that of their
when it came to exploiting issues such as real motherland, Morocco!” Referring to the
immigration and Islamism, including during drastic security measures taken for the
the campaign for the general election. ceremonies commemorating D-Day (6 June
2004), he also made an automatic
Far-right parties in France, on the other connection between immigration, Islamist
hand, kept to their traditional themes: the terrorism and France’s suburbs, saying,
alleged links between immigration and inse- “Incidentally, it doesn’t seem to me very
curity or terrorism and between immigra- logical to be afraid of terrorists arriving from
tion and economic crisis. Bruno Mégret’s abroad to kill off Mr Bush when you only
Mouvement National Républicain (MNR), have to put an ad in any slightly sensitive
for example, campaigned on the slogan suburb to recruit all the volunteers you
“Keep Turkey out of Europe” and, at the need!”.
same time, “Islamists out of France”. In brief,
the MNR’s policy is that “immigration is the In Italy the Libertà di Azione list headed
nest of Islam in France and Islam is the nest by MP Alessandra Mussolini campaigned on
of Islamism”. Two features distinguish this the basis of an insidiously xenophobic plat-
party from its European counterparts: form, defining the essence of Europe as
firstly, it is the only one to advocate “co- Greek in its thinking, Roman in its values of
operation with moderate Arab countries” justice and civic sense, and Christian in the
(which it does not identify) and secondly, it values that shape and motivate it. It also
is one of the very few parties to explicitly stressed that Europe was rooted in 3 000
challenge the United States on account of years of culture and history and, although it
their alleged share of responsibility for the did not call for foreigners living in Italy to
spread of Islamism – it urges the Americans leave, it concluded that migration flows are
to “stop supporting Muslim factions in the not inevitable. The fact that Roberto Fiore,
world, especially in Europe, as they do in leader of the overtly racist and antisemitic
Kosovo, Bosnia, Macedonia and Chechnya”.9 movement Forza Nuova, was in second
The Front National also geared its campaign position on the list obviously sheds a dif-
to Turkey’s entry into the EU and to ferent light on this platform. A government
migration flows from Turkey and eastern party, the Lega Nord per l’Indipendenza
Europe. At the party’s end-of-campaign della Padania, also makes regular use of xen-
banquet in Paris on 10 June 2004, Jean- ophobic discourse. A May 2004 issue of its
Marie Le Pen as usual stoked up fear of the newspaper, specially produced for the elec-
influence of Islam and challenged Muslim tion, included on page 6 a photograph of a
immigrants’ loyalty to their host country, ship loaded with illegal immigrants, topped
even where they have French nationality: “In by the caption “Never again”, and the
a Europe of 25 countries today and 27 in picture of an election poster bearing the
three years – and then why not 30, or 35, or headline “No to immigrants’ right to vote”
40, with Turkey! with Kosovo! – France will with a text including assertions such as
have no more power or influence at all, it “The right to vote cannot be the starting
will be a vassal of the Germans or the point of citizenship, it is an end point” and
Americans. […] Michel Barnier is even “The right to vote is a symbol; no party can
already thinking of introducing an grant it to immigrants, nor can Parliament,
“exceptional partnership” – those are his only the people can”. The article on the same
words – with Morocco! This obscure status page welcomed the 61.5% increase in depor-
tations and the 37655 instances of immi-
9. MNR leaflet: Islamists out of France: let’s put grants being escorted back to the border
France to rights with Bruno Mégret”.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 23

since the adoption of the “Bossi-Fini law” of centres in various cities in Padania such as
30 July 2002 on illegal immigration. Milan and Cremona. The National Alliance,
a right-wing conservative party which took
Lastly, in the same issue, one of the Lega over from the neo-fascist Italian Social
Nord candidates in the European elections Movement, used much more moderate lan-
who was elected in June 2004, Mario guage on immigration and nationality issues
Borghezio (who holds the entirely unofficial and devoted minimal time to them in its
title of President of the Government of election campaign. The National Alliance’s
Padania), signed an article entitled No to the position on the revision of the Bossi-Fini
Islamic invasion which included the following law, stated shortly after the election itself
statement: “Islam has positioned itself in the (29 June 2004), in fact confirms this atti-
world arena with strong expansionist inten- tude: the party proposed setting up a Min-
tions which follow highly specific strategies istry of Immigration and making the depor-
for gaining ground in moderate Muslim tation of illegal immigrants subject to a
countries and in Europe”. The author, court order. While some of its proposals –
adding that under these circumstances there such as stricter conditions for issuing resi-
is nothing unrealistic about protests against dence permits, or the possibility of
the building of mosques in our countries, deporting a non-Community immigrant
approved of these protests on the grounds who commits the offence of selling counter-
that for Muslims, the mosque is not only a feit goods – are indisputably stringent, the
place of worship but also a place for meeting movement takes the opposite approach
other Muslims socially and reinforcing their from that of Lega Nord: according to Ignazio
identity, making judgments on society and La Russa, the National Alliance’s national
issuing political watchwords. On the basis co-ordinator, “these measures are not simply
of a number of cases in which places of punitive, but also facilitate integration”.
worship were proved to have been used to Integration thus remains an objective,
propagate radical Islamism, the author then whereas the Northern League pursues the
generalised about the link between the aim of massively deporting non-Community
existence of a mosque and the growth of ter- immigrants and halting migration flows,
rorism: numerous investigations conducted and also confines itself to an ethnic defini-
by various public prosecutors have amply tion of citizenship.
demonstrated that pro-terrorist activities
are carried out in mosques and Islamic

Part Two: racist and xenophobic discourse appears in mainstream parties

One of the most disturbing developments immigrants (including Italy, Spain and Por-
tugal, while the “Chevènement law” in
of recent years is the fact that racist and France has led to the regularisation of more
xenophobic discourse is no longer confined than half of the country’s illegal residents).
to the fairly limited sphere of far-right par- The tone of some democratic parties’ dis-
ties. Issues relating to immigration policy course on the subject has indisputably hard-
and the right of asylum, in particular, have ened, to the extent that in several countries
become major factors in the electorate’s vote the majority of citizens are in favour of strin-
and a key element in political debate, espe- gent curbs on immigration and on the right
cially in western Europe. As a result of the of asylum. It is not the purpose of this study
events of 11 September 2001 and more gener- to give an account of the debates that have
ally the rise of radical Islamism, the theory of arisen on these issues in political circles and
the “clash of civilisations” is now acceptable civil society in European countries outside
and it is permitted to query the Muslim reli- election campaigns, so I shall simply give a
gion’s compatibility with democratic values. few examples of the way in which these
In addition, the persistent economic crisis issues may have over-determined the elec-
has justified proposals for curbing migration toral climate in 2004.
flows in a few countries, though several have
opted for mass regularisation of illegal

Clearly, the political option of rejecting national sovereignty, are democratic choices 1. The special case of
which do not as such comprise any form of “Euro-sceptic” or “pro-
federalism and preferring a Europe of racism or xenophobia. Xenophobia is totally sovereignty” parties
absent from movements such as Paul Van
nations, as well as criticism of the growth of

Community prerogatives encroaching on

24 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance

Buitenen’s Dutch list Europa Transparant was the British UK Independence Party
and Hans-Peter Martin’s Austrian list. On (16.1% of the vote). Xenophobia was not
the other hand, several “Euro-sceptic” lists UKIP’s campaign theme, since it focused
made dangerously manipulative use of entirely on its slogan “Say No to European
nationalist and xenophobic rhetoric, some Union”. But the head of list, journalist
with the aim of taking votes from far-right Robert Kilroy-Silk, had already sparked
parties (as the MPF did in France in relation controversy in early 2004 when he pub-
to the Front National), but with the danger lished an article in the Sunday Express refer-
of legitimising this type of discourse in tra- ring to the “Arabs who killed more than
ditional right-wing and sometimes even left- 3 000 civilians on 11 September” then
wing parties. The distinctly right-wing “danced in the streets” for joy, also
French list of Mouvement pour la France, describing them as “suicide bombers” and
headed by Philippe de Villiers, geared its “limb amputators”. Kilroy-Silk was forced to
campaign to the issues of Turkey’s entry resign from the BBC, where he had hosted a
into the EU, immigration and Europe’s programme for the last 17 years, and said in
Christian identity. The issue of Turkey his defence that he had meant the regimes of
ranked second behind employment in the some Arab countries, not Arabs in general.
MPF’s campaign platform, which supported He is not from the far right, but from
“a European Europe in which France will Labour. UKIP, which was formed in 1993,
preserve its identity and influence”. It was has always done its utmost to expel racist
reflected in the campaign posters, which elements from its ranks. Its founder and first
displayed the slogan “No to the Constitu- leader, the historian Alan Sked, had to expel
tion; Keep Turkey out of Europe” next to the one of his own London School of Economics
photo of the head of list. The party launched students, Mark Deavin, who had become a
a national petition asking the President of member of the party’s national executive
the Republic to hold a referendum. Philippe and was in fact a member of the far-right
de Villiers, speaking to his movement’s British National Party. Deavin had helped to
youth members, justified his position as fol- write the antisemitic book Who are the Mind-
lows: “Turkey’s entry into Europe means the benders? by Nick Griffin, Chairman of the
end of Europe; it is no longer Europe, but BNP and head of its list. In 2001 one of the
Eurasia, as if France was applying to join the party leaders, Mark Lester, who is Jewish,
African Union. If Turkey comes into Europe, left the party after discovering that the
there is a risk that the President of Europe UKIP manager for Scotland, Alistair Mac-
might be Turkish: for my part, that is a pos- Connachie, had written a letter casting
sibility I rule out. Turkey will be the top doubt on the scale of the Holocaust, and
power in demographic terms, with more especially after the party executive had
votes and more MEPs than France. Today it decided that the penalty imposed – a five-
is the hub of illegal immigration from the year suspension – was to be reduced to one
whole of Asia into Europe”.10 The issue of year.12 UKIP’s current leaders include
immigration was also one of the MPF’s “ten Ashley Mote, who was elected MEP and has
commitments” for the European elections. written a book entitled Overcrowded Britain:
The movement came out against “a commu- Our Immigration Crisis Exposed. The publisher
nitarian Europe” and stated that in the face presents the book as follows: “political
of the “immigration explosion” each country correctness has hijacked our freedom to
needed to take back the prerogatives that discuss one of the burning issues of the day.
Europe had conferred on itself for control- This book offers a full, open and if necessary
ling migration flows. The MPF also takes a controversial discussion of immigration. It
highly restrictive view of what Europe’s cul- looks at the facts and squarely faces up to
tural foundations should be. After the Butti- many of the consequences of mass
glione affair, it explained that “after the ‘yes’ immigration and the urgent decisions
to Turkey and the refusal to refer to Britain must take. […] Nine out of ten
Europe’s Christian origins in the draft Con- immigrants arriving in the United Kingdom
stitution, we now have proof that the Euro- stay here. In social terms immigration
pean Union has become an anti-Christian causes many problems that can only get
club”.11 Lastly, the Euro-sceptic party that worse”. This is a more radical version of the
scored the best result in western Europe party’s official position that “immigration is

10. Text available from http://mpf26.free.fr. 12. On individual relationships between UKIP mem-
11. Press release of 28 October 2004. bers and the far right, see Searchlight, July 2004, pp 8-
9.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 25

out of control” and “Britain is full”. UKIP’s freedom from overcrowding by immigrants.
election platform pinpointed “five freedoms” The platform obviously has xenophobic
it intended to uphold: freedom to leave the overtones, although UKIP tried to distance
European Union; freedom not to be a victim itself from extremists during the campaign
of crime; freedom from “bureaucratic for the European elections.
politicians” and “political correctness”; and

Less frequently, racist and xenophobic dis- right to vote to non-Community foreigners, 2. The parties of the
since the Electoral Law of 18 February 2003 parliamentary right
course can be heard even in potential gov- provided for this right subject to five years’
ernment parties, usually when political residence in Luxembourg.
debate causes the electoral agenda to focus
on issues linked to national identity, immi- In Sweden the debate revolved around a
gration and the status of asylum-seekers. I challenge to the well-established consensus
have recorded a few examples of what can on access to social benefits for all European
be regarded as outright “contamination” of Union nationals. The only parties to oppose
democratic parties. access were Sverigedemokraterna and the
far-left party KPML(r) (Kommunistiska
In Luxembourg the general election and Partiet Marxist-Leninisterna, Revolution-
the European elections took place on the rerna). The Prime Minister Gran Persson
same day. The Aktiounskomitee fir himself (Social Democrat, Arbetarepartiet-
Demokratie a Rentegerechtegkeet (ADR) Socialdemokraterna) was in favour of it.
scored 9.5% of the vote in the general elec- After the trade unions in the transport and
tion, with 5 MPs, and 8.03% in the European construction sectors among others had
elections, with no MEPs. The ADR opposed voiced some discontent in October 2003, the
Turkey’s entry into the European Union, government had worked out a compromise,
since it considers that Turkey is not a Euro- agreeing to this opening up of social protec-
pean country, partly for historical and geo- tion but at the same time calling for stricter
graphical reasons, but chiefly for cultural controls on undeclared labour and illegal
reasons.13 One of its MPs, Mr Jacques-Yves immigration.
Henkes, also tabled a bill amending the law
of 3 April 1996 establishing a procedure for Suddenly, on 21 November 2003, Prime
consideration of asylum applications. The Minister Gran Persson changed his mind. In
explanatory report to the bill takes up the an interview on Dagens Eko (a current affairs
theme of asylum shopping, which in the programme broadcast every hour on the
author’s view “prompts illegal immigrants main public radio station Sveriges Radio,
to choose the country where abuse of the whose editorial staff are said to be close to
asylum procedure has the best chances of the Social Democrats) he advocated
success”. On 19 March 2003 the ADR sub- restricting the access of nationals of new
mitted an application for an amendment to European Union member countries to social
the Constitution, which would henceforth benefits, explaining that we want the free
include the provision that “the national lan- movement of workers, but not social welfare
guage of Luxembourg citizens is Luxembur- tourism. We must not be naive. He
gish”. On 23 January 2004 it spoke out explained that the situation was outrageous
against the government plan to open recep- because a European Union national needed
tion centres for refugees. The ADR is also to work only ten hours a week to be fully
one of the few European parties in favour of entitled to Sweden’s social benefits.
abolishing citizens’ right to hold dual
nationality.14 It also wants migration flows This news was broadcast in a television
to centre on the countries that have report on 11 November 2003 under the head-
common cultural foundations and values, line “Anxiety about enlargement to the
i.e. the current and future member countries East”, produced by journalist Johan Zack-
of the European Union.15 The ADR’s demand risson Winberg in the programme Uppdrag
was not met on the issue of granting the granskning, whose content was widely criti-
cised for its xenophobic overtones. The
13. Press release of 24 September 2004. report was based on the case of an Estonian
14. Interview with Christian Schaak, of the ADR, on nurse who came to work for ten hours a
week in Sweden and immediately brought
RTL, Neen zur duebler Nationalitit, 19 January in her husband, her two children and both
2004. pairs of grandparents, all of them receiving
15. The ADR proposed setting up schools for inte- various social welfare allowances; it
grating immigrants through tuition in Luxembur-
gish.

26 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance

explained, without proof, that this person Anne Frank, whose nationality was in dis-
was costing Swedish citizens 320 000 Krona pute. But it is also apparent in political cir-
a year. The report also included an interview cles: for several years now, many politicians
with a representative of the Social Welfare have spoken out on the failure of the Neth-
Fund who explained how people fraudu- erlands’ communitarian model. A striking
lently drew allowances. The programme feature of the campaign for the European
forecast that this fraud would increase after elections was the debate on the reform of
enlargement of the European Union and the right of asylum carried out by Jan Peter
explained that wages would fall as a result Balkenende’s government. On 17 February
of this additional foreign competition on the 2004, despite criticism from a substantial
labour market from probably tens of thou- section of the population and several human
sands of east Europeans. Lastly, xenophobic rights organisations, Rita Verdonk, the
prejudice was reflected in the programme’s (Liberal) Minister for Integration, got Par-
closing sentence: “The question is: how liament to adopt a bill providing for the
much generosity can we and do we want to deportation of 26 000 asylum-seekers who
offer?” had arrived in the Netherlands before 1 April
2001. Although the government regularised
This biased presentation of the issues 2 300 asylum-seekers at the beginning of the
sparked a wave of protests both to the Prime year, those whose applications were
Minister and to the interviewed official of rejected will now be returned to their coun-
the Ministry of Trade, who had simply tries of origin by 2007, regardless of the time
explained the existing regulations, which he they have spent in the Netherlands. This
merely applied. The Sverigedemokraterna drastic measure triggered a crisis in the
harnessed the content of the programme for ruling coalition: the head of the Liberal par-
its own purposes the very next day, sending liamentary group Jozias Van Aartsen
the media a press release which included accused the Christian Democrat Prime Min-
long quotations from the programme. On ister of failing to give his minister sufficient
28 April 2004 the Social Democratic Party’s support;16 Balkenende replied that the bill
proposal to restrict access to social benefits would be adopted without amendments, in
for nationals of the new European Union spite of the discontent simmering inside his
member countries was rejected when Parlia- own party, the CDA, some of whose grass-
ment put it to the vote. The ruling party lost roots members were against the bill. The
by 137 votes for, 182 against and 4 absten- Prime Minister basically said that his party
tions. Conservative leader Per Westerberg had to introduce this reform, adding, “It isn’t
(Moderata Samlingspartiet) accused Gran easy, but it’s necessary”. According to a poll
Persson of paving the way for xenophobic conducted by the NIPO institute on 14 Feb-
views, while Liberal MP Erik Ullenhag ruary 2004, two-thirds of Netherlands citi-
(Folkpartiet) said, it is a shameful taint on zens were in favour of more flexible legisla-
the European flag to propose that a citizen’s tion for asylum-seekers who had been living
rights should depend on his or her national in the country for more than five years. The
origin”. debate on this new legislation fuelled
numerous verbal excesses. On 24 January,
On 7 September 2004 the daily Dagens for example, Radio Nederland, a state radio
Nyheter published statistics demonstrating station broadcasting internationally, hosted
that “social welfare tourism” had by no a discussion of immigration issues with the
means flooded the country, since the VVD MP Stef Blok, party spokesperson on
number of applicants for residence permits the right of asylum and immigration;
recorded between 1 May and 31 August 2004 student Jamila Faloun, Vice-President of the
had increased by only 780 over the same Association of Muslim Women al Manar,
period in 2003. and journalist Robbert Bodegraven, pub-
lisher of the weekly magazine Contrast, pub-
In the Netherlands xenophobic dis- lished by Forum – the Institute for Multi-
course has hardened still more markedly in cultural Development. In brief, Mr Blok said
recent years, as evidenced by the success of during the discussion, “Therefore we should
the List Pim Fortuyn in the 2002 general transfer the responsibility for learning the
election. This success was short-lived, but language to the country of origin. I don’t
Fortuyn’s legacy is thoroughly alive. It is
reflected in civil society, as demonstrated by 16. Statement by Van Aartsen broadcast by the radio
the poll conducted in November 2004 by station NOS on 2 February 2004.
the TV channel KRO to elect “the greatest
Dutch person of all time”: Fortuyn was
chosen ahead of William of Orange and

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 27

want the Dutch taxpayer to pay for the fact Verdonk nevertheless chose to contain it
that somebody chooses an 18-year-old bride within the normal bounds of a democratic
[from his country of origin], who may be discourse by stating that the Muslim com-
illiterate, and then we have to pay for two or munity should not be held responsible as
three years’ education to teach her Dutch”. such for Van Gogh’s murder, but according
He also stated his view that “successful inte- to a poll published by the daily Algemeen
gration calls for less immigration”. On the Dagblad on 6 November, Islam has a poor
other hand, dissenting voices were heard image in the Netherlands. 79% of those
even among the ranks of the Liberal party. questioned consider that the murder reflects
But there were also some inappropriate a deterioration in the country’s social
statements made by the former Deputy atmosphere; 51.7% do not believe the
Prime Minister Hans Dijkstal, for example, murder reflects a failure of Moroccan inte-
he said that it was shameful to stigmatise gration, but almost a quarter (23.9%)
Muslims and judge immigrants according to believe it does. Unusually, more women
their degree of integration into Dutch (52.9%) than men (43.2%) take the view
society. “Muslims are being stigmatised,” he that the integration of Moroccans has failed.
said. “An entire religion is under attack, More than 80% demand extra measures to
whereas most Muslims are moderate and combat Islamist extremism: a tougher judi-
respectable people”;17 and then claimed, by cial system (65%), heavier prison sentences
making an unacceptable comparison that (62%), deportation of militant imams (60%)
the government plan to issue immigrants and stricter controls on mosques (52%).
with a certificate spelling out their degree of 48% of those questioned are even in favour
integration reminded him of the Second of abolishing the right to dual nationality.
World War years, particularly the yellow The political outcome of this climate is that
star imposed on Jews by the Nazis. This part if elections were to be held now (November
of his statement prompted a forceful 2004), the new party that soon will be
response from the Liberal leader, Gerrit formed by (ex-VVD) MP Geert Wilders,
Zalm, who regretted the wording of his who is firmly against the multicultural
comparison and explained that government society, would become the country’s third
policy was “very much misunderstood”. But party with more MPs than the Liberals.20
the debate did not stop at the government Both Wilders and a part of the Liberal right
bill on asylum-seekers. Another government are influenced by the neo-conservative foun-
bill which provided for juvenile delinquents dation Edmund Burke Stichting, which
from the Dutch West Indies who had com- published a second edition of its political
mitted an offence in the Netherlands to be manifesto “De crisis in Nederland – en het
sent back to the West Indies, recently had conservative antwoord” (by Bart Jan Spruyt
to be (temporarily?) dropped. The minister and Michiel Visser) at the beginning of
in charge of relations with former colonies, 2004. The manifesto spotlights the prob-
Thom de Graaf, took the opposite stance on lems of crime, “immigration and multicul-
the subject from Rita Verdonk, who in the tural togetherness” and Islamism, expressly
end set up a committee to “work out meas- referring to Huntington’s theory of the
ures to regulate migration” between the “clash of civilisations”21 and using fairly
Dutch West Indies and the Netherlands.18 radical terms.22
There is also an ongoing debate on the issue
of whether to make blasphemy a criminal This uncertainty about identity, based in
offence.19 Overall, the debate on immigration particular on the obvious fear of the funda-
and integration has been more impassioned mentalist components of Islam taking root,
than ever since film director Theo Van Gogh also affects Scandinavia. In Denmark, for
was murdered on 2 November 2004. How- example, the government had a law on resi-
ever, the Minister for Integration Rita dence requirements for religious preachers
adopted in February 2004. The text,
17. Statement of 6 June 2004, published by the daily inspired by the Dansk Folkeparti, is in fact
Algemeen Dagblad. specifically designed to control the entry of
imams into the country. According to the
18. On this point, see the Aruba newspaper A.M of Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen, it
28 September 2004.
20. Algemeen Dagblad, 17 November 2004.
19. The CDA Minister of Justice, Mr Donner, suggested 21. Text available from http://www.burkestichting.nl/.
in mid-November that persons who committed 22. Viz the title of the article co-signed by Spruyt and
contemptuous blasphemy should be prosecuted
more often under Article 147 of the Criminal Code. Wilders in Het Parool of 22 October 2004: “Halt the
The Lower House (Tweede Kamer), however, plans import of Islamic culture”.
to repeal the article in question.

28 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance

has so far been too easy for foreign mission- must give up all forms of luxury when it
aries to obtain residence permits, while a comes to these individuals.24 On 21 August
government spokesperson said that the new 2003 the Deputy Chairman of the party,
law was intended to assure us that [mis- Toni Brunner, elected representative for the
sionaries] are worthy of the trust that canton of St Gall, took up the theme of the
society shows in them by letting them enter. growing proportion of criminals of foreign
The law in fact reflects the danger of far- origin and the more recent theme of criminal
right ideas catching on in a country where tourism, comparable to the right-of-asylum
the centre-right government’s parliamentary tourism mentioned elsewhere. He then
majority is entirely due to the benevolent played on one of the favourite themes of
neutrality of the DF, which can in return xenophobic populist discourse: the fact that
impose part of its political agenda. While honest citizens are fed up with foreigners’
the guarantees required of clerics entering abuse of social benefits – “but the citizens of
Denmark are not exorbitant in themselves this country don’t simply feel powerless in
(a minimum level of education, financial the face of rising crime; they also feel very
independence and membership of a recog- disturbed at the increasing abuse of our
nised religious community), the double- social system”. However, this sentence was
speak used in presenting the law is simply the prelude to a much more violent
unhealthy: though the Prime Minister took diatribe: “In this country we don’t simply
a literal view of the text, which applies to all offer a wage to imprisoned criminals so that
religions, Peter Skaarup, speaking on behalf they earn more than they would doing a
of the DF, admitted that “in theory these normal job in their countries of origin; no,
rules concern all religions, but in practice we even allow whole families to enter Swit-
they are aimed at imams”.23 zerland illegally and send their children to
school, even without having residence per-
I shall conclude this overview with the mits, and benefit from a highly developed
case of Switzerland. In elections to the public health system. There are even leaflets
National Council on 19 November 2003, the giving undocumented immigrants and other
Swiss People’s Party (Schweizerische Volk- illegal entrants precise instructions on how
spartei) became the country’s top party to get social benefits. Not to mention the
with 26.6% of the vote. The SPP is a typical pseudo-refugees whose asylum applications
example of those government parties which have been rejected, but who still manage to
belong neither historically nor ideologically stay in Switzerland by all sorts of tricks, by
to the far right, but to the agricultural right, fictitious marriages or simply by digging
and have evolved over the years, in this case their heels in. If they’re clever enough, they
under the leadership of the current Minister even get themselves an AI pension to live off
of Justice Christoph Blocher, towards xeno- comfortably in their countries of origin –
phobic populist positions reflected in which they fled because they were allegedly
speeches on the need to halt immigration persecuted there”.25
and reduce the number of asylum-seekers
(requérants d’asile, as the Swiss call them). The party’s September 2003 platform
document entitled “In favour of an inde-
During the general election campaign, pendent foreign policy” confirms that the
SPP representatives again targeted asylum- SPP is extremely suspicious of anything that
seekers. At a press conference on 6 January comes from abroad, and particularly from
2003, Yvan Perrin, municipal councillor for the European Union. It repeats the party’s
La Côte aux Fées in the canton of Neuchâtel, view that joining the European Union
spoke out against criminal asylum-seekers would level Switzerland down: “Switzer-
in terms that amounted to generalisation, land’s accession to the EU must be rejected
repeatedly referring to drug trafficking, essentially for economic reasons. It would
criminals, acts of violence and racketeering. have many disadvantages for the Swiss
He added that conditions of detention for economy, especially higher taxes and rents
criminal asylum-seekers and criminal illegal and declining prosperity”. The document
immigrants should not be the same as for also comes out against the Schengen and
other prisoners, echoing an argument com- Dublin agreements on the grounds that
monly brought up in xenophobic security- signing them would leave Switzerland with
oriented discourse – that of the privileged
conditions of detention granted to for- 24. Text available from http://www.svp.ch/
eigners, which prompted him to say, We ?page_id=176&1=3.

23. Quoted by the Guardian on 19 February 2004. 25. Text available from http://www.svp.ch/
index.html?page_id=612&1=3.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 29

a “security deficit” because there would be published in June 2004, stated the SPP’s
no more border controls. usual line: “this practice [author’s note: easier
naturalisation] will make our country still
Lastly, the SPP made wide use of xeno- more attractive to foreigners without
phobic discourse during its campaign for resources or training who come to
the two popular votes held on 26 September Switzerland solely to be naturalised and
2004 with a view to facilitating the naturali- thus enjoy the generous social benefits
sation of second and third generation for- provided for Swiss citizens.
eigners. This time a campaign poster was
even more telling than the party’s writings In May 2004 the SPP counterattacked
and speeches: the SPP poster showed a box with a proposal for a popular initiative enti-
full of Swiss passports towards which tled In favour of democratic naturalisations,
hands, several of them coloured, were which involved restoring exclusive power to
stretching out with a grasping air. The the municipalities to decide by a vote
caption was “Mass naturalisations? Twice whether a candidate for Swiss nationality
NO to the naturalisation plans”. At a press was to be naturalised. This meant reversing
conference on 13 August 2004, National the decision given in mid-2003 by the
Councillor Ulrich Schlüer, representing the Federal Tribunal, which had ruled that as a
canton of Zurich, revealed the party’s true vote on the matter was not subject to
thinking: he claimed it was a “deceitful plan appeal, the right to decide on naturalisation
for mass naturalisations” – wording could no longer be conferred on citizens and
designed to conjure up the fantasy of the any decision to reject an application should
native population being swamped by for- be subject to appeal. The text presenting the
eigners. The text would introduce “integra- proposal also contained a xenophobic
tion by order, not in reality”, simply because passage aimed at a fairly specific target: the
the SPP considered the criteria for becoming SPP explained that in Switzerland the state
Swiss too lenient (five years’ study in Swit- has the monopoly of violence and that as a
zerland). What the party criticised was the result, the practice of vendetta and violence
plan to allow the law, instead of the resi- for purposes of personal revenge was pro-
dents of the municipalities concerned, to say hibited; it concluded that the citizens of this
who could become Swiss. It claimed that the country are therefore entitled to refuse the
government (which nevertheless included right of citizenship to individuals or members
Christoph Blocher in the key post of Min- of ethnic groups for whom the principle of per-
ister of Justice) maliciously intended to sonal revenge in response to an injustice
carry out “mass naturalisations by elimi- they have suffered […] is self-evident. This is
nating the sovereign (author’s note: the clearly aimed at refugees from the Balkans,
people) for the sole purpose of vamping up who are one of the SPP’s regular targets, and
the statistics on foreigners.26 On the same possibly at Muslims. Above all, the SPP does
date National Councillor Jasmin Hutter (St not consider individuals’ acts alone, but
Gall) said that naturalisation must neither their membership of an entire group sus-
be degraded nor made automatic.27 She used pected of perpetuating local customs in
an interesting line of argument against Switzerland. It is this jump to a presump-
selling off the right to Swiss citizenship, tion of collective guilt that makes the dis-
drawing on the results of the Irish course xenophobic.
referendum, which she said had been held to
stop citizenship tourism. On the same date, Racist and xenophobic discourse is also
Yvan Perrin expressed indignation at used by democratic parties in eastern
fictitious marriages and the fact that not Europe, in the countries newly admitted to
much attention is paid either to the the EU. The controversy that marked the
possibility of a criminal past or to first four months of 2004 in Slovenia over
knowledge of one of the national languages. the plans to build a mosque in the capital
Quite obviously, being married to a Swiss Ljubljana was a typical case of exploitation
citizen is enough for a foreigner to be of xenophobia, in a country which is never-
considered both honest and integrated. The theless highly democratic and ethnically
party’s official manifesto on the subject homogeneous and has never been hit by ter-
entitled “Twice No to mass naturalisations”, rorism. Slovenia has only about 50 000
Muslims out of 2 million inhabitants; most
26. Text available from http://www.svp.ch/ of them come from the countries of former
index.html?page_id=1191&1=3. Yugoslavia (Bosnia and Macedonia), and
they have been trying to secure a place of
27. See http://www.svp.ch/ worship since 1969. In December 2003 the
index.html?page_id=1192&1=3.

30 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance

municipality of Ljubljana agreed to the con- or without legal status, while 11,000 left the
struction of what was to be the country’s country. Prime Minister Anton Rop’s
one and only mosque. However, a petition centre-left government called on the elec-
launched by the ultra-nationalist municipal torate to boycott the referendum, which
councillor Mihael Jarc28 (Slovene People’s was held with the support of the opposition
Party – SLS) and signed by 12 000 citizens parties. About 30% of the 1.6 million regis-
prompted the municipal council to consider tered voters took part in it. The law on the
holding a local referendum on the project in manner in which the rights of “deleted”
April 2004, although the mayor, Danica persons could be restored was rejected by
Simsic (Union List of Social Democrats – 94.6% of the voters, while 3,8% voted in
ZLSD) had decided to ask the Constitu- favour. The outcome will not have any legal
tional Court whether such a referendum consequences: an authoritative decision by
was legal. At Christmas 2003 the Catholic the Constitutional Court requires the Min-
Archbishop of the capital, Mgr France Rode, istry of the Interior to give the persons con-
announced that he was against the project cerned permanent residence permits. But
and said on the television channel Pop TV, the campaign was smattered with xeno-
“Slovenian policy-makers must ask them- phobic statements. Firstly, Dr Miha Brejc,
selves whether they are in favour of a polit- Deputy Chairman of the Social Democratic
ical centre representing another culture Party (SDS) and one of those who promoted
establishing itself on Slovenian territory. I the referendum, wanted to prevent former
myself am taking my distance on this officers of the Yugoslav People’s Army
issue”.29 The Mufti of Slovenia, Osman (JNA) from being covered by the law: “No
Djogic, answered that Slovenia’s Muslims former officers of the Federal Army!” he said,
wish to live in an atmosphere of tolerance “We don’t agree that these 450 officers, or
with their fellow-citizens of other religions”. perhaps more, should be given what they
To date, although the local referendum was don’t deserve – they acted against us!”. Sec-
not held in the end, and in spite of Danica ondly, in February, Janez Jansa, Chairman of
Simsic’s support for the planned mosque, the SDS party, claimed that the injustices
the latter has not yet been built. The cam- committed against those who had been
paigns for the European elections and the deprived of their rights had affected “a few
October 2004 general election in Slovenia illiterate cleaning women”,30 an obvious
were marked by two other instances of xen- allusion to former Yugoslav citizens from
ophobia. Firstly, according to the daily Delo Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Kosovo, and to
(1 February), Prime Minister Anton Rop Roma.
(Liberal Democratic Party – LDS) described
the leader of the populist opposition party I now come to the borderline case of
Nova Slovenia as “Argentinian citizen Anton Poland, where two Catholic-inspired31
Bajuk”, although the latter is Slovenian and parties which are against joining the Euro-
was born in Ljubljana, even if his family emi- pean Union, regarded by some as retiring
grated to South America after 1945. Sec- and by others as far-right, achieved high
ondly, on 4 April 2004, the Slovenians voted scores last June: the League of Polish Fami-
in a referendum on restoring the rights of lies (Liga Polskych Rodzin), whose pro-
persons “deleted” from the register of per- gramme states its aim of fighting to ensure
manent residents in February 1992. In respect for Catholic morality and keep the
October 2003 Parliament had adopted a law national heritage in Polish hands, and Self-
retroactively restoring permanent resident Defence (Samoobrona), whose leader
status to the thousands of citizens who had Andrzej Lepper carefully avoids such
been illegally deleted from the state registers phrases and simply proposes a programme
in 1992, thereby losing their rights: when based on a social market economy as advo-
Slovenia became independent, more than cated by several European Churches.32
30 000 former Yugoslav citizens were Nonetheless, two types of xenophobic dis-
deprived of all their rights overnight.
According to official figures, 18 000 people 30. Remarks quoted by the daily Mladina on 15 March
were left with temporary residence permits 2004.

28. He said on BBC news on 2 April 2004, “In the 31. While both parties state in their platforms that they
Middle Ages our ancestors were attacked by draw their inspiration from the Church’s social doc-
Muslim soldiers who did nasty things here. It’s our trine, it is quite clear that neither has ever received
historical subconscious”. the slightest mark of approval either from the Polish
Church or from the Vatican or a fortiori from Pope
29. Reported by the daily Dnevnik on 18 January 2004. Jean-Paul II.

32. Speech before the European Parliament on 4 May
2004.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 31

course operate in these movements’ policies: The League of Polish Families (LPR) exudes
firstly, anti-German rhetoric – especially in the same anti-Jewish prejudice, and so to an
Samoobrona, a populist agrarian party – due even greater extent does the radio station
to fear of the return of those who were close to the party, Radio Maryja, headed by
expelled, chiefly from Silesia, and are sus- the redemptionist priest Tadeusz Rydzyk (a
pected of wanting to retrieve their land, station alleged to have 4 to 6 million lis-
which would be all the easier because of teners). In 2004 the convicted antisemitic
Germany’s strong economy and the wide propagandist Dariusz Ratajczak said on the
income gap between the two countries; sec- radio station, Since the Holocaust has been
ondly, anti-Jewish rhetoric, a peculiar form on the school curriculum, everyone believes
of antisemitism without Jews (who now that Auschwitz was a death camp rather
number only about 3 000 as against 3 than a normal labour camp. He added, In a
million in 1939), based mainly on popular Catholic country like Poland, as long as
and religious prejudice. Thus, the Samoob- most ministers are Jewish and stink of
rona MP Rafal Majewski voiced his anxiety onions, Poland will never be Polish.34 The
at the number of Israelis of Ashkenazi origin newspaper Nasz Dziennik and the television
who in his view were likely to emigrate to channel TV Trwam, which belong to the
Poland to flee a difficult situation in the same group, undoubtedly played a major
Middle East. “Their influence is growing in role, together with Radio Maryja, in the
Poland,” he said. “They are buying property LPR’s and Samoobrona’s winning their
and investing in businesses. Poles don’t electorate in the European elections.
want to feel like second-class citizens in
their own country”. He added, “I don’t want 33. Majewski made these remarks, which were
it thought that I am speaking out against reported by the English-language newspaper Gulf
Jews, but we want to preserve our children’s News on 3 June 2002, during a trip to Dubai, where
rights”, also saying he was convinced that this daily is published.
“60% of the press is controlled by Jews”.33
34. See Sarah Elsing in: http://www.cafebabel.com/fr/
of 28 May 2004.

Part Three: Antisemitic rhetoric in the European election campaign remains marginal, but
importing the Israeli-Palestinian conflict into national political debates is likely to generate
excesses

Antisemitic rhetoric played only a mar- interest, marriage at adolescence, introduc-
tion of sexual segregation in public places
ginal part in the European election cam- and schools, setting up of a statutory alms
paign, as it did in the earlier national elec- fund), but with no antisemitic slant, not
tion campaigns. However, new trends even a reference to the Middle East situa-
include ethnic and religious lists, many tion. The PCP on the other hand, headed at
inspired by a form of Islam that can be the time by the Salafist Jean-François
described as fundamentalist, standing for Bastin, not only had a programme calling for
election either in an attempt to organise a the Sharia to be introduced as the country’s
political party or to express, via a grassroots law for Muslims, but also had very close ties
organisation, a form of antizionism which to the Molenbeek Islamic Centre and its
has antisemitic overtones or associations. In imam, Sheikh Bassam Ayachi. The centre’s
national elections, this trend was most website Assabyle.com had been prosecuted
apparent in Belgium. Two Islamist parties following a complaint lodged in 2002 by the
stood in the general election of 18 May 2003 Centre pour l’Egalité des Chances et la Lutte
(results for the Chamber of Representatives contre le Racisme (Centre for Equal Oppor-
only): Noor (1 141 votes; 0.02%) and the tunities and Action Against Racism) on
Parti Citoyenneté Prospérité (PCP – Citi- account of the website’s Jihadist and anti-
zenship Prosperity Party) (8 258 votes; semitic content, which overtly advocates
0.13%), as well as the “Resist” list (10 059 the destruction of the State of Israel.35
votes; 0.15%) produced by the alliance of a Because of the legislation on antisemitism,
far-left party (the maoist Belgian Labour the PCP’s discourse is heavily coded. Its pro-
Party) and a radical Islamic/Arab nationalist gramme for the 2003 election thus stated its
party (the European Arab League – EAL). opposition to “certain obscurantist religious
The Noor Party had a highly reactionary tendencies which claim to combat or
platform comprising various points mod- dismiss economic and technical advances
elled on the Sharia (abolition of banking

32 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance

conducive to general prosperity” and to “any dissolving it (under the law of 29 July 1934
ideology, doctrine, party or ethnic group banning private militias) on account of its
that monopolises political, economic or cul- decision to set up a private militia to patrol
tural power solely in its own interest, to the neighbourhoods with a large immigrant
detriment of distinct original modes of population, officially for self-defence
expression”. The PCP, which also con- purposes, after the murder of Mohammed
demned “ultra-liberal big capital”, thus used Achrak, a young teacher of Moroccan origin,
a battery of anti-Jewish clichés which by a 60-year-old racist in Antwerp on
feature in standard far-right discourse as a 26 November 2002, followed by two nights
means of designating the Jewish commu- of rioting between EAL activists and the
nity, without naming it, as the source of the police, which the League accuses of
country’s ills. During its campaign for the institutional racism.
European elections, the PCP (which no
longer includes Bastin among its members) The second issue that arose was the possi-
distributed a leaflet entitled “Sheikh Bassam bility of proceedings to withdraw Belgian
calls you to vote PCP – List 16”, illustrated nationality (under Article 23 of the Nation-
by a photograph of the Omar Mosque in ality Code) from Dyab Abou Jahjah, leader
Jerusalem surrounded by Israeli tanks and of the EAL, on the grounds that he had lied
soldiers, with Palestinian women and chil- to obtain Belgian nationality in 1996. Lastly,
dren in tears beside them. The daily Le Soir the possibility of both prosecuting and dis-
(15 June 2004)36 described the leaflet as solving the League was raised after it held a
intended to “import the Israeli-Palestinian demonstration in favour of the Palestinian
conflict and stoke up hatred in passing”. The people near the Jewish district of Antwerp
party defended it on the grounds that on 1 April 2002; the demonstration sparked
“Palestine symbolises the suffering antisemitic excesses such as a firebomb
potentially generated by state terrorism. It being thrown at a synagogue on the pre-
also symbolises cohabitation between the vious night and demonstrators breaking the
three great monotheistic religions, which windows of Jewish shops and publicly
could very easily live in harmony if the burning a dummy wearing the traditional
country was not under the yoke of a orthodox Jewish hat. In the end, the Centre
seemingly democratic, but in fact selfish and pour l’Egalité des Chances et la lutte contre
racist tyrannical regime which oppresses le Racisme lodged a complaint against the
one people the better to satisfy another”. EAL, which had a text posted on its website
The third grouping, “Resist”, was closely stating that “Antwerp is the bastion of
dependent on the radical antizionist slant of Zionism in Europe, which is why its must
the European Arab League, which expresses become the Mecca of pro-Palestinian
views close to those of the Lebanese action”. Over and above the issue of
Hisbullah. Underlying its simultaneously antisemitism, other EAL activities during
Islamist and Arab nationalist (namely the 2003 and 2004 election campaigns
Nasserist) ideology is a form of antizionism helped to heighten its intolerant image. In
which does little to mask antisemitism. 2003, when the Flemish ecology party
“Resist” in fact refers to Israel as the “Zionist Agalev put up posters in the streets showing
entity” (zionistische entiteit in its Flemish- a homosexual couple in traditional Muslim
language documents). During the campaign clothing, the EAL demanded the with-
for the 2003 general election the controversy drawal of the posters, which it considered
surrounding the EAL revolved around offensive to Islam, and official apologies
several issues. Firstly, the possibility of from the ecologists. As none were forth-
coming, death threats were twice made
35. Assabyle closed down in spring 2004 after the Brus- against the Chairman of the Agalev youth
sels Court in Chambers referred its Webmasters organisation, Karim Bouziane. In 2004 Abou
Abdelrahmane Ayachi and Raphaël Gendron to the Jahjah also campaigned in favour of women
Criminal Court on 7 May 2004 for contravening the wearing the Muslim headscarf; he held a
laws against racism and negationism. The com- demonstration on this issue in Brussels on
plaint concerned a text posted on the website 22 February 2004 and on the same day sent
explaining that “Nazism and Zionism are the same” an EAL delegation to the demonstration
and comparing the body movements of David Levy, held in Paris for the same reason. On 28 June
former Israeli Minister for Foreign Affairs, to those 2003, the EAL took note of the failure of
of Adolf Hitler. The website immediately reap- “Resist” and founded the Muslim Demo-
peared under the name www.ribaat.org. cratic Party, which scored 0.1% of the

36. M. Bousselmati, “Des prémices d’extrême droite
musulmane” (The beginnings of a Muslim far right),
Le Soir, 15 June 2004.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 33

Dutch-speaking college vote in the regional nity and with George Bush’s blessing” and
election of June 2004. As the League had set the “constant blackmail designating those
up a Dutch branch headed by Mohamed who demand a just peace in the Middle East
Cheppih, the same controversy broke out in as antisemitic” and the construction of an
the Netherlands. On 5 May 2003, during the “apartheid wall”. However, these expres-
celebration of the end of the German occu- sions of antizionism remained within the
pation of the Netherlands, Islamist sup- legal bounds of normal ideological dispute.
porters of the EAL chanted antisemitic But in Paris on 8 June, the list’s big cam-
slogans and tried to burn an Israeli flag paign meeting took on a different tone when
before they were arrested by the police. Dieudonné denounced “Zionist propa-
ganda” as being all-powerful in France, and
Among the controversies that arose during the writer Alain Soral and the artist Siné got
the campaign for the European elections, the audience to whistle at the names of
there is the unique case of the Europalestine various French Jewish personalities, and to
list, which stood in France, in the Ile de identify and name the authors of various
France region only; it scored an average of pro-Israel quotations: this gave the audience
1.83% of the vote, but exceeded 5% in the opportunity to boo, with all the anti-
several municipalities on the outskirts of Semitic connotation given by the list, Roger
Paris with large Muslim populations.37 The Cukierman, President of the CRIF (Repre-
Europalestine list was in fact mounted by an sentative Council of the Jewish Institutions
association supporting the Palestinian of France), Dominique Strauss-Kahn, pre-
people, the Coordination des Appels pour sented as a member of the “Zionist party”,
une Paix juste au Proche-Orient (CAPJPO – the historian Alexandre Adler and the phi-
Co-ordination of Appeals for a Just Peace in losopher Alain Finkelkraut. Speeches were
the Middle East), whose policy is to intro- made by Tawfik Mathlouti, founder of the
duce the Middle East issue into French private Paris radio station Radio-Méditer-
political debate whenever an election takes ranée, who never names Israel and refers to
place. This approach was disavowed by Ms it as “the Zionist entity”, and by Christophe
Leila Shahid herself, the General Represent- Oberlin, head of the Europalestine list, who
ative of the Palestinian Authority in France, accused Israel of being “a racist country” and
who termed it “counter-productive” and Patrick Gaubert, UMP candidate for Ile de
asked for the list to be withdrawn. The first France and President of the LICRA (Inter-
ingredient in the controversy was the pres- national League Against Racism and
ence on the list of the Franco-Cameroonian Antisemitism) of “waving the flag of
comedian Dieudonné M’Bala M’Bala, who antisemitism”. These speeches may raise the
had caused considerable upset during the question of whether the boundary has not
campaign with a television sketch that the been crossed between free judgment of
authorities representing the Jewish commu- Israeli policy and systematic criticism of
nity in France and anti-racism organisations individuals on the basis of their religious
considered antisemitic. In the particular affiliation, together with denial of Israel’s
context of the resurgence of antisemitic acts right to exist. Fortunately, Europalestine
in France since the beginning of the Second remains an isolated case. A similar attempt
Intifada (Autumn 2000), several of which was made, along different lines, in Italy,
made the headlines during the election cam- where Bassam Saleh, leader of Rome’s Pales-
paign, the Jewish community authorities tinian community, founded the Europales-
had already been seriously dismayed at the tina association (in liaison with its French
list’s campaign manifesto because of its uni- counterpart) and stood for election in the
lateral analysis of the causes of the Israeli- Lazio area on the list of the Partito dei
Palestinian conflict: among other things, the Comunisti Italiani. The Palestine Forum, of
manifesto condemned the “Israeli Govern- which he is one of the organisers, published
ment [which] turns its back on peace and a text entitled “Palestine and the forth-
flouts international law and the basic rights coming European elections”, which includes
of an entire people which it ceaselessly deci- a dubious reference to “Europe’s collusion in
mates, imprisons and plunders with impu- the plan hatched by the Israeli authorities to
wipe out the Palestinians”.38
37. For an on-the-spot report from Garges les Gonesse,
where Europalestine achieved its highest score In France, a study of the conduct of the
(10.75%), and distinctly antisemitic quotations campaign for the European elections shows
from supporters of the list, see the Communist daily
L’Humanité of 22 June 2004. 38. Text published on 19 May 2004.

34 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance

that even where overt expressions of racism France 5 referred to a demonstration
and xenophobia were few and far between, “against the law banning pupils from
at least among mainstream political parties, wearing the Islamic headscarf at school”
the climate leading up to the ballot was (current affairs programme C dans l’air,
nonetheless partly shaped by the entry into 17 January). More than any other (a third
the debate of issues concerning the position demonstration was held on 14 February),
of Islam in the public arena, the nature and the demonstration on 17 January helped to
scale of expressions of antisemitism, and ethnicise the political debate. It was organ-
more broadly, secularism and national iden- ised by a small radical Islamist group, the
tity. Parti des Musulmans de France (PMF),
with the participation of other radical
It must first be remembered that on groups from abroad (Parti Citoyenneté
17 December 2003 the President of the Prospérité and European Arab League).
Republic, Jacques Chirac, announced his Mohammed Ennacer Latrèche, Chairman of
intention of tabling a government bill the PMF, uttered antisemitic slogans which
banning the wearing of “ostensible” reli- received broad media coverage. On
gious symbols in state schools, which came 22 January the Communist daily L’Humanité
into force at the beginning of the September reported that “the Paris public prosecutor
2004 school year. His announcement came has opened an investigation into the alleg-
in the wake of the report submitted on edly antisemitic remarks made by the
12 December by the Stasi commission on Chairman of the Parti des Musulmans de
secularism set up by the President on 3 July France (PMF). The investigation ended in
2003. As soon as the President announced January 2005 for lack of evidence. During
his decision to ask Parliament to legislate, the pro-Muslim headscarf demonstration
what many Muslim associations perceived last Saturday, Mohammed Latrèche said
as an ad hoc law against the Islamic headscarf that “Zionism is an apartheid-based ide-
prompted several demonstrations in Paris ology and we fight it as we fight Nazism”.
and other large cities in France, especially He immediately said he was the victim of a
on 21 December 2003 and 17 January 2004. “slander campaign”, since in his view, the
Each demonstration attracted wide media Minister of Justice had “decided to comply
coverage of a kind that effectively injected at once with the instructions of the Repre-
into the political debate attitudes both que- sentative Council of the Jewish Institutions
rying the compatibility of Islam with the of France and the International League
republic (and secularism). The involvement Against Racism and Antisemitism
of the law was presented by some Islamist (LICRA)”. Latrèche had also stated that Le
organisations and their allies from the anti- Monde was a “Zionist newspaper controlled
globalisation movement as casting a reli- by the LICRA” and had thrown several
gious and ethnic stigma on Muslims Jewish journalists to the mob, as it were,
opposed to the law whilst they are not at all especially Elisabeth Schemla, editor of the
proven to be in the majority, and even a dis- online newspaper www.proche-orient.info.
cussion of whether the provisions of the At the time, some journalists were
future law were not too lenient to cope with reporting, with proof on hand, following the
the scale of the alleged “Islamist peril” – discourse by the online newspaper Proche
with some people advocating an outright Orient Info, the existence of ties between the
ban on wearing the Muslim headscarf in PMF and far-left negationist groups, which
public or the adoption of provisions prohib- introduced a further dimension into the
iting patients in public hospitals from debate: that which highlights the antise-
choosing the sex of the doctor who exam- mitic tone of part of the pro-Palestinian dis-
ined them. Above all, the nature, content course. The weekly Le Nouvel Observateur, for
and real aims of the law were misrepre- example, reported that “the Parti des
sented. Musulmans de France, led by the Islamist
agitator Mohammed Latrèche, who
After the demonstration of 21 December, denounces the “Palestinian genocide” organ-
for example, the RTL radio station ised by Israel, was fraternising with the
described the bill as targeting the Muslim negationist Serge Thion, in the name of the
headscarf alone (“Some 3 000 people dem- Palestinian cause”.39
onstrated in Paris on Sunday against the
future law banning pupils from wearing the 39. Claude Askolovitch, Le Nouvel Observateur, 6 Feb-
Muslim headscarf at school”, RTL, ruary 2003.
22 December). After another demonstration
on 17 January, the television channel

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 35

This was the climate in which the gov- was later proved to have also struck several
ernment bill was adopted on first reading by non-Jewish people on the same spot. The
the National Assembly on 10 February 2004 series of public statements that immediately
and by the Senate on 3 March, and in which followed the attack itself gives a good idea of
the French voted in their regional and can- the way this type of incident is ethnicised.
tonal elections of 21 and 28 March 2004. The On the basis of eye-witness accounts,
whole period was also marked by the including that of the injured boy, the perpe-
sudden entry into media vocabulary of the trator was rightly classified as a “young man
term “Islamophobia” used by the opponents of North African origin” by the police
of the law, such as Islamists from the left as seeking him. A more precise but non-veri-
well as from the far left, to condemn the fied version started to circulate immedi-
alleged stigma it cast and, more generally, ately. “The young Jewish man was attacked
according to them, the atmosphere of suspi- by a young man of North African origin who
cion fostered with regard to Muslims, espe- shouted Allah Akhbar (God is great),” Sammy
cially since 11 September 2001. A Collective Ghozlan, President of the Council of Jewish
Against Islamophobia was set up at that Communities of Seine-Saint-Denis, told the
time40 to make a list of “Islamophobic” acts41 AFP press agency, unhesitatingly linking
and statements identified as such, whether the attack to the existence and influence of
made by politicians or intellectuals. The the Europalestine list43 and transforming the
controversy escalated further in March 2004 act into a religiously motivated attack. In a
when the Communist Party chose as its press release, the President of the Conseil
head of list for the regional election in Ile de Français du Culte Musulman (French
France the President of the anti-racist Council for Muslim Worship), Dalil Bou-
organisation MRAP (Mouvement contre le bakeur, Rector of the Paris Mosque, then
Racisme et pour l’Amitié entre les Peuples – Move- “condemn[ed] this horrible, appalling and
ment Against Racism and for Friendship disgusting act on behalf of France’s Muslim
among Peoples), Mouloud Aounit: some community” and “express[ed] his solidarity
people interpreted this as an attempt to with the Jewish community, especially the
harness the French-born electorate of North victim”. He repeated the theory of a reli-
African origin and the opponents of the law giously motivated attack by stating that
on religious symbols, which the MRAP had “invoking the name of Allah, as the perpe-
opposed.42 Controversy turned into crisis in trator of this attack did, is an instance of
the left-wing majority on the Ile de France abuse and an unacceptable pretext”, while
regional council after 28 March, when the and it was only suspected that there might be
Socialist President of the region, Jean-Paul a religious motive for the attack. Dominique
Huchon, refused to appoint Aounit as vice- de Villepin, the Minister of the Interior,
president, contrary to an agreement which immediately travelled to the scene. Ques-
according to the Communist Party appears tioned by the AFP, he firmly condemned
to have been concluded before the ballot. “this horrible attack” and expressed his
“profound concern”. But he added another
Another salient feature of the pre- possible interpretation of the act by
election climate (leading up to the European denouncing “cable TV channels that
elections this time) was the repeated occur- increasingly broadcast in France and put
rence of antisemitic acts, the most serious of across messages that have nothing to do
which of which attracted a great deal of with peace”, although there was nothing to
media attention. The most serious of these suggest that the act or its perpetrator might
was a knife attack committed on 4 June be linked to any media influence.44 and that
2004 against a pupil of a Talmudic school in moreover, until then, the government had
Epinay-sur-Seine by a young Muslim who refused to ban anti-Semitic channels such as
Am Manar. A few weeks later, after the
40. Website: http://www.islamophobie.net/. European elections, similar controversies
41. According to this website, “In a report published on broke out after the fictitious antisemitic
attack staged by a female passenger on a
24 October 2004, the Collective has recorded over a suburban train (9 July 2004) and the fire at a
period of 11 months [author’s note: in 2003-2004] 182 Jewish social centre in Paris, which was pre-
Islamophobic acts, of which 118 targeted individ-
uals, including 27 attacks of which 4 were serious, 43. Le Monde of 5 June, “Jewish teenager knifed in the
and 64 targeted institutions or representations of street at Epinay-sur-Seine”.
Islam, including 28 attacks on mosques and 11 cases
of vandalism in cemeteries, desecrating more than 44. The French government decided to ban Al Manar in
200 graves”. December 2004.
42. All the press articles are available on the website:
www.aounit2004.org.

36 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance

sented as an antisemitic act whereas the I now come to two instances of antise-
alleged arsonist was a former (Jewish) mitic discourse that marred the campaign
employee of the centre (21 August 2004). for the European elections and resembled
Each time, lack of caution in the immediate expressions of traditional political
responses to the incident, coupled with dis- antisemitism, with a partly religious basis
tortion of the facts in some cases and and no link to the exploitation of Islam or
remarks incriminating a community and a the Middle East conflict. The first instance
religion, regrettably helped to ethnicise concerns Hungary, where in May 2004 the
social relationships.45 head of the far-right MIEP party’s list in the
European elections, the Calvinist
The frequency of antisemitic acts, which clergyman47 Lorant Hegedus, urged Hungar-
remains high, is also a source of recurring ians to exclude the Jews before they exclude
controversy. According to the Ministry of you. In 2002 Mr Hegedus, former Deputy
the Interior’s statistics, it started to rise Chairman of the Justice and Life Party
again in the first half of 2004: 67 antisemitic (MIEP), had been sentenced to 18 months’
acts and 160 threats were recorded between imprisonment for a statement made on
January and the end of March 2004, as 16 July 2001 in the MIEP’s local newspaper
against 42 antisemitic acts and 191 threats in in the 16th district of Budapest, Ebreszto,
the last quarter of 2003. Yet according to the advocating the elimination of the Galician
figures presented by Nicolas Sarkozy on 27 hordes from public life;48 in Hungarian
January 2004, the number of antisemitic coded vocabulary the term he used desig-
acts and threats had dropped by 37% from nates Jews. He was acquitted on appeal in
932 in 2002 to 588 in 2003. Likewise, the November 2003. Also in May 2004, he
number of “serious acts” (attacks, stones declared on state-owned Hungarian radio
thrown at places of worship and schools, that he maintained everything he had said
desecration of graves) had decreased by one on the subject. In December 2003, following
third from 192 in 2002 to 125 in 2003. It is the court decision to acquit him, the former
not the purpose of this report to discuss all Prime Minister Peter Medgyessy’s centre-
the consequences of the rise of antisemitic left government had promulgated a law
acts on the one hand and anti-Muslim (also against incitement to racial hatred. How-
known as “Islamophobic”) racist acts on the ever, the Constitutional Council had
other, including the increasingly entrenched declared the law unconstitutional, ruling
split between anti-racist associations. How- that it “unnecessarily restricted freedom of
ever, it should be pointed out that during expression”, and consequently refused to
the election campaigns a number of Jewish endorse a law which had been adopted in
associations specifically accused the left- Parliament by a small majority and would
wing parties, especially the Communist have prohibited “public incitement to
Party, and the far-left parties, especially the hatred of a nation or race or national ethnic,
Ligue Communiste Révolutionnaire (LCR), or religious minority” and “incitement to
of accommodating a radical form of acts of violence against such groups”. In
antizionism that these associations consid- Hungary, where 600 000 Jews were exter-
ered tantamount to antisemitism.46 minated during the Second World War,
there has been a resurgence of antisemitism
45. The latest example is almost a textbook case: in
Marseille on 17 October 2004, Ghofrane Haddaoui, 46. On Thursday 10 September 2003 the Douai Court of
a French girl of Tunisian origin, was killed with Appeal sentenced the Communist mayor of Seclin
blows from stones, which smashed her skull, by a (Nord), Jean-Claude Willem, to a 1 000 euro fine for
young man of North African origin whose advances calling on his local authority departments to boy-
she refused. The macho crime immediately turned cott Israeli products. Proceedings had been brought
into … stoning. A demonstration in her memory was against him by the Association cultuelle israélite of
held on the spot on 27 November, while Parliament the Département. The LCR lodged a complaint
was discussing a government bill on domestic vio- against the President of the Conseil Représentatif
lence. The famous singer Jean-Jacques Goldmann, des Institutions Juives de France, who had stated on
who demonstrated in Marseille with the associa- 25 January 2003 that antizionism is what cements
tion “Ni putes, ni soumises”, used the term “stoning” this current of opinion which extends from revolu-
in a statement to the daily Le Parisien on tionary parties such as Lutte Ouvrière and the Ligue
28 November. This was one of the few newspapers Communiste Révolutionnaire to a fraction of the far
to publish a statement by a demonstrator who pre- left.
cisely protested against the use of this inappro-
priate term. There is an example of a tragic incident 47. In a press release dated 21 January 2002, the synod
in which the origins of the victim and the murderer of the Hungarian Reformed Church very firmly con-
prompted some media to use a xenophobic stereo- demned both Mr Hegedus’ remarks and the inclu-
type, distorting the facts. sion of ten clergymen among the MIEP candidates
in the 2002 general election.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 37

in the past few years. In January 2004 an January 2004, several thousand demonstra-
Israeli flag was burned during a demonstra- tors gathered in front of the radio station’s
tion by the Civic Circles, a political associa- offices brandishing placards saying “Buzz
tion set up by the former Conservative off to Israel”, booing the government coali-
Prime Minister Viktor Orban just after his tion headed by the Socialist (ex-Commu-
defeat in the 2002 general election. Another nist) Party with shouts of “Down with this
case shook the country at the start of the Jews’ government!” and burning an Israeli
campaign for the European elections. A flag.50 A final distinctive feature of the situa-
broadcaster on Radio Tilos, a Budapest- tion in Hungary is that antisemitism is also
based private radio station whose name considered perfectly respectable on news-
means “banned” in Hungarian, lambasted stands, where the MIEP’s monthly “Magyar
the Christian religion on the air when he Forum” is on sale. The list of books available
presented a programme in an obvious state by mail order from the newspaper in 2003-
of drunkenness. The MIEP and a section of 2004 is undoubtedly unique in Europe,
former Prime Minister Orban’s movement since it offers books applauding the Hun-
immediately seized on the affair and called it garian Waffen SS, others honouring Regent
a “Jewish plot” against Christianity. The Horthy, a negationist book on Auschwitz
ORTT, the regulatory body for television and a translation of a 1930s French classic
broadcasting, imposed penalties on the on the judeo-masonic plot theory – many of
radio station, which was banned from them illustrated by drawings and carica-
broadcasting for a month, deprived of public tures like those produced by the Nazi
funding for six months and warned that it Stürmer.51
might lose its frequency if such an incident
recurred. The radio station management In Greece, for years now, both the
appealed the decision, and the film director Central Board of Jewish Communities in
Gyrgy Palos, a member of the Tilos manage- Greece, the Simon Wiesenthal Centre and
ment board, argued that his radio station the various human rights organisations have
and that of the MIEP were given different condemned the unchanging antisemitic fea-
treatment: it is amazing that such a ridicu- tures of MP George Karatzaferis’ discourse.
lous incident should have become the top The party he founded, “People’s Orthodox
political issue, he said. Meanwhile Pannon Alarm” (LAOS), scored an unexpected
Radio (the MIEP’s radio station in Buda- success with 13.7% of the vote in the Athens
pest) and even the state radio call Jews municipal elections in October 2002. The
‘Galicians’ and gypsies ‘dark-skinned Greek Helsinki Monitor launched a forceful
people’; yet the ORTT has never found fault campaign against LAOS in the run-up to the
with that”.49 During the demonstrations European elections of 13 June 2004, pointing
held by the MIEP against Radio Tilos in out for example that the party’s local offi-
cials included four neo-Nazi activists and
48. The English version of the statement is as follows: that Mr Karatzaferis had publicly claimed
“The Christian Hungarian state would have warded Mossad was involved in the terrorist attacks
off the [ill effects] of the Compromise of 1867 had of 11 September 2001. The GHM concluded
not an army of Galician vagabonds arrived who had in a press release dated 7 June 2004 that
been gnawing away at the country which, despite LAOS preached antisemitism “more than
everything, again and again, had always been able to any other party has ever done in Greece”.
resurrect from its ruins the bones of its heroes. If After the party’s breakthrough in the latest
their Zion of the Old Testament was lost due to local elections, the Simon Wiesenthal
their sins and rebellions against God, let the most Centre had called for Mr Karatzaferis’ tele-
promising height of the New Testament's way of vision channel to be closed down on the
life, the Hungarian Zion, be lost as well …. Since it is grounds that it broadcast “antisemitic prop-
impossible to smoke out every Palestinian from the aganda”. Below are some of the antisemitic
banks of the Jordan using Fascist methods that quotations published in the party’s news-
often imitate the Nazis themselves, they are paper Alpha Ena: in the issue of 5-6 June
returning to the banks of the Danube, now in the 2004, “Zionism orchestrates anti-Greek
shape of internationalists, now in jingoistic form, propaganda”, “Zionists control the planet”,
now as cosmopolitans, in order to give the Hungar-
ians another kick just because they feel like doing 50. Ibid.
so… So hear, Hungarians, the message of the 1 000th 51. The French author of the translated book is Léon de
year of the Christian Hungarian state, based on
1 000 ancient rights and legal continuity, the only Poncins. The most striking caricature is on the
one leading you to life: EXCLUDE THEM! cover of the book by Zoltan Bosnyak, Szembe
BECAUSE IF YOU DON'T, THEY WILL DO IT TO Judeaval!, portraying a bearded, hook-nosed Jew
YOU.” [In block capitals in the text.] with a black felt hat and a menacing look.

49. Quoted by the French daily Libération on 11 March
2004.

38 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance

“It has been proved beyond doubt that the semitism, as evidenced by composer Mikis
terrorist attack against the Twin Towers in Theodorakis, who is considered close to
New York was due to action by America’s Communist circles. In an interview in
Jewish Zionists” and “the symbol of the Haaretz on 26 August 2004, he clarifies his
dollar is not D but $ (SH), which stands for statement of 4 November 2003 that “the
shekel, in honour of the first Jewish cur- root of evil is the Jewish people”. He main-
rency”; and in the issue of 29-30 May 2004, tained his position, explaining that in his
“The election of Rozakis as Greek judge to view “the root of evil today is Bush’s policy”
the European Court of Human Rights is a and adding, “I don’t understand how the
Zionist victory […] which confirms the dom- Jewish people, who were the victims of
inant trend in the European Parliament. Nazism, can support this fascist policy” – a
Clearly, of course, that is a victory for statement that reduces the Jews to a single
Zionism, with the consequences you can entity. Again confusing “Jew” and “Israeli”,
imagine” and “What kind of Europe do you he then said, “There isn’t a single people in
like? American, Zionist, internationalist or the world that supports this policy except
multicultural?”. However, it would be a the people of Israel […]. I’m afraid Sharon
mistake to regard the far right alone as will lead the Jews – as Hitler led the
responsible for spreading antisemitism in Germans – to the root of evil”.
Greece: the left also propagates anti-

Case study No. 1: A case study of Belgium is essential for tion and even complains of its “sometimes
Belgium contemptuous and racist attitude to Flan-
several reasons. Firstly, Belgium held ders and the Flemish people”.52 The terms
regional elections at the same time as the used by the party in denouncing the chaos
European elections. Secondly, it is a federal caused by Walloon state control and the
state gripped by inter-community tensions economic gulf between the two provinces,
exacerbated by a xenophobic far-right together with the claim that Brussels is a
Flemish nationalist party, which is inciden- Flemish city and the accusation of Walloon
tally in no way representative of the entire harassment of Flemish speakers show this
Flemish national movement in terms of its to be another form of xenophobic prejudice,
history and aspirations. Lastly, one of the which leads as a matter of course to the
main campaign issues was, unusually, the demand for separation and is sometimes
legal steps already taken or to be taken in expressed with considerable violence, even
the future against this party, the Vlaams where the target is not named: in his speech
Blok: it was gaining in popularity at the time in Bruges on 1 May 2004, Frank Vanhecke
and the democratic parties had agreed to said that once relieved of the burden of the
quarantine it, which meant refusing to stolen billions (author’s note: stolen by Wal-
appoint members of the Blok to regional or lonia), Flanders can become a model state in
national government duties. So before terms of social benefits, and repeatedly
looking at racist, xenophobic and anti- described native Flemish people as victims
semitic discourse in the Belgian political of discrimination. In recent years the Blok’s
context, it is important to identify the discourse on immigration has attracted
Vlaams Blok’s ideology and programme on support from outside the party: this became
these issues. The party’s 70-point platform, apparent in 2004 over the issue of whether
which has very recently been amended for to grant non-Community foreigners the
legal reasons discussed below, calls for the right to vote in local elections, which
establishment of an independent Flemish became one of the key issues in the political
republic with Brussels as its capital. It also debate preceding the 2004 elections. The
advocates “a complete halt to immigration”, Socialist and ecology parties have been pro-
“restriction of the right of asylum”, “the posing since the late 1980s that the right to
effective repatriation of illegal immigrants vote be extended to immigrants who have
and refugees with unjustified claims” and “a lived in Belgium for at least five years.
humane and generous policy of return [to Towards the end of 2003 the idea gained
the country of origin]”. It regards naturalisa- ground in the centre and on the right,
tion only as “the culmination of a process of
integration and assimilation. This xeno- 52. See “Un programme d’avenir: un Etat indépendant
phobic view of society is obviously aimed flamand” (A Programme for the Future: an Inde-
first and foremost at non-Community for- pendent Flemish State) posted on http://
eigners, but the Blok also shows real hos- vlaamsblok.be/site_frans_programme_4.shtml.
tility to Belgium’s French-speaking popula-

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 39

dividing the Liberal Party (VVD) and the with internal strife and threatened both on
Christian Democrat Party (CDH), so that the left and on the right by the Vlaams Blok
some elected representatives belonging to and the “Liberaal Appel” dissidents; that of
these two parties (and moderate national- pressure from the Young Liberals in Ant-
ists belonging to the NVA, the former Volk- werp, who were overtly campaigning
sunie) agreed to join an “Action Committee against granting the right to vote to non-
against granting foreigners the right to vote Community foreigners and had collected the
(Actiecomité tegen stemrecht voor vreem- 1 000 members’ signatures required to
delingen) set up by the Vlaams Blok after ensure that the issue of foreigners’ right to
the adoption of this measure by the Senate vote, which the French-speaking parties and
and headed by a former liberal MP, Ward the Flemish Socialists (SPA) supported, was
Beysen.53 This in itself was an put before the VLD congress; and lastly, that
unprecedented breach of the quarantine of polls in the run-up to the regional and
agreement and entailed intervention by the European elections, forecasting poor results
Chairman of the VLD, Karel de Gucht, and for the VLD, with the Vlaams Blok close
the Chairman of the CD&V, Yves Leterme, behind it. This last point in particular
to punish the culprits. explained the party Chairman’s choice: he
feared that giving foreigners the right to
In this context it was very tempting to vote would mean more votes for the far
try to outgun rival parties in order to give right, to the detriment of the VLD. Essen-
the impression of a shift to the right among tially, de Gucht said that “granting for-
the ruling parties. On 30 January 2004, the eigners the right to vote, against the will of
Chairman of the Flemish Liberal Party the great majority of Flemish people, would
(VLD), Karel de Gucht, used an expression be a dangerous precedent”. He added that in
that plays an important part in the vocabu- adopting this measure, “the French speakers
lary of xenophobia, speaking in the debate are making a serious mistake, for which they
held by the Chamber of Representatives’ will pay sooner or later”, and asked, “why
Domestic Affairs Committee on the bill con- are they conducting an ideal pre-campaign
ditionally granting the right to vote to for- for the Vlaams Blok?”.55 The Liberal leader
eigners living in Belgium.54 To restrict the paid a heavy price, since the Federal Prime
scope of the measure, he backed an amend- Minister, Guy Verhofstadt, dismissed him
ment denying the right to vote to foreigners from his post as Chairman of the VLD on
who had unsuccessfully applied for naturali- 12 February. In July 2004, however, he
sation, and threatened the government with appointed him Minister for Foreign Affairs.
withdrawing his party from the coalition if
the measure was adopted. In support of his The Vlaams Blok’s legal difficulties were
views, Karel de Gucht, who cannot other- another major campaign issue and the Blok
wise be suspected of racism and is against spotlighted the question of freedom of
any alliance with the Vlaams Blok, cited expression throughout the campaigns both
cases of foreign offenders and drew applause for the European elections and for the
from the Blok MPs. These remarks can only regional parliaments. On the face of it this
be understood in context – that of the may seem irrelevant to the concerns of the
party’s forthcoming congress (5-7 February present report. However, it is important to
2004) at a time when the party was riddled see the matter in context so as to under-
stand that it is directly relevant to the
53. Beysen then set up his own party, Appel Liberaal. Flemish far-right party’s power to spread
54. The Minister of the Interior, Patrick Dewael, also racist and xenophobic ideas. Following
three complaints lodged on 10 October 2000
opposed this measure, without using any xeno- by the Centre for Equal Opportunities and
phobic arguments, in an interview on the RTBF Action against Racism against satellite asso-
radio station’s programme Matin Première on ciations of the party (Nationalistische
21 October 2003. He said, “During the previous Par- Omroepstichting, Nationalistisch Vor-
liament we really made it easier for people to mingsinstituut and Vlaamse Concentratie)
become Belgian and in my view that is the best way on the grounds that they had distributed
to integrate foreigners. If they become Belgian – and leaflets supporting the Vlaams Blok’s 70-
that’s very easy for them to do – they obtain all point platform against immigration, the
political rights: not just the right to vote, but also Ghent Court of Appeal, ruling on the merits,
the right to be elected. So personally, I believe giving
foreigners the right to vote is not the best way to go 55. Wire from the news agency Belga, on 30 January
about it”. However, in an opinion column published 2004.
by the daily Le Soir on 28 November 2003, he said
that in his view the Belgian Government should
reverse the decision to halt immigration taken in
1974.

40 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance

sentenced these associations to a fine of positive response. The CDH Christian Dem-
12 400 euros each on 21 April 2004 for con- ocrats have asked Parliament to adopt legis-
travening the law against racism; the Court lative measures that will make it possible to
also awarded 5 000 euros in damages to the abolish public funding of extremist and
Centre for Equal Opportunities and Action freedom-hating parties, which would defini-
against Racism (CECLR) and 2 500 euros to tively eliminate the Blok and its successor.
the Dutch-speaking branch of the Human For the moment, the bill to that effect is
Rights League, both of which had claimed stuck in the Senate. Also, immediately after
damages in the proceedings. This judgment the regional elections, the Vlaams Blok’s
is of crucial importance because it allows score put a question mark over the survival
the Belgian Government to deprive the party of the “quarantine agreement”. Controversy
of the subsidies to which it is entitled as first broke out over the decision by Yves
part of the public funding of political par- Leterme, who had been appointed to form
ties. The Law of 12 February 1999 on the the Flemish Government, to meet the Blok’s
funding of political parties provides that leaders, even though he clearly stated at the
parties which display racist views or close of the talks that “a coalition with the
infringe human rights may lose part of the Vlaams Blok is impossible […] because it
subsidies they receive from the government. bases its discourse on confrontation and on
Moreover, the party’s actual survival is now a conflictual model”. Rik Daems, leader of
at stake because Vlaams Blok lost its case the Liberal Party (VLD) in the Chamber of
before the Court of Cassation on Representatives, described the talks as a
9 November 2004: the Court upheld the “waste of time”. The Liberal Deputy Mayor
judgment of the Ghent Court of Appeal sen- of Antwerp, Ludo Van Campenhout, consid-
tencing the Blok to a fine on the grounds ered them inadvisable, saying that “there is a
that its propaganda constituted “permanent fine line between talking and negotiating”.
incitement to segregation and racism”. On Conversely, Roland Duchâtelet, Chairman
14 November, in order to be able to pursue of the Vivant party, an ally of the VLD, asked
its activities, the Blok therefore changed its the Christian Democrat Party, the CD&V,
name to Vlaams Belang (Flemish Interest). to form an alliance with the Vlaams Blok,
It also altered its programme, dropping the which in his view “will continue to progress
demand for “large groups of non-European as long as it is not given a share in govern-
immigrants to be returned to their coun- ment”. The youth branch of the N-VA, the
tries” and confining the demand for deporta- former Volksunie, a moderate Flemish
tion to immigrants who “reject, deny or nationalist party allied to the CD&V, also
combat our culture and certain European called for the “quarantine agreement” to be
values such as separation of the Church and dropped.
State, freedom of expression and equality
between men and women”. This is a 56. On the French-speaking side, the Electoral Expend-
standard case of what judicious use of the iture Audit Board of the Chamber of Representa-
law can do to restrict the use and political tives and the Senate unanimously decided to
exploitation of xenophobic discourse.56 suspend the Front National’s subsidy for three
months. The Board members criticised Daniel
The party, which aims to establish an Féret’s FN for failing to submit a financial report for
independent Flemish republic, considered 2003. Meanwhile, the FN submitted a document
that the judgment had dealt it a death sen- stating that its only income was its subsidy, a dona-
tence, but said it was convinced that under tion of 1.50 euros and membership fees from forty or
its new name it would see the death of Bel- so members. The Board considered that this docu-
gium, as its Chairman Frank Vanhecke put ment was in no sense a financial report and there-
it. While the Blok tops the polls in Flanders, fore unanimously ordered the far-right party’s
the French-speaking parties have voiced a subsidy to be suspended for three months.

Case study No. 2: I have chosen Ireland because on 11 June parties and racist views are very rarely heard
Ireland in the political arena: when this happens, it
2004 the Irish voted both in the European is due to verbal excesses by elected repre-
elections, in local elections and in a refer- sentatives of the traditional parties. The
endum designed to amend Article 9 of the latest recorded case occurred during the
Constitution so as to tighten requirements campaign for the 2002 general election,
for obtaining Irish nationality, putting an when the MP for Cork Noel O’Flynn
end to the acquisition of nationality by birth described immigrants as “spongers” and
on Irish territory. The Irish case is also of “freeloaders”.57 On the fringes of the political
interest because Ireland has no far-right

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 41

scene, the tiny Christian Solidarity Party, a will automatically acquire Irish nationality
traditionalist Catholic party, fielded a few and the attendant benefits for the child and
candidates in the local elections and one in its family? Marginal groups used an overtly
the European elections, just exceeding 1% of racist line of argument, which was also pub-
the vote.58 A grouping was formed on the licised in the local elections. The Immigra-
sole subject of immigration: the Immigration tion Control Platform claimed that immigra-
Control Platform, which fielded three tion is a local problem, in the words of Ted
candidates in the elections for Dublin, Cork Neville’s campaign leaflet, which continued,
South Central and Dundalk city councils. “Services that affect you have to bend over
But Pat Talbot and Ted Neville scored 1.65% backwards to take account of the extra
and 1.44% respectively in the first two cities applications due to an unplanned and
– in other words, immigration issues do not unwanted influx of immigrants. […] Nearly
appear to command voters’ support in local 1 000 foreign households in Cork city and
elections. county receive a rent allowance, while many
workers are struggling to become house
However, at a very late stage, in March owners and are financing this additional
2004, the Irish Government decided to hold burden out of their taxes”. The ICP also took
a referendum on access to nationality. This the view that “90% of asylum applications
was against the background of tougher are sham” and attacked the government’s
legislation on foreigners – a decision of the alleged intention of taking in 20 000
Supreme Court in 2003 empowering the Chinese students a year, asking, “Will the
government to deport foreigners who have government make sure they go back to
Irish-born children, and the adoption of the China, or will they be getting in through the
2004 Immigration Act, which came into back door?”.61 In Dublin the independent
force on 13 February 2004. In brief, the refer- candidate Paul Kangley campaigned for a
endum concerned the following issue: a yes vote in the referendum, otherwise we
“yes” vote meant that henceforth only won’t have enough maternity hospitals for
persons who at birth had at least one parent all the foreign women who want to give
of Irish nationality, or one parent entitled to birth here”, untruthfully claiming that
become an Irish citizen, would have a con- “there are officially almost 200 000 people
stitutional right to obtain Irish nationality. who call themselves refugees and live in new
The “yes” vote also empowered Parliament houses and flats”.62
to change the law which currently provides
that anyone born in Ireland is Irish.59 Neither the government nor the main-
stream parties used racist discourse. The
The first point to note is that even in a government’s justification for tabling the
referendum-type ballot on a particular issue, constitutional reform bill was a loophole in
participation was low (59.95%), which on the current Constitution warranting meas-
the face of it proves that the issue did not ures to avoid “citizenship tourism” and alle-
arouse the electorate’s interest. However, viate the workload of already “overbur-
the voters who went to the polls voted “yes” dened” hospitals.63 Prime Minister Bertie
by a large majority (79.17%) whereas the Ahern took care to repeat that he supported
“no” vote scored only 20.83%.60 As regards a “liberal” law on the right of asylum and
the manner in which the issues of immigra- immigration (27 May). Nevertheless, the
tion and right of asylum were presented very idea that “citizenship tourism” exists
during the referendum campaign, the latter on a large scale, or at any rate on a scale suf-
in fact revolved around a straightforward ficient to require revision of the Constitu-
argument: is it true that women of foreign tion, may be considered questionable. Also
nationality travel to Ireland on purpose in debatable is the wisdom of referring, as the
order to give birth there so that their child Minister for Foreign Affairs Brian Cowen
did, to “genuine migrants” (the Irish Times,
57. See the Irish Times of 31 January 2002. 4 June), which suggests that there are “false”
58. In the local elections, Paul O’Loughlin scored 1.69% migrants. And lastly, one wonders whether
it was judicious to encourage the electorate
in Dublin Inner City and Conor O’Donogue 1.02% in to vote in the European elections by dis-
Limerick 1. In the European elections Barry Despard playing a poster in the streets portraying a
scored 1,27% in Dublin. The traditionalist Catholic
MEP Rosemary Scallon, who scored 13.52%, was 61. See http://www.immigrationcontrol.org/
not re-elected in the North-West constituency. elections2004.htm
59. For further information see www.refcom.ie.
60. For a map of the results, which do not correlate 62. Ibid.
with the presence of foreigners, see http:// 63. Metro Eireann, 4 July 2004.
www.ireland.com/focus/referendum2004/
results_map.html

42 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance

woman breastfeeding her baby, which weight to the view that women applying for
might suggest a link with the referendum on immigration choose the country where they
nationality (1 June). However, it would be want to settle on the basis of a sort of cost-
particularly unfair to hold only the ruling benefit ratio, i.e. precisely by doing what
parties responsible for these ambiguous some people call asylum-shopping. Other
remarks when a man as clearly above suspi- government remarks fuelled controversy,
cion of racism as Nobel Peace Prize John such as the statement made on 3 June by
Hume (of the Northern Ireland SDLP party) Mary Coughlan, Minister for Social and
said he wanted the Irish Government to Family Affairs, that a yes vote in the refer-
award a “certificate of Irishness” to all those endum would end the incentive for pregnant
across the world who are of Irish origin,64 women to put themselves and their unborn
which amounts to an ethnically-based view children at risk by travelling here from
of nationality. abroad just before birth.71

The main problem with the government’s That being said, it is a fact that very few
line of argument was that it was based from racist incidents occurred during the election
the outset on strongly disputed figures (for campaigns: according to the Irish Times, a
births by foreign mothers who had come to candidate of Nigerian origin in Galway
Ireland specially for the purpose) and on lodged a complaint after receiving racist tel-
facts which do not appear to be proven.65 ephone calls. Lastly, it must be pointed out
Thus, it was said to be the Dublin Masters of that in 2002 the Irish Government set up a
the Hospitals who had alerted Justice Min- National Consultative Committee on
ister Michael MacDowell to the need to Racism and Interculturalism (NCCRI),
change the law to prevent the influx of which included special articles on the
foreign mothers.66 Then, when the Masters National Action Plan Against Racism and
of the Hospitals stated that they had made on countering myths about asylum-seekers
no such request, which the minister himself in the first issue of its newsletter Spectrum
admitted on 13 March, the argument turned (November 2002). In the face of broad oppo-
into the idea that the large number of sition from the Churches and human rights
foreign mothers posed a problem for the organisations (which criticised it for
hospital system’s capacity67 and that there exploiting racist feeling to boost its scores
was genuine and systematic abuse of the in the local and European elections), as well
constitutional right to acquire Irish nation- as from the opposition parties Labour and
ality.68 The final argument was that the con- Sinn Fein, the Irish Government simply
stitutional change would bring Ireland into exercised its legitimate right to decide how
line with the legislation of the European one becomes a citizen. The newly intro-
Union member countries,69 which is in fact duced requirements are no more restrictive
true, apart from the fact that the chosen than those in force elsewhere in the Euro-
wording was so that we do not create pean Union. However, it is regrettable that
unintended incentives that are unfair to us the reasons for the hurried referendum were
or to other EU member states.70 The concept not clearly stated and that a generalisation
of unintended incentives tends to lend was made about foreigners in spite of the
official statistics showing a 10% drop in the
64. The Irish Times, 10 May 2004. number of births by foreign mothers in
65. On this point, see the article by Aisling Reidy, Dublin’s maternity hospitals between 2002
and 2003.72
Director of the Irish Council for Civil Liberties: “The
need for a referendum considered”, at: www.iccl.ie/ 71. A “yes” vote would would end the incentive for
constitution/gen/ar_tcdspeech04.pdf. pregnant women to put themselves and their
66. Statement by the Minister on 10 March 2004. unborn children at risk by travelling here from
67. Ibid., 21 April 2004. abroad just before birth.
68. Statement by the Prime Minister on 12 April 2004.
69. Statement by the Minister of Justice on 9 April 72. Metro Eireann, 4 July 2004.
2004.
70. Ibid.

Case study No. 3: Latvia The main problem in Latvia is that of rela- period when the country was part of the
Soviet Union is referred to as the Russian
tions between the Latvian majority (57.6% rather than the Soviet occupation.73 In
of the population) and the Russian minority recent years this prejudice has chiefly been
(29.6%). A genuine and long-standing voiced with regard to the issues of language
feeling of hostility may be said to exist and access to nationality. The prime evi-
towards the Russian minority, as reflected dence for this feeling includes the 1989 lan-
in standard terminology by the fact that the

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 43

guage law, which makes Latvian the only which voices anti-Russian feeling based on
national language, requires proper names to deep-seated anti-Communism.78 Brivibas
be latvianised and abolishes the teaching of Partija’s advertisement, broadcast during
Russian in universities, and the 1994 nation- the campaign for the October 2003 general
ality law, which makes naturalisation election, portrayed two black musicians
subject to passing an examination in Latvian belonging to a well-known group. One of
language, history and law, widely regarded them, dressed as a soldier, was shown
as difficult and discriminatory, with the kissing a Latvian woman in front of the
result that by 30 September 2004 only monument to freedom in Riga. The
78 540 naturalisations had been granted. accompanying voice-over said, “Today he’s
This means that almost 20% of Latvia’s resi- defending your country, tomorrow he might
dents are not citizens, cannot take part in be your son-in-law”. The court judgment
elections and do not have access to a given in response to a complaint lodged by
number of jobs, especially in the public the musicians and George Steele is a first in
service. However, the picture is not entirely Latvia, paving the way for the courts to pay
negative: in September 2002 Latvia adopted closer attention to racist offences.
a new law on the right of asylum, and in
May 2003 a new law on immigration, both The main problem during the run-up to
of which the United Nations Committee the European elections, however, was the
against Torture recognised as incorporating reform of the education system, which was
significant advances.74 It must also be adopted in February 2004 and came into
acknowledged that the Russian minority is force on 1 September. An appeal has been
free to express itself politically, which lodged before the Latvian Constitutional
enables it to be represented in the European Court against the law, which provides that
Parliament by the coalition For Human 60% of subjects must be taught in Latvian,
Rights in United Latvia (FHRUL), a party including in Russian-speaking schools. The
incorporating numerous former officials of latter are thus threatened with extinction
the Soviet Communist Party. The fact (in theory, the law also applies to schools
remains, however, that Latvia has not run by other minorities). In January 2004
ratified the Framework Convention for the the bill sparked a wave of protest among the
Protection of National Minorities, while Russian-speaking minority, culminating in a
Estonia and Lithuania have. demonstration by 30 000 people in Riga on
1 May, in response to a call from several
According to Kaspars Zalitis, co-ordi- organisations: a moderate wing (Lashor –
nator of the European Week of Action Association of Russian Teachers) and a
against Racism and the National Council of more hardline wing (Shtab – Centre for the
Latvian Youth, “the media don’t talk about Defence of Russian Schools), both of which
racism”.75 Yet racism is a feature of daily life: are often accused by the press and govern-
for example, and contrary to Zalitis’ view, ment of being manipulated by Russia.79 A
the much publicised case of George Steele, a number of slogans seen during the demon-
black American citizen living in Latvia since stration, such as Russian is more than a lan-
1994, has proved that insults and harass- guage, could in fact be construed as
ment make coloured people’s lives difficult; expressing a form of refusal to integrate, or
there is also the case of the racist TV adver- even of anti-Latvian feeling,80 while the
tisement for Brivibas Partija (Freedom slogan Stop apartheid in Latvia is clearly an
Party),76 which was convicted for it in Sep- exaggeration.81
tember 2003.77 This party must not be con-
fused with the LNNK (Apvienba Tvzemei The law also triggered a political crisis: in
un Brvbai/LNNK), an ultra-nationalist party May 2004 the National Harmony Party
comparable in some respects to the far right (Tautas Saskanas Partija), which supported
the government of Prime Minister Indulis
73. For example, the Latvian Academic Information Emsis (who took office on 9 March 2004
Centre’s Website refers to the 1940 “Russian occu-
pation”. See www.aic.lv/HE_2002/HE_LV/ 78. In the European Parliament after the June elections,
factsheets/hist.htm. for example, LNNK tabled a draft resolution upheld
by MEP Girts Valdis Kristovskis with a view to ret-
74. Report CAT/C/CR/31/3 of 5 February 2004. rospectively condemning the Molotov-Ribbentrop
75. Article of 27 March 2003 on www.policy.lv. pact.
76. For the party’s platform, see: http://web.cvk.lv/pub/
79. See Le Monde of 25 October 2004.
?doc_id=28214. 80. Reported by the Baltic Times of 6 May 2004.
77. On these two points, see the interview with George 81. Reported by EU-Observer of 12 June 2004 in connec-

Steele at www.policy.lv/index.php?id=102518 tion with the demonstration of 12 June.
(7 January 2003).

44 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance

and resigned on 28 October), gave the gov- anti-Latvian statements made by Russian
ernment an ultimatum, demanding that it officials: the Chairman of the Duma’s
take action on minority rights and the Foreign Affairs Committee, Dimitri
reform of the education system. At the same Rogozin, who is a specialist in this area, said
time, a right-wing party called for the resig- in September 2003 that “the Nazis have
nation of the Minister for Social Integration, come to power in Latvia” and described the
Nils Muiznieks (a member of the Latvia latter as “a country of hooligans”.84 As for
First party), on the grounds that he had the ultra-nationalist leader Vladimir Jiri-
given too much of a free rein to minority novski, he threatened on 1 April 2004 to
demands. Many commentators viewed this destroy Latvia, specifying that commandos
demand as a ploy by a party suffering from a were ready to leave Russia to bomb the
decline in the polls and internal dissent to Baltic countries’ capitals.85
boost its image. The issues of minority
rights, reform of the education system and As regards the forms taken by anti-
tuition in the Latvian language, together Russian xenophobic prejudice, it will first
with that of asylum-seekers, prompted a be noted that the government does not deny
debate among the left-wing parties: the its existence, nor that of racism in general.
Tautas Saskanas Partija headed by Janis At a press conference held during the OSCE
Jurkans made its support for the govern- Conference on Tolerance and the Fight
ment conditional on the latter resolving the Against Racism, Xenophobia and Discrimi-
education problem, preferably without nation (Brussels, 13-14 September 2004),
amending the existing law; and For Human Minister Muiznieks said that on 25 August
Rights in United Latvia went still further, Latvia had adopted a National Programme
organising student demonstrations, calling for the Promotion of Tolerance. While
on pupils to boycott the start of school on 1 pointing out that the National Human
September and demanding closer ties Rights Office had received very few com-
between the European Union and Russia – plaints of racist acts, he admitted that many
an argument which is of course unlikely to people belonging to visible minorities (from
convince the majority of Latvians of the Africa, the Middle East and Asia) had been
Russian minority’s willingness to integrate. subjected to threats or physical attacks, and
On the government side, the main argument added that there was widespread prejudice
in favour of the law is integration: Russian against Roma, as well as deteriorating atti-
speakers would have to speak fluent Latvian tudes towards Muslims, although there are
in order to be able to find a decent job. The very few of them. He also said that what he
argument is acceptable provided that it is called Russophobia was one of the preju-
not presented in a form as dubious as that dices the programme was designed to eradi-
used by President Vaira Vike-Freiberga, cate.
who said that the law was designed to
ensure that Russian-speakers “become A number of incidents and statements
Latvians of Russian origin”, adding that “if are nevertheless worth mentioning. For
they want to be Russian, they can go to example, MP Vladimir Buzayev (FRHUL
Russia”.82 This view is apparently shared by coalition) was suspended for six sessions for
politicians in the other Baltic countries: the taking the floor to talk about the Russian-
former Lithuanian President Vytautas speaking students’ demonstrations when
Landsbergis, for example, no doubt the agenda concerned the war in Iraq. In
believing there were too many Russian November 2003, MP Martijans Bekasovs,
speakers in Latvia, asked a newspaper, then observer to the European Parliament,
“How would the Germans feel if they sud- was deprived of his seat in Strasbourg by the
denly had 60 million Turks in their Latvian Parliament, which accused him of
country?”, while the former Estonian betraying his country’s interests after he had
Foreign Minister Toomas Ilves told the same circulated a letter to MEPs in September
newspaper, Moscow uses the [Russian 2003 complaining of the treatment of the
speakers] rather like Hitler used the Russian-speaking minority. The LNNK
Sudeten Germans.83 On the other hand, one party, in particular, campaigned against
cannot take a balanced view of the issue him, accusing him of anti-state activities
without considering a number of overtly and thus reviving the stereotype of Russian
speakers’ alleged “treason”.86 An MEP

82. Quoted by the Baltic Times, “Unique elections crys- 84. See Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty report,
tallize party differences”, 20 May 2004. 10 October 2003, by Kathleen Knox.

83. Quoted by EU Reporter, 23-27 February 2004, p. 14. 85. Reported by the Baltic Times on 8 April 2004.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 45

belonging to the Tautas Partija, Rihards rather than as citizens. The government
Piks, asked by a journalist whether Latvians spokesman on educational reform, Sergeys
should not forgive Russian-speakers for the Ancupovs, apparently said in response to a
mistakes committed by the USSR, replied, question about MP Jakov Pliners, a member
“the Bible says children must pay for the sins of the FHRUL coalition, “He isn’t Russian,
of their parents”.87 On 28 September 2004 he’s Jewish”.89
the Latvian Supreme Court upheld a judg-
ment given in April sentencing Vassili To conclude this case study, I would say
Kononov, an 80-year-old, to 20 months’ that there are tensions, verbal excesses and
imprisonment for “war crimes”, in this attempts to revive prejudice on both sides. It
instance the death of 9 civilians executed is not as such discriminatory to ask a
during a partisans’ attack on a village in minority to master the majority’s language
1944. This verdict perfectly reflects the gulf and make entry into the public service, for
between the Latvian and Russian views of example, conditional on fluent knowledge
the war: Latvians regard Kononov as a war of that language. A state is even perfectly
criminal, while Russians see him as a hero of entitled to require people wishing to acquire
the struggle against the Nazis, since the exe- its nationality to be fluent in the national
cutions took place as part of an attack language. On the other hand, the Latvian
against German troops and their local col- majority undoubtedly has difficulty visual-
laborators.88 Lastly, I would draw attention ising Russians as full citizens, no doubt on
to a statement reflecting the old Soviet habit account of past disputes which have not
of classifying Jews as an ethnic minority been settled.

86. Reported by EU-Observer on 5 November 2003. 89. Quoted by the British Helsinki Human Rights
87. EU Reporter op. cit. Group in its report “Latvia: double standards in the
88. Agence France Presse, 28 September 2004. Baltics”, 2004.

General conclusion

To conclude this overview, which is by no of Turkey’s entry into the EU and that of the
future of Islam in Europe have become argu-
means intended to be exhaustive, a few ments as important as immigration and the
trends can be identified in political parties’ right of asylum. There, the danger lies in
use of xenophobic, racist and antisemitic reducing Islam to a single dimension and
discourse. Firstly, the rise of the far right as wrongly assimilating it to its most radical
such is no longer comparable in scale to a and violent form. The “clash of civilisations”
political “groundswell” and seems to have theory is undoubtedly gaining ground, as is
largely stabilised in some countries (Austria, anti-muslim prejudice, whether one calls it
France), though it is giving more cause for “Islamophobia” or rejects that term on the
concern in others (Belgium). Consequently, grounds that it is misused by fundamental-
this end of the political spectrum is no ists. Thirdly, minority rights remain a deci-
longer the only one that spreads racist dis- sive issue in central and eastern Europe.
course, but one may wonder whether its While the forms of xenophobic discourse
comparative decline does not sometimes go associated with territorial disputes have vir-
hand in hand with an ideological victory – tually disappeared, the general idea persists
that of having succeeded in imposing its that nationality is first and foremost a
xenophobic agenda on some democratic matter of heredity, language, religion and
political movements which are keen to ethnic group, rather than of a civic decision
outdo their rivals or quick to believe, in to live together. Roma and Russian-
terms of political tactics, that using the far speaking or Hungarian minorities, for
right’s language helps to win back its elec- example, are rarely referred to as full citi-
torate or prevent it from emerging. In this zens in the socially dominant discourse,
sense, the crucial problem as of now is the although substantial progress has been
need for democratic parties to avoid this made in various countries (Czech Republic,
“contamination”, and the main threat to Slovakia, Hungary) in terms of the authori-
democracy lies in the use of this type of dis- ties’ growing awareness of the discrimina-
course by mainstream parties rather than by tory status assigned to Roma in particular
the far right. Secondly, it is quite clear that and the steps to be taken to remedy it.
in the eyes of both extremists and a small Fourthly, it is essential not to underestimate
proportion of democratic parties, the issue

46 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance

the disturbing resurgence of antisemitic acts paid to these new forms of xenophobic and
and statements by traditional players (the antisemitic discourse, both in legal terms
far right), but also new players (Islamists) and in terms of education for tolerance. In
and even a fraction of the left and far left; almost all the countries mentioned, the
among the latter, criticism of the Israeli basic reason for the use of xenophobic dis-
Government’s actions that can be consid- course and antisemitism is obviously the
ered legitimate sometimes turns into que- fear aroused primarily among socially or
rying or denial of Israel’s right to exist as a economically vulnerable people by the
state, or even into truly antisemitic remarks transformation of societies which are
under cover of antizionism. Generally comparatively homogeneous in ethnic and
speaking, the fact of transposing the terms religious terms into societies that will inevi-
of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict into the tably have to move towards multi-
national political debate in some countries culturalism. Accepting this kind of society,
(particularly in France), the growing media coping with the conflicts it engenders
coverage of mutual accusations of anti- through a policy of integration and striking
semitism and Islamophobia exchanged by the necessary balance between respect for
representatives of the Jewish and Muslim individual or group characteristics and citi-
communities and the debate on the issue of zenship are the main challenges posed by
whether to make Islamophobic and anti- the existence of an enlarged Europe and,
zionist discourse a criminal offence do much more generally, the globalisation of
to undermine integration, social cohesion exchanges.
and secularism. Special attention must be

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic elements in political discourse 47



IV. Appendices