Form 4 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Biology and Laboratory Rules ..... 1 CHAPTER 2 Cell Biology and Organisation............................. 6 CHAPTER 3 Movement of Substances across the Plasma Membrane ......................................................... 12 CHAPTER 4 Chemical Composition in a Cell ........................ 20 CHAPTER 5 Metabolism and Enzymes ................................. 27 CHAPTER 6 Cell Division....................................................... 34 CHAPTER 7 Cellular Respiration........................................... 43 CHAPTER 8 Respiratory Systems in Humans and Animals .. 47 CHAPTER 9 Nutrition and the Human Digestive System....... 51 CHAPTER 10 Transport in Humans and Animals .................... 60 CHAPTER 11 Immunity in Humans.......................................... 72 CHAPTER 12 Coordination and Response in Humans............ 76 CHAPTER 13 Homeostasis and the Human Urinary System .. 88 CHAPTER 14 Support and Movement in Humans and Animals....................................................... 94 CHAPTER 15 Sexual Reproduction, Development and Growth in Humans and Animals...................... 102 Form 5 CHAPTER 1 Organisation of Plant Tissues and Growth.......113 CHAPTER 2 Leaf Structure and Function............................ 127 CHAPTER 3 Nutrition in Plants ............................................ 142 CHAPTER 4 Transport in Plants .......................................... 146 CHAPTER 5 Response in Plants ......................................... 152 CHAPTER 6 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants........ 164 CHAPTER 7 Adaptations of Plants in Different Habitats...... 171 CHAPTER 8 Biodiversity...................................................... 177 CHAPTER 9 Ecosystem....................................................... 186 CHAPTER 10 Environmental Sustainability ........................... 200 CHAPTER 11 Inheritance....................................................... 205 CHAPTER 12 Variation .......................................................... 214 CHAPTER 13 Genetic Technology......................................... 219 ii CONTENTS Contents GrabMe Biology F4 & 5.indd 2 02/11/2022 5:03 PM
CHAPTER INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY AND LABORATORY RULES 1 1.1 Fields and Careers in Biology Study of animals Zoology Study of the internal structure of living organisms Anatomy Study of microorganisms Microbiology Study of the classification of living organisms and extinct organisms Taxonomy Study of the interactions between organisms and the environment Ecology Study of plants Botany Study of gene and inheritance Genetics Study of functions and mechanism in organisms Physiology Fields of Biological Studies Biology is a scientific study of life and how living things interact with one another and with the environment. The various fields of biological studies include: Fundamentals of Biology 1 Chp 01 GrabMe Biology F4.indd 1 14/11/2022 4:16 PM
CHAPTER 2 CELL BIOLOGY AND ORGANISATION 2.1 Cell Structure and Function The cell is the basic unit of living things and can only be seen under a microscope. Each organism is composed of millions of cells. Animal cell structures and functions Fundamentals in Biology Centriole Forms spindle fibre Cytoplasm Medium of biochemical reactions Nucleus Controls cell activities Plasma membrane Controls movement of substances across the cell Ribosome Synthesises protein Mitochondrion Generates energy Lysosome Digests damaged cell components, dead cells and pathogens Golgi apparatus Processes, modifies, packages and transports chemical substances Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Site for lipid synthesis Rough endoplasmic reticulum Transports protein 6 Chp 02 GrabMe Biology F4.indd 6 17/11/2022 1:57 PM
Compare and Contrast the Components of Animal Cells and Plant Cells Food storage in starch in the form of starch Food storage in glycogen in the form of glycogen Fixed shape No fixed shape Has big vacuole Very small or no vacuole Has chloroplast No chloroplast No lysosome Has lysosome No cell wall Has cell wall No centriole Has centriole Plant cell Animal cell Have nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrane, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vesicles 8 Chp 02 GrabMe Biology F4.indd 8 17/11/2022 1:57 PM
Hypotonic, Hypertonic and Isotonic Solutions These are the changes that will occur to plant cells and animal cells when immersed in three different types of solutions, which are hypotonic solution, hypertonic solution and isotonic solution. Type of cell Type of solution Hypotonic Hypertonic Isotonic Plant cell Water diffuses into the vacuole, causing the vacuole to expand and push the cytoplasma and plasma membrane against the cell wall. The cell become turgid. Water diffuses out of the vacuole, making the vacuole and cytoplasma shrink, plasma membrane pull away from the cell wall causing the cell to undergo plasmolysis. Water diffusion in and out of the cells are the same, making the cell flaccid. Animal cell Water diffuses into the cell by osmosis, causing the cell to undergo haemolysis. Water diffuses out of the cell by osmosis, causing the cell to undergo crenation. Water diffuses in and out of the cells by osmosis at the same rate, maintaining the cell shape. 17 Chp 03 GrabMe Biology F4.indd 17 17/11/2022 3:31 PM
8.2 Mechanisms of Breathing Insects • Use a tracheal system that is strengthened with chitin. • Air flows through the spiracle, trachea and tracheole, then diffuses into the insect’s body cells. • Some insects have air sacs to increase the rate of diffusion of gases. Fish • Have gills that consist of smooth filament lines. • The filament has a thin projection called lamellae. • The countercurrent exchange mechanism, which is the flow of water through the gills go against the bloodstream increase the rate of diffusion of gases. Amphibians • Use the lungs and the skin because amphibians live on land and water. • Lungs consist of a pair of sacs connected to the back of the mouth. • The opening of the lungs is controlled by the glottis. • Skin surface which is thin and moist increase the rate of diffusion of gases. Humans • Use the lungs. Air enters through the tracheal supported by C-shaped rings of cartilage. • Lungs consist of the bronchus, bronchiole, and alveolus. • There are millions of alveolus to increase the surface area for gaseous exchange. 48 Chp 08 GrabMe Biology F4.indd 48 14/11/2022 5:25 PM
CHAPTER ORGANISATION OF PLANT TISSUES AND GROWTH 1 1.1 Organisation of Plant Tissues Vascular cambium Xylem Parenchyma Sclerenchyma Collenchyma Cork cambium Phloem Apical meristematic tissues Epidermal tissues Lateral meristematic tissues Ground tissues Vascular tissues Meristematic tissues Permanent tissues Plant Tissues Physiology of Flowering Plants 113 C01 GrabMe Biology F5.indd 113 14/11/2022 3:57 PM
Types of Plant Tissues and Their Functions Meristematic Tissue Tissue Apical meristem Lateral meristem Cork cambium Location At the end of shoot and root Between xylem and phloem In bark Function • Produces new cells by mitosis • For primary growth • Produces new xylem and phloem cells by mitosis • For secondary growth • Produces new cork cells by mitosis Vascular cambium Shoot apical meristem Root apical meristem Lateral meristem Cork cambium Vascular cambium 114 C01 GrabMe Biology F5.indd 114 14/11/2022 3:57 PM
Oxygen Nitrate Nitrogen in the atmosphere Ammonium compounds and ammonia Plant protein Urea Nitrite Metabolic pathway Ammonium compound and ammonia Animal protein Rhizobium sp. in root nodules Thiobacillus denitrificans Nitrobacter sp. Eaten by Nitrosomonas sp. Azotobacter sp., Clostridium sp., Nostoc sp. in soil Decomposers (saprotroph bacteria and fungi) The Role of Microorganisms in the Nitrogen Cycle 183 C08 GrabMe Biology F5.indd 183 14/11/2022 4:02 PM
Quadrat sampling technique Frequency of species y = Number of quadrats containing species y x 100 Total number of quadrats sampled Density of species y = Total number of individual species y in all quadrat Total number of quadrat sampled × area of one quadrat (m2 ) Coverage of species y = Total area covered by species y in all quadrats × 100 Total number of quadrat sampled × area of one quadrat (m2 ) Capture-mark-release-recapture technique Population size = Number of Number of organisma in × organisma in first capture second capture Number of marked organisms recaptured Estimation of Organism Population Size Assumptions: • The marked organisms able to mix freely with each other in the population. • The organisms are captured randomly. • The locomotion of organisms is restricted geographically. • The marking is non-toxic, permanent, does not affect their activity, and does not make the organisms more conspicuous to their predator. • Changes in population size caused by natality, mortality, immigration and emigration are negligible. No unit % in the formula, but the answer must be written with the % unit. No unit % in the formula, but the answer must be written with the % unit. 199 C09 GrabMe Biology F5.indd 199 14/11/2022 4:05 PM
11.2 Dihybrid Inheritance A dihybrid cross is a genetic cross between two parents involving the inheritance of two distinctive characters. During the formation of gamete, two pairs of alleles separate (segregate) independently of each other during meiosis. Mendel’s Second Law (Law of Independent Assortment) F1 Formation of gametes from F1 generation: t t R r T t R r T T R r TtRr TR Tr tR tr Parental generation (P) Phenotype Genotype Gamete F1 generation Genotype Phenotype Tall, purple flowers TTRR × Dwarf, white flowers ttrr TtRr TtRr TtRr TtRr All pea plants are tall with purple flowers TR TR tr tr 207 C011 GrabMe Biology F5.indd 207 14/11/2022 4:08 PM