Urbanization Factory Labor Force New Industries

Urbanization Factory Labor Force

New Industries
- Spread of industries pioneered in Great Britain.
- Expansion of railway systems on the Continent spurred economic growth.
- Second Industrial Revolution: Steels, chemicals, electricity, oil.

Late 19th century urban life 30-60%: Germany
-Urbanization led to migration towards the city

(1850-1911) urban dweller rose from 25-44%: France

Redesign of Cities
- Central urban areas where transformed into areas where businesses, government offices, large stores, and theaters

were = encouraged commerce, trade, government, and leisure activities.
-
PARIS
-Napoleon III redesigned Paris
-District was destroyed for wide boulevards and streets. This helped with quick deployment of troops to put down
riots and help with congestion.
-Public buildings like Bois de Boulogne and Paris Opera were constructed= thousands of government jobs or jobs in
private construction.
-department stores, office complexes, middle class apartments built= created jobs, homes, and encouraged social
connections among the people.
-1870’s-mechanical trams, 1895-metro helped make transportation more effeicient. New railway stations created to
link city to suburbs making access easier.
- Expansion of cheap workday fares and tramways allowed tens of thousands of workers from all classes to move
daily between city and outlying suburbs.

Urban Sanitization
- Due to health hazards new water and sewer systems were created.
- By controlling how the sewage was store (encasing pipes with granite and concrete) and discharging in river=

human waste was disposed and clean water free of harmful bacteria for human use.
- The mortality rate dropped.

Government and Sanitization
-Public Health Act of 1848 (Britain): legislation allowed medical officers and building inspectors to enter homes and
businesses in name of public health.
- Private land could be excavated to construct sewers and water mains for the public.

Housing Reform
-Moral: good home life = healthy moral = politically stable population

-Middle class reformers
Germany
- Firms like Krupp Armaments constructed model housing projects and industrial communities.
- Initiative of local municipalities.

England
- Legislation in 1885 lowered interest rates to construct cheap housing.
- Local governments began public housing projects

France
-Made inexpensive credit available to construct housing for the poor.

 Housing problem recognized and addressed by 1914 by providing homes for the working class.

Negative Impacts of Urbanization

Although urbanization during the late 19th century is most often cited as a period of innovation and progress, factors such
as the quick overcrowding of cities and social upheaval led to numerous negative impacts on the health of the population,
the economy, and the organization of society.

Health
 Injuries such as severed limbs were common among factory workers, who had to reach into machinery while it
was still operating to fix it.
o Young chimney sweeps and coal miners developed black lung.
o Employers could fire workers who were crippled on the job.
 The new energy source of coal filled the city with smog.
o The cities’ design did not facilitate the easy ventilation of air.
 The sanitation systems of cities could not keep up with the boom in population.
o Working class families were often crowded into any space they could afford, such as a single room shared
between five people within a house.
o Previously, disease stayed within the lowest class, however the cramped space in cities caused epidemics
such as the Cholera epidemics of 1830 and 1840.
o Louis René Villermé and Edwin Chadwick both documented the open sewer systems and crowded
housing as sources of disease.

Children
 Children risked life and limb cleaning and repairing machinery.
 Children workers were preferred because their small hands could fit into the machinery more easily than that of
adults.
o Children were also favored because their wages were lower than those of adults.

Effects on family
 The introduction of public education and a shift from a schedule based on agriculture to one based on machinery
caused the hours a family could socialize to deviate.
o Previously, families had worked as a team to produce products to support the family, now members of the
family worked wherever they found jobs.
 Males increasingly became the “breadwinners” of families, as they had the highest wages. This put widows at a
serious disadvantage when they had to provide for their families.

Effects on economy
 Factories’ heavy reliance on natural resources put a strain on the resources of the country.
 Countries with colonies exploited the colonies’ resources to fuel production, and quickly put down unrest that
would upset the flow of resources.
 Since it was believed that they were inexhaustible, fossil fuels become the most prominent source of energy.
 Economic growth stagnated towards the end of the century.
o Agriculture in Europe faced fierce foreign competition.
o Many banks failed in 1873, starting a short depression.

Social unrest
 The miserable conditions of the working class led to restlessness and a desire for change.
o In trying to achieve their goals, Luddites damaged the property of factory owners and put workers’ health
at risk since the windows of factories were closed to keep Luddites out.
 Strikes were common as workers tried to keep minimum wage in line with inflation.
o Cities such as Paris implemented wide streets during their redesign to enable troops to mobilize to put
down rebellions more quickly.

Women
 What jobs women could hold were often those that required minimal training and low-skill levels.
o The wages of women were half those of men in the same position.
o Young girls who immigrated to cities from the countryside couldn’t always find jobs, and so had to result
to prostitution.

Socialism vs. Non-Socialism

Main Points:

 Socialism slows economic growth
 Socialism encourages mediocrity
 Socialism can take rights
 Socialism goes against human nature
 Socialism eliminates competition but competition fosters innovation

Socialism slowing growth
“A rising tide lifts all boats”

 When upper class are thriving the people below are better off
 Socialism advocates for a classless society where everyone receives equal earnings

o This doesn’t foster a thriving body of people only a mediocre living with a group of
political elites

Becomes easy to abuse power when industry is owned by government

 A healthy economy allows wealth to be shared thorugh rising markets and merit based wages

Socialism encourages mediocrity
Mind set of “why work hard if rewarded the same”

 Capitalism rewards innovation and effort

End up with a society with no individuality and a mindset of laziness takes over

Socialism can take rights

The rich cannot harm you but the government can

 A government can strip you of rights and abuse you where the rich cannot

Propaganda thrives under socialism

 Most outside contact is cut off

Socialism goes against human nature

Humans have different capabilities and evolve through survival of the fittest

 Industry does the same

Summary of the Socialisms

Early -ISMs

 Utilitarianism: Greatest good for greatest number of people
 Saint-Simonism: The management of wealth by professionals, not redistribution
 Owenism: Workers who are treated well will produce better goods (Actually worked)
 Fourism: Rotation of work will relieve boredom (Communities called Phalanxes)
 Marxism Working class (Proletariat) will eventually outnumber Middle class and revolt

Later -ISMs

 Fabianism: Diplomatic reform over time (Mainly Britain)
 German SDP: Social Democratic Party- Refined and spread Marxism (Only Germany)
 Bolshevism: A small, elite group of revolutionaries overthrow government (Only Russia)

Honorable Mentions:

 Blancism: Give vote to working class and have state-controlled factories
 Violent anarchism: REVOLUTION!!! Put the working class in charge of the government
 Peaceful anarchism: Cooperation (No competition) between businesses make Gov’t unnecessary
 Trade-Unionism: Organize Trade Unions to pursue legal rights
 Opportunism: Non-organized movement to get legal rights through the French parliament
 Revisionism: The German version of Fabianism

For Socialism

 “The early socialists generally applauded the new productive capacity of industrialism. They denied, however,
that the free market could adequately produce and distribute goods the way the classical economist claimed. In the
capitalist order, socialist saw primarily mismanagement, low wages, misdistributions of goods, and suffering
arising from the unregulated system” (Pg. 706 Kagan)

Against Socialism

 “The standard of living was rising in Europe. Stockholding was making ownership of the capitalist industry more
widespread. The middle class was not falling into the ranks of the proletariat and was not identifying its problems
with those of the workers... The extension of franchise to the working class meant that parliamentary methods
might achieve social change (Pg. 785 Kagan).

Words to Know

 Otto Von Bismarck- Prime minister of Germany who tried to repress socialism

 The Communist Manifesto- A document in which Karl Marx outlined his ideas

 First International- Gathering Worker’s groups which wanted to unite socialist workers and

supporters and was led by Karl Marx

Pro Science

 Discovery of the bacterial theory of disease associated with Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, and Joseph Lister,

increased public concern about cleanliness

 Auguste Comte developed positivism, a philosophy of human intellectual development that culminated in science
– has three stages
o 1. Theological – actions explained by divinities
o 2. Metaphysical – abstract principles regarded as operative agencies of nature
o 3. Positive – explanations of nature are exact descriptions without recourse to an unobservable principle

 Darwin:
o Founded the principle of natural selection, the survival of the fittest
o Work of Mendel on heredity supported his conclusions
o Theory undermined the existence of God
o God isn’t necessary to explain nature
o Idea that nature might be constantly changing allowed people to believe that society, values, customs, and

beliefs should also change

 Intellectual Skepticism of the Church:
o Story of Jesus is a myth
o Bible has been revised was written by normal humans
o Geology suggests the earth is much older than what biblical records contend
o Natural causes of floods, mountains, valleys remove the miraculous hand of God from physical

development of the Earth
o Darwin’s theory cats much doubt on the idea of Creation
o Clergy started doubting morality of doctrines
o Friedrich Nietzsche portrayed Christianity as a religion that glorified weakness

 “War and courage have accomplished more great things than love of thy neighbor”

 Advancements in Science:
o X-ray was discovered by Wilhelm Roentgen
o Marie Curie discovered radium
o Max Planck pioneered the quantum theory of energy
o Albert Einstein published his first papers on relativity
o Thomson and Rutherford explained the atom
o Science through medicine, research, and technological change affected modern life more significantly

than any other intellectual activity

Savvas Ferekides and Chepelle Johnson

The New Sciences and the Church

 Pope Pius IX was the first pope of the “modern science” era
 Pius issued the Syllabus of Errors in which there were many things that were condemned or items that Catholics

were told not to believe or do
 The Syllabus of Errors attacked Protestantism and socialism and was not received well in countries like France

and Gladstone the Prime minister of England at the time out rightly disagreed with it
 Pope Pius IX coined the term of “papal infallibility” in which the Pope was incapable of mistake but only when

talking of the doctrine of the church
 Pope Leo XIII stated that the church would take a stance on the new sciences in which they accommodated the

newfound knowledge.
 Pope Leo believed that Thomas Aquinas’ philosophy of Scholasticism ( the belief that everything can be

explained through religion) should drive the churches’ positions on the ever changing knowledge of the Universe.
 Rerum Novarum- written by Pope Leo protected the right of people to own property and restated the religious

hold on education and the sacrament of marriage
 Pope Leo did not agree with any forms of socialism but did believe in the rights of employees and believed in

class equality
 Due to Pope Leo’s efforts for employee rights new Unions that were affiliated with the Catholic church sprouted

up in many countries
 After many of Pope Leo’s efforts toward a modern society his successor Pius X reversed all of his changes and

rebuked modern society and science
 Meanwhile in modern science many advances were made in atomic theory, quantum physics, radiation, and

subatomic particles
 In atomic theory the work of Thomson and Rutherford discovered more about the atom and its properties

including a positively charged nucleus
 In Radiation Rutherford discovered the cause of radiation, Roentgen discovered the X-ray and Marie Currie

purified radium
 In physics the most signifigant theories were those of Einstein which included his theories of relativity
 Of the above theories the most popular was perhaps his theory of E = mc^2
 Also Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle applied statistics to the study of subatomic particles
 In the field of Psychology the work of Freud and Psychoanalysis frightened and concerned many due to its ideas

of sexuality especially in youths
 Also one of the most important works of this time were those of Darwin that described Evolution of a primitive

species into the human species
 This evolution that Darwin described created a “human” because of natural selection, or survival of the fittest, that

was the best of all of the previous species combined and added to through genetics and beneficial mutations
 The most detrimental thing that Darwin’s evolution produced was Social Darwinism that was championed by

Herbert Spencer
 Spencer believed that whites were in fact a mightier race and more specifically white males
 Because of the Darwinian trait of natural selection Spencer theorized that people who were Asian, Black, or

anything that did not represent white that they were inferior to whites
 From Social Darwinism spawned anti-Semitism and anti-feminism because they were simply not the mightier

beings

Pro-Feminism

Feminism is a range of movements and ideologies that share a common goal, to achieve equality for women, seeking to
establish equal opportunities for women in education and employment.

Women facing social disabilities/disadvantages

 Women in the 19th century faced both legal and social disabilities, they couldn’t hold property and were
given very little education

 Men refused to grant women the right to equal education, as they saw women were only fit for feminine
jobs such as caring for children in the house, nursing, and teaching on lower levels.

 Divorce was difficult during the time but even harder for women who could leave their husband on very
few occasions.

Negatives of suppressing women

 By suppressing women by not giving those more than capable, the right to vote or equal education, men
are just playing with a ticking time bomb that will inevitably blow up with those who oppressed men at
their own demise.

 By suppressing women we are preventing the progress of society not allowing women the chance to help
grow and nourish the community for the better.

Influential women supporting feminism

 Marie Curie was a major feminist who was a great chemist and raised great support for the feminist cause
and defied claims that women can’t handle complex sciences.

 Florence Nightingale proved to be one of the most important factors in the British wars by her great skills
as a nurse proving how useful women can be.

 Many founders of female support parties created a great source of support of the cause.

Feminism proved to be one of the most important movements of the 19th century and had a great impact on the
course of history and raised great controversy in both political and social aspects of life.

Jenna Callison and Brianna Estevez

Antifeminism

 Biology, evolution, and reproduction led intellectuals to concentrate on women’s mothering role
 Women’s interest in the nonrational led them to reassert the traditional view that feeling and the nurturing instinct

are basic to women’s nature
 Darwin believed women were weaker creatures and less able then men
 Huxley claimed in public lectures to have found scientific evidence of the inferiority of women to men
 Karl Vogt has similar views as Huxley on the character of women
 Darwin wrote “The Descent Of Man”, repeating Huxley and Vogt’s ideas
 Freud believed that women were incomplete human beings. He saw the natural destiny of women as motherhood

and the rearing of sons as their greatest fulfillment
 Employers paid women low wages because they assumed that women did not need to live off of what she earned

herself, but could expect additional financial support from her father or husband.
 Women tended to withdrawal from the labor force after being married or having their first child so they did not

have distractions from their duties in the home.
 Women were supposed to make the home a private place of refuge for the man
 Women could hold jobs that required low skill level or adhered to their nurturing natures such as elementary

school teaching, nursing, and work in retail.
 Rearing and nurturing children was a women’s chief task
 Cult of Domesticity- Belief that women should stay at home and should not do any work outside of the home
 Women were expected to attend mass frequently and assure the religious instruction of their children
 Male liberals feared that granting women the right to vote would benefit conservatives because men thought that

priests had undue control over women
 Some women subordinated feminist political issues to national unity and patriotism
 Some women were more sensitive to their class and economic interests over feminist political issues
 Before WWI, only Norway allowed women to vote on national issues
 English prostitutes were subject to the Contagious Diseases Acts which allowed police in certain cities with

military bases to require any women suspected as a prostitutes to undergo an immediate internal medical
examination. The law took no action on the male costumers
 The Contagious Disease Acts assumed that women were inferior to men and treated them as less than rational
human beings.