Practical English Usage

Information Structure Section 25

Lastfo r ever these shoes will.
In a few exclamatory expressions, a noun is fronted before that, but this is
uncom m on in m odern English.

Fool that I was!

3 adverbs, etc: O ff we go!

Many adverbs and adverbial expressions can go at the beginning of a clause
(► 196-198). This often happens w hen we are using the adverbs to structure a
piece of narrative or a description.

Once upon a time there were three little pigs. One day . . . Then . . . Soon after
th a t. . . After dark, . ..

Inside the fro n t door there i s . . . Opposite the living room i s . . . On the right
you can s e e . . . A t the top o f the stairs . . .

Adverb particles are often fronted when giving instructions to small children.
O ff we go! D ow n you come!

Inversion (► 270-271) is necessary after some em phatic fronted adverbs and
adverbial expressions.

Under no circumstances can tickets be exchanged, (not Under no
circumstances tickets can . . .)

Round the corner cam e Mrs Porter.

4 fronting with as or though

Fronted adjectives and adverbs are possible in a structure with as
or though (► 255).

Young as I was, I realised what was happening.
Tired though she was, she went on working.
Fast though she drove, she could not catch them.
M uch as I respect his work, I cannot agree with him.

See also entries on basic word order (► 215), normal order and variations (► 267), 'spacing out' information
in speech (► 299.1), tags (► 299.3) and cleft sentences (► 273-274).
For the use of passive and other structures to bring objects to the front, ►267.3, 67.1.

273 cleft sentences: It was my secretary who .. .

We can emphasise particular words and expressions by putting everything into a
kind of relative clause except the words we want to emphasise: this makes them
stand out. These structures are called ‘cleft sentences’ by gram m arians (cleft
m eans ‘divided’). They are useful in writing (because we cannot use intonation
for emphasis in written language), but they are also com m on in speech.
The em phasis is often contrastive - to contradict a false belief or expectation.

1 preparatory it

In one kind of cleft sentence, we use preparatory it is/was (► 268). The words to
be em phasised are usually joined to the relative clause by that.
Compare:

M y secretary sent the bill to Mr Harding yesterday.
It was m y secretary that sent the bill to Mr Harding yesterday.

(not somebody else)

gram m ar • 273 cleft sentences: It was my secretary who

I t was the bill th a t m y secretary sent to M r Harding yesterday.
(not something else)

It was M r H arding th a t m y secretary sent the bill to yesterday.
(not to somebody else)

I t was yesterday th a t m y secretary sent the bill to Mr Harding.
(not another day)

Negative structures are also possible.
It w asn’t m y h u sb a n d th a t sent the b ill. . .

Who is possible instead of that w hen a personal subject is em phasised.
It was m y secretary who s e n t. . .

W hen a plural subject is em phasised, the following verb is plural (but it is/was
remains singular).

It is the students that are angry, (not . . .
It was his parents who p a id the fees, (not It were his parents . . .)
The verb cannot be emphasised with this structure: we cannot say It was sent

Nor can a complement be emphasised: we cannot say It's Jenny thahMr

2 It is I who It is me th a t. . .

W hen an em phasised subject is a pronoun, there are two possibilities. Compare:
- It is I who a m responsible, (formal)

I t’s m e th a t’s /w h o ’s responsible, (informal)
- It is yo u who are in the wrong, (formal)

It's you that's in the wrong, (informal)
To avoid being either too formal or too informal in this case, we could say, for
example, I ’m the person / the one who's responsible.

274 deft sentences: What I need is a rest.

1 What I need is . . .

In this kind of cleft sentence, the words to be em phasised are connected to a
what-clause (or similar structure) by is/was.

A rest is w hat I need.
A m otorbike is w hat Emily kept in the garden shed.
The words to be em phasised are often p u t last: this gives them even m ore force.
W hat I need is a rest.
W hat Emily kept in the garden shed was a motorbike.
This structure can be used to emphasise a complement.
The secretary is w hat Jake is, actually, ( or Actually, w hat Jake is

is the secretary.)
To em phasise words that refer to people, we use structures like the person who.

The person who kept a motorbike in the garden shed was Emily.
Instead of what or the person, we can use less general expressions.

‘Casablanca’ is a film (that) I watch again a n d again.
You're the w om an (that) I always see in m y dreams.

gram m ar • 274 cleft sentences: What I need is a rest.

Information Structure Section 2 5

A what-c\ause is normally considered to be singular; if it begins a cleft sentence
it is followed by is/was. But a plural verb is som etim es possible before a plural
noun in an informal style.

What we w ant is/are some o f those cakes.

For m ore information about what-clauses, ►236.

2 the place where . . the day when . . the reason why . . .

We can use these expressions to emphasise a place, time or reason.
- Jake spent Tuesday IN LONDON.

London was the place where Jake spent Tuesday.
The place where Jake spent Tuesday was London.
- Jake w ent to London ON TUESDAY.
Tuesday was the d a y w h e n /th a t Jake w ent to London.
The d a y w hen Jake went to London was Tuesday.
- Jake went to London TO SEE TOM.
To see Tom was the reason w hy Jake went to London.
The reason w hy Jake went to London was to see Tom.
The place, the day or the reason can be dropped in an informal style, especially
in the middle of a sentence.
Spain's where we're going this year.
W hy I'm here is to talk about m y plans. (More formal: The reason why I ’m

here is . . .)

3 emphasising verbs: What he did was .. .

W hen we want to emphasise a verb (or an expression beginning with a verb), we
have to use a more complicated structure with w h a t. . . do. Infinitives with and
without to are possible.

W hat he d id was (to) scream. W hat she does is (to) write science fiction.
Instead of an infinitive, we often use subject + verb in an informal style.

W hat she does is, she writes science fiction.
W hat I ’ll do is, I'll phone Jack and ask his advice.
In a very informal style, is/was may be dropped.
W hat I'll do, I'll have a word with Dan.
W hat they did, they took his money and then ju st vanished.

4 emphasising a w hole sentence: What happened was th a t. . .

A whole sentence can be given extra emphasis by using a cleft structure with
what and the verb happen. Compare:

The car broke down.
W hat happened was (that) the car broke down.

5 other structures -»

All (that), and expressions with thing, can be used in cleft sentences.
A ll I w ant is a home somewhere. A ll you need is love.
A ll (that) I did was (to) touch the window, a nd it broke.
The only thing I remember is a terrible pain in m y head.
The fir s t thing was to m ake some coffee.
M y first journey abroad is som ething I shall never forget.

gram m ar • 274 cleft sentences: What I need is a rest.

Time expressions can be emphasised with It was not u n til. . . and It was only
when...

It was not until I met you that I knew real happiness.
It was only when I read her email that I realised what was happening.
At the beginning of a cleft sentence, this and that often replace em phasised here
and there. Compare:
- You pay here.
This is where you pay. (or Here is where you pay.)
- We live there.
T h a t’s where we live, (or There’s where we live.)

For more about question-word clauses, ►266.
For more general information about sentence structure and the arrangement of information
in sentences, ►267.

275 ellipsis (leaving words out): introduction

We often leave out words to avoid repetition, or in other cases when the
m eaning can be understood w ithout them . This is called ‘ellipsis'.

1 replies

In replies we usually avoid repeating information that has just been given.
‘W hat time are you coming?' ‘A bout ten.’ (More likely th an ‘I'm coming
about ten'.)
‘Who said that?’ ‘Jack.’ (More likely than ‘Jack said that’.)
‘How m any chairs do you need?’ ‘Three.’ (More likely than ‘I need
three chairs'.)
‘She's out this evening?’ ‘Yes, working.' (More likely than ‘Yes, she's working
this evening.)

2 structures with and, but and or

Repeated w ords are often dropped in co-ordinate structures (► 276).
a knife a n d fo r k (= a knife and a fork)
She was poor b u t happy. (= . . . but she was happy.)

3 at the beginning of a sentence

In informal speech, unstressed words are often dropped at the beginning of a
sentence, if the m eaning is clear. For details, ►277.

Seen Lucy? (= Have you seen Lucy?)
D oesn't know what she's talking about. (= She doesn’t . . .)

4 at the end of a noun phrase

It is som etim es possible to drop nouns after adjectives, noun modifiers and/or
determ iners. For details, ►278.

‘Do you w ant large eggs?’ ‘No, I ’ll have sm all.’ (= . . . small eggs.)
My car isn't working. I ’ll have to use E m ily’s. (= . . . Emily’s car.)
We're going to hear the London P hilharm onic tonight. (= . . . the London

Philharmonic Orchestra.)
‘Which shoes are you going to wear?’ ‘These.’ (= These shoes.)

gram mar • 275 ellipsis (leaving words out): introduction

Information Structure Section 2 5

5 at the end of a verb phrase

Auxiliary verbs are often used alone instead of full verbs. For details, ►279.
7 haven ’t paid,.’ 7 h a ven 't either.’ (= . . . I haven’t paid either.)
She said she’d phone, but she d id n ’t. (= . . . didn’t phone.)

This type of ellipsis can include complem ents that follow the verb.
I was planning to go to Paris next week, but I can’t. (= . . . I can’t go to Paris
next week.)

The same structures are possible with non-auxiliary be and have.
I thought she would be angry, and she was.
He says he hasn't any friends, but I know he has.

6 infinitives

We can use to instead of repeating a whole infinitive. For details, ►280.
‘A re y o u a nd Gillian getting married?’ ‘We hope to.' (= We hope
to get married.)
I d o n ’t dance m uch now, but I used to a lot.

Sometimes a whole infinitive, including to, is left out.
Come when you want. (= . . . w hen you w ant to come.)
‘Have a good time.’ ‘I ’ll try.' (= I’ll try to have a good time.)

7 comparative structures with as and than

We can leave out words after as and than, if the m eaning is clear.
The weather isn’t as good as last year. (= . . . as it was last year.)
I fo u n d more blackberries than you. (= . . . than you found.)

For missing subject or object after as and than (e.g. as was expected), ►256.

8 question-word clauses

Clauses can be dropped after question words.
Somebody has been stealing our flowers, but I d o n ’t know who. (= . . . I don’t
know who has been stealing our flowers.)
Become a successful writer. This book shows you how.

9 that and relative pronouns

In an informal style, the conjunction that is often dropped (► 265); object
relative pronouns can also be dropped (► 234.4).

I knew (that) she did n 't w ant to help me.
This is the restaurant (w hich) I was talking about.

10 reduced relative structures: the tickets available, etc

We can sometimes leave out a relative pronoun and the verb be before
participles, or adjectives such as available, possible. For details, ►237.11.

Who's the girl dancing with your brother? (= . . . who is dancing . . .)
It will not be possible to finish the jo b in the time available.

(= . . . that is available.)

11 be after conjunctions -»

Subject pronouns with forms of be can be left out after certain conjunctions,
especially in a formal style.

Start when ready. (= . . . w hen you are ready.)

grammar • 275 ellipsis (leaving words out): introduction

Though intelligent, he was very poorly educated.
(= Though he was in tellig en t. . .)

When ordering, please send £1.50 for postage and packing.
Phone me i f (it is) necessary. He had a small heart attack while asleep.
I'm enclosing the signed contract, as agreed.
Leave in oven until browned on top.

12 prepositions

In an informal style, prepositions can be dropped in a few tim e expressions
(► 214.2-214.6).

See you (on) M onday night.
We’re staying here (for) another three months.
W hat time shall I come? (More natural than A t w hat time . . .?)

For cases like We need a place to live (in), ►554.

13 pronouns after prepositions

In British English, pronoun objects can sometimes be dropped after
prepositions. This happens, for example, w hen have or with are used in
descriptive structures.

M y socks have got holes in (them).
I ’d like a piece o f toast with butter on (it).

14 abbreviated styles

In certain styles, m any or all non-essential w ords can be dropped.
For details, ►291.

Take 500g butter and place in small saucepan.
Single m an looking fo r fla t Oxford area.
DOG FINDS ROMAN TREASURE

276 ellipsis with and, but and or

1 various kinds of word left out

W hen expressions are joined by and, but or or, we often leave out repeated

words or phrases of various kinds.

a knife and (a) fork antique (furniture) or modern furniture

these m en a n d (these) women in France, (in) Germany or (in) Spain

ripe apples and (ripe) pears She can read, b u t (she) can't write.

The Minister likes golf b u t (the Minister) hates fishing.

We drove (across America), rode (across America), flew (across America) a n d

walked across America.

She was poor but (she was) happy.

The fo o d (is ready) a n d the drinks are ready.

Jake (washed the dishes) a n d Sophie washed the dishes.

We can som etim es drop a verb that is repeated in a different form.

I have always p a id m y bills a nd I always will (pay . . .).

gram m ar • 276 ellipsis with and, but and or

Information Structure Section 25

2 word order

Note that when two verbs, objects, etc are the same, it is not always the second
that is left out. We m ay have to leave out the first to avoid confusion, or to
produce a simpler word order and sentence structure.

Cats (catch mice) a nd dogs catch mice, (not Cats catch mice a nd dogs.)
I can (go) a nd will go.
In informal speech and writing, ellipsis does not usually interrupt the normal
word order of a clause or sentence. Sentences like the following are typical of a
m ore formal style.
Daniel planned and Megan paid fo r the trip. (Less formal: Daniel planned the

trip a nd Megan paid fo r it.)
Kevin likes dancing and Annie athletics. (Less formal: Kevin likes dancing and

Annie likes athletics.)
The children will carry the sm all boxes a nd the adults the large ones.
Megan went to Greece a nd Alice to Rome.
You seem, and she certainly is, ill.

3 other conjunctions

Ellipsis is not norm ally possible after other conjunctions besides and, but and or.
She didn't know where she was when she woke up. (n o t . . . when woke up.)

However, ellipsis of subject pronouns with forms of be is possible in some cases
(e.g. if possible, when arriving), ►115.6, 244.6, 251.5.

4 (and) then

In an informal style, ellipsis is som etim es possible after then, even if
and is dropped.

Daniel started first, (and) then Tom (started).

For singular or plural verbs after expressions with and or or, ►130.4.
For singular and plural verbs with neither . . . nor, ►228.

277 ellipsis at the beginning of a sentence

1 words that can be left out

In informal spoken English we often leave out unstressed words at the beginning
of a sentence if the m eaning is clear w ithout them . Words thatcan be left out
include articles {the, a/an), possessives {my, your, etc), personal pronouns
{I, you, etc), auxiliary verbs {am, have, etc) and the preparatory subject there.

Car's running badly. (= The car's . . .)
Wife’s away. (= My wife’s . . .)
Couldn’t understand a word. (= I couldn’t . . . )
M ust dash. (= I m ust dash.)
W on’t work, you know. (= It w on’t work . . . )
Seen Joe? (= Have you seen Joe?)
Keeping well, I hope? (= You’re keeping w e ll. . .)
Nobody a t home. (= T here’s nobody at hom e.)
Careful what you say. (= Be c a re fu l. . .)

grammar • 277 ellipsis at the beginning of a sentence

Catch up with you later. (= I’ll catch up . . .)
Leave a t h a lf past? (= Should we leave . . .?)
Soon as I wake up, I check m y messages. (= As soon as . . .)
This structure is com m on in advertisem ents. Two real examples:
Thinking o f postgraduate study? Callfo r a place now. (= Are you thinking . ..?)
Speak a foreign language? Speak it better. (= Do you speak . . .?)

2 unstressed forms of be, will, would, have

We do not usually drop words so as to begin sentences with unstressed forms of
be, will, w ould or auxiliary have (though this som etim es happens in messages,
diary entries and other kinds of very informal writing).

I'm com ing tomorrow, or Coming tomorrow, (not Am coming tomorrow.
A m is not stressed.)

I'll see you soon, or See you soon, (not Will sec you soon. Will is not stressed.)
H aven’t seen him. (but not Have scon him. Have is not stressed.)

3 before pronouns: You ready?

Auxiliary verbs can be left out before personal pronouns except I and it.
You ready? (= Are you ready?)
She w ant something? (= Does she w ant something?)
but not I late? d raining?

4 Dutch, aren't you?

Ellipsis is very com m on in sentences that have some sort of tag (► 305-306,
► 299) on the end, especially in British English.

Can’t swim, myself. Like a cigar, I do. Dutch, aren't you?
Getting in your way, a m I? Going cam ping yo u r kids?

278 ellipsis in noun phrases

1 ellipsis after adjectives: boiled, please

A repeated noun can som etim es be dropped after an adjective, if the m eaning is
clear, especially w hen one is talking about com m on kinds of choice.

‘W hat kind o f potatoes would you like?’ ‘Boiled (potatoes), please.’
We haven't got any brown sugar. Only white (sugar).
This often happens after superlatives.
/ think I'll buy the cheapest.

For other structures in which adjectives are used without nouns, ►188.

2 ellipsis after this, numbers, possessives, etc

Nouns can also be dropped after m ost determ iners (► Sections 12-13), if the
m eaning is clear.

This is Ella’s coat, a nd th a t (coat) is mine.
This also happens after num bers, nouns with possessive ’s, own and (an)other.

I'm not sure how m any packets I need, but I ’ll take two (packets) to start with.
Our train’s the second (train) fro m this platform.
You take D an’s car, a nd I'll take Susie’s (car).
‘Can I borrow your pen?’ ‘No, fin d your ow n (pen).’
‘That beer w ent down fa st.’ ‘Have another (beer).’

grammar • 278 ellipsis in noun phrases

Information Structure Section 25

3 well-known names

The last words of well-known names are often dropped.
She's playing the Beethoven with the Scottish N ational tomorrow night.
(= . . . the Beethoven violin concerto with the Scottish National Orchestra . . . )
He's staying a t the Hilton. (= . . . the Hilton Hotel.)
W e’re going to see ‘H am let' a t the M ermaid. (= . . . the M ermaid Theatre.)

W hen we talk about people’s hom es, and about shops and offices, possessives
are often used without following nouns.

We spent the weekend at Jack and Emily's.
Could you pick up some chops fro m the butcher’s?
I'm going to call in a t the doctor's on the way home.

4 other situations

Note that nouns are not normally dropped in other situations.
Poor little boy! ( not Poor little!)
The m ost im portant thing is to keep calm, (not The m ost im portant is to . . .)

279 ellipsis after auxiliary verbs

1 auxiliary instead of complete verb phrase

We can avoid repetition by using an auxiliary verb instead of a complete verb
phrase, if the m eaning is clear. The auxiliary verb usually has a ‘strong’
pronunciation (► 315), and contractions (► 337) are not normally used
except in negatives.

‘Get up.’ ‘I a m /aem/.’ (= I am getting up.)
He said he’d write, but he h a sn ’t. (= . . . h asn ’t written.)
I ’ll come and see you when I can. (= . . . can come and see you.)
‘Shall I tell him w hat I think?’ ‘I w o u ld n ’t if I were you.’
Do can be used before ellipsis if there is no other auxiliary to repeat.
I m ay come to London. I'll phone you if I do.
He said he would arrive before seven, and he did.
Other words, as well as the rest of the verb phrase, can be left out
after the auxiliary.
I can’t see you today, but I can tomorrow. (= . . . I can see you . . .)
‘I’ve forgotten the address.’ 7 have too.’
‘You’re not trying very hard.’ 7 a m .’
‘You w ouldn't have won if I h adn't helped you.’ ‘Yes, I w ould (have).’
This also happens after non-auxiliary be and have.
‘I'm tired.’ 7 am too.’ ‘W ho’s the driver?’ 7 a m .’
‘Who has a dictionary?’ 7 have.’

2 short answers, etc: Yes, I have.

Ellipsis is used regularly in short answers (► 308), reply questions (► 307) and
question tags (► 305-306).

‘Have you finished?’ ‘Yes, I have.’
7 can whistle through m y fingers.’ ‘Can you, dear?’
You d o n ’t w ant to buy a car, do you?

gram m ar • 279 ellipsis after auxiliary verbs

3 so am I, etc

Ellipsis also happens after so, neither and nor (► 309). Note the word order.
‘I've forgotten the address.’ ‘So h ave I.’
She doesn't like olives, and neither d o I.

4 ellipsis before complete form: If you can, call me . . .

Ellipsis normally happens w hen an expression is used for a second time, after
the complete form has already been used once (see above examples). However,
it can som etim es h appen the other way round. This is com m on in sentences
beginning with if.

I f you can, call m e when you arrive.
I f you could, I ’d like you to help m e this evening.
I f you prefer, we can go tomorrow instead.

5 more than one auxiliary: I could have been.

W hen there is m ore than one auxiliary, ellipsis usually happens after the first.
‘You w ouldn't have enjoyed the film .’ 'Yes, I w ould.’ (= . . . I would have
enjoyed the film.)

However, m ore auxiliaries can be included. The first is stressed.
‘Could you have been dreaming?’ ‘I suppose I co u ld / COULD h a ve / COULD
have been.'

We often include a second auxiliary verb if it has not appeared before in the
same form.

7 think Emily should b e told.' ‘She has been.' (More natural than . . . She has.)
And we normally include a second auxiliary verb after a change of
modal auxiliary.

‘Emily sh o u ld be told.’ ‘She m u st be.’ (More natural than . . . She must.)

6 substitution with do: He m ight do.

In British English, a m ain verb that is left out after an auxiliary can be replaced
by do. For details, ►28.

‘Do you think he’ll phone?’ ‘He m ight d o .’ (AmE . . . He might.)

For do so, ►29.

280 ellipsis: infinitives

1 to used instead of whole infinitive: We hope to.

We can use to instead of the whole infinitive of a repeated verb (and following
words), if the m eaning is clear.

‘Are you a nd Gillian getting married?' ‘We hope to.'
‘Let's go fo r a walk.' 7 d o n ’t w ant to .’
I d on't dance much now, but I used to a lot.
Sorry I shouted a t you. I did n 't m ean to.
‘Somebody ought to clean up the bathroom .’ ‘I'll ask Jack to.’

gram mar • 280 ellipsis: infinitives

Information Structure Section 25

Be and have (used for possession) are not usually dropped.
There are more flowers than there used to be. (not . . .
She h a sn ’t been promoted yet, but she ought to be. (not . . . but she ought-k k )
You've got more freckles than you used to have, (not You've got more freckles

2 ellipsis of whole infinitive: I'll try.

In some cases the whole infinitive can be left out. This happens after nouns
and adjectives.

H e’ll never leave home; he hasn't got the courage (to).
You can't force him to leave hom e if h e’s not ready (to).
It also happens after verbs which can stand alone without a following infinitive.
‘Can you start the car?’ ‘I ’ll try (to).’

3 (would) like, want, etc

We cannot usually leave out to after would like/love/hate/prefer, want and
choose.

'Are you interested in working abroad?’ ‘I ’d like to. ’ (not . . . I'-d-likei)
M y parents encouraged m e to study art, but I did n't w a n t to.

(not . . . I didn't want.)
However, to is often dropped after want, and alm ost always after like, w hen
these are used after certain conjunctions - for instance when, if, what, as.

Come when you w a n t (to). I'll do w h a t I like.
Stay as long as you like.

gram m ar • 280 ellipsis: infinitives

Section 26 Written Texts

INTRODUCTION

spoken and written language

Writers can pause, reflect, recast and revise, producing if they wish material with
a high level of complexity. Speakers, composing in real time, are limited by
working memory capacity in their ability to build up and keep track of elaborate
structures. Equally, readers are far better able than listeners to decode complex
material: one can read as slowly as one likes, backtracking as necessary, but one
cannot listen at o n e’s own speed.

Because of this, writing tends towards 'architectural' structuring, with relatively
dense packaging of information, while speech favours m ore linear, chained
structures, with information-bearing elements more spaced out. The average
length of an English clause in speech is seven words; in formal writing the
average can be double this. Written noun phrases can become very complex,
with determiners, adjectives, nouns and postmodifying structures all clustering
round a head noun. Spoken noun phrases generally contain few modifiers;
subjects most often consist of a single pronoun.

The gap between speech and writing has narrowed a great deal since the 19th
century. In those days formal writing enjoyed very high prestige and could be
extremely elaborate, while informal speech was seen as a kind of low-level
badly-structured ‘poor relation'. Since that time, growing dem ocratisation has
led to increased respect for the language of ‘ordinary people’. M uch m odern
writing is far closer to speech in its structure and vocabulary, and the growth of
informal written com m unication through electronic m edia is helping to narrow
the gap still further.

Nonetheless, speech and writing are separate channels of communication and
each has its own necessary grammatical characteristics. For people - both native
speakers of English and language learners - who need to be able to handle
formal w ritten texts, the conventions of formal writing still have to be learnt.
This is especially the case for those who plan to use English in a university
setting - academ ic English has its own characteristics.

This Section deals with some of the more im portant elements of formal writing,
especially those which affect text construction and comprehension. Note that
som e of w hat is said here naturally applies also to m ore formal types of spoken
text: for example the language of spoken reports, political speeches or lectures.

gram m ar • Section 26 W ritten Texts

Do you know what's wrong with these, and why?

© D ad’s just cut D ad shaving. ►282
© Lucy told Alice she had m ade a bad mistake. ►282.2
© The wall, it needed painting. ►282.3
© The results were disappointing for the third year running, consequently

it was decided to close three of the smaller branches. ►283.1
© He confessed to 114 murders; the police did not believe, however, his

story. ►283.3
© The banks have raised interest paid m onthly rates. ►285.1
© We planned w onderful plans. ►287.1
© Dear Mr James Carter, . . . ►289 Note 6
© D ear Ms Williams, How are you getting on? ►289 Note 13
© She p h oned me. As soon as she arrived. ►293.1
© I asked her w hat tim e it was? ►293.3
© The standard of living of the dock workers, was slowly improving.

►296.1
© Many of them w ere able to begin buying, their own hom es. ►296.1
© The mainly foreign, labourers formed a large part of the work force.

►296.4
© Many commentators declared, that the economy was in serious

trouble. ►296.6
© No one knew, how serious the situation would becom e. ►296.6
© a green red and gold carpet ►296.9
© Have you m et our handsom e, new, financial director? ►296.9
© The truck weighs 3,5 tons. ►296.11

CONTENTS OF THIS SECTION

281 formality 289 correspondence: emails, text
282 pronouns and other proforms messages, etc
283 linking with conjunctions
291 abbreviated styles
and adverbials 292 headlines
284 discourse markers in writing 293 punctuation: full stop, question
285 reading com plicated structures
286 paragraphs mark and exclamation mark
287 repetition 294 punctuation: colon
288 academ ic writing 295 punctuation: semi-colon
289 correspondence; letters 296 punctuation: comma
297 punctuation: dash
298 punctuation: quotation marks

gram m ar • Section 26 W ritten Texts

281 formality

1 formal and informal language

Most people speak and write in different ways on different occasions. In some
languages, for example, there are very complicated rules about how to speak to
older or m ore im portant people. English does not have a system of this kind.
However, there are some words and structures which are mostly used in formal
situations, when people are careful about how they express themselves: for
example in official notices, business letters or reports, m eetings or conferences,
or polite conversations with strangers. And some words and structures are
mostly used in informal situations: for example in conversations with friends, or
emails to o n e’s family. Writing is m ore often formal, and speech is m ore often
informal, but informal writing and formal speech are used when the situation
makes them preferable.

Customer toilets are a t the rear o f the building, (printed notice in an
Oxfordshire petrol station)

The toilets are outside round the back, (handwritten notice in the same petrol
station, put up perhaps because the m anager felt this would be easier for
some of his customers to understand)

Most words and expressions are neither formal nor informal, but neutral -
English speakers do not have to know two ways of saying everything.

2 grammar

Some grammatical structures have different formal and informal versions.
For example, contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives (► 337) are com m on in
informal speech and writing. Compare:

FORMAL: I t has gone. It is n o t possible.
INFORMAL: It's gone. It isn 't possible.
Prepositions come at the end of certain structures in informal language (► 209).
Compare:
FORMAL: In which century did he live?
INFORMAL: Which century did he live in?
Some relative structures are different (► 234). Compare:
FORMAL: The m an w hom she married . . .
INFORMAL: The m an she married . . .
Some determiners are followed more often by singular verb forms in formal
language, and by plural forms in informal language (► 156.2, 157.2). Compare:
FORMAL: Neither o f us likes him.
INFORMAL: Neither o f us like him.
Subject and object forms of pronouns (e.g. I and me) are used differently in
formal and informal language (► 174). Compare:
- FORMAL: It was she who first saw w hat to do.
INFORMAL: It was her th a t first saw w hat to do.
- FORMAL: W hom did they elect?
INFORMAL: Who did they elect?

gram m ar • 281 formality

Written Texts Section 2 6

Ellipsis (leaving out words, ►275-280) is m ore com m on in informal language.
Compare:
- FORMAL: H ave y o u seen M r Andrews?

INFORMAL: Seen Jack?
- FORMAL: We think th a t it is possible.

INFORMAL: We think it's possible.

For a note on formal and informal vocabulary, ►333
For structures used in polite requests and questions, ►310-312.
For formal and informal ways of using people's nam es and titles, ►326.
For the language used in particular social situations, ►329.
For discriminatory and offensive language, ►335. For slang, ►334.
For the use of out-of-date gram m ar and vocabulary in ceremonies and other situations, ►318.10.

282 pronouns and other proforms

1 avoiding unnatural/ungrammatical repetition

When we refer again to a person or thing that has already beenmentioned, we
normally use a pronoun (e.g. he, she, it) insteadof repeating the original noun
phrase. W hen the reference is very close to the original mention, repetition
(unless there is a special reason for it) is usually not only unnatural,
but ungrammatical.

Rachel changed herjob because she was unhappy with the conditions.
(More norm al than . . . because Rachel was unhappy with the conditions.)

The suggestion was understandably ignored: the m anagem ent
disapproved o f it.
(More norm al than . . . the managem ent disapproved o f the suggestion.)

There were times when Cartwright hated himself.

This kind of thing happens with other words besides nouns.
He did not smoke, but his wife did. (More norm al than . . . but his
wife smoked.)
They were not sure whether the road was open, but they believed so.
(More normal than . . . they believed that the road was open.)
The Royal Hotel was highly recommended, so the party agreed to stay there.
(More norm al than . . . to stay a t the Royal Hotel.)

However, repetition is necessary and norm al w hen alternatives are discussed.
She was offered potatoes or rice, a nd decided on rice.
The only options were to dance or to go fo r a walk: they w ent fo r a walk.

For more details, ►275-280 (ellipsis) and ►585 (so). -»

2 avoiding ambiguity

W hen pronouns such as he, she, it are used, it is im portant to make sure the
reference is clear.

Lucy told Alice she had made a bad mistake. (Who made the mistake?)
Here is a note from the Independent new spaper apologising for confusing
readers the day before.

grammar • 282 pronouns and other proforms

Pronoun soup again on Wednesday

Ch r is t in a P a t t e r s o n com m ented on a row betw een Iain D uncan
Smith and George O sborne. ‘‘But he did, according to one source,
tell the Chancellor that he was ‘not prepared to tolerate’the ‘appalling’
way he treated his departm ent, and that he should ‘show m ore
respect’. His staff, he said, ‘did not deserve to be treated in such an
arrogant way’."

The w ords ‘h e ’and 'his' appear seven times. The first, second, fourth,
sixth and seventh times, they m ean Mr Duncan Smith; the third and
fifth times, they m ean Mr Osborne. More than once, the reader pauses
to work out who 'h e ’ is. •

Guy Keleny, The Independent (adapted)

For more about the use of this/that and it (referring to things that have just been mentioned), ►145.

3 avoiding duplication

In writing and more formal speech, English (unlike some languages) does not
normally use a pronoun to repeat a noun phrase that comes in the same clause.

The wall needed painting, ( not The wall, it needed painting.)
Good m orning Jack. I spoke to Professor Anson yesterday.

(More natural than . . . Professor Anson, I spoke to him yesterday.)
However, this kind of repetition is com m on in informal speech, w hen people
announce a topic and then make a sentence about it (► 272).

Thatfriend o f your mother's - she's on the phone.
Your bicycle wheels - why d on't we p u t them in the garden shed?

283 linking with conjunctions and adverbials

1 the difference

C onjunctions (► Section 20) make gram m atical and m eaning connections: they
join clauses into sentences, and show the relationship between them. Some
conjunctions:

and, but, or, so, before, after, when, as soon as, because, since, although,
if, that

W hen a conjunction com es betw een two clauses in writing, there is normally
either no p u n ctu atio n (if the clauses are short) or a com m a (,) before the
conjunction if they are longer.

The Minister paused briefly before he started to speak.
The results were disappointing fo r the third year running so it was decided to

close three o f the smaller branches.
Adverbials can make m eaning connections, but they do not make gram m atical
connections: they do not join clauses into sentences. Some adverbials:

however, then, therefore, meanwhile, consequently, in fact, also, as a result,
on the other hand, indeed

grammar • 283 linking with conjunctions and adverbials

Written Texts Section 2 6

W hen an adverbial com es betw een two clauses, there is normally either a full
stop (.) or a sem i-colon (;) before it in careful writing, because the clauses are
still grammatically separate.

The Minister paused briefly; then he started to speak, ( o r The Minister paused
briefly. Then he started to speak.)

The results were disappointing fo r the third year running; consequently, it was
decided to close three o f the smaller branches, ( o r The results were
disappointing fo r the third year running. Consequently, it was decided to
close three o f the smaller branches.)

2 but and however

B ut is a conjunction; however is an adverbial. Note the difference in
punctuation before these words.

It was cold, b u t it was pleasant.
It was cold. However, it was pleasant, or It was cold; however, it was pleasant.

(better than It was cold, however . . .)
Note that we also put a comma after however.

For m o re a b o u t but, however, although an d though, ►371.

3 position

Conjunctions always begin clauses. Adverbials can often go in different places in
a clause (but not between the verb and the object). If an adverbial interrupts the
norm al word order of a clause, it may be separated by two commas.

He confessed to 114 murders, b u t the police did not believe his story.

He confessed to 114 murders; however, the police did not believe his story.
He confessed to 114 murders; the police, however, did not believe his story.
He confessed to 114 murders; the police did not, however, believe his story.
He confessed to 114 murders; the police did not believe his story, however.

Adverbials expressing contrast often have commas after them.
They were becoming increasingly discouraged. However, they
continued walking.
Income is satisfactory; on the other hand, expenditure has
increased alarmingly.

Yet is not usually followed by a comma.
It was cold, yet it was pleasant, ( n o t . . .-yetj- it was pleasant.)

4 one-clause sentences

Sometimes a single clause with a conjunction is w ritten as a separate sentence.
Some people feel this is incorrect, but it is norm al in question-and-answ er
sequences, or w hen a writer wishes to give extra em phasis to a clause.

Why are we in financial trouble? Because the banks lent money
to the wrong people.

He was charming. B u t he was totally w ithout a conscience.

For however as a con ju n ctio n (e.g. However we travel, we have to go through London), ►252.

grammar • 283 linking with conjunctions and adverbials

284 discourse markers in writing

Discourse markers are words and expressions which help to structure spoken
exchanges and w ritten text (e.g.first o f all, on the other hand, in any case,
to sum up). English has a very large num ber of these. Some are used in all kinds
of discourse, some mosdy in formal writing, and others mainly in informal
speech. Those that are most com m on in writing are discussed here; for
discourse m arkers in speech, ►301. Most discourse m arkers are adverbs or
adverbial expressions; some are conjunctions. For differences in punctuation
and other points, ►283.
Discourse markers can communicate several things:
• ‘What am I talking about?’ Discourse m arkers can introduce or clarify a

topic, and show divisions and changes of topic.
• ‘What am I doing?’ They can show the type of com m unication that is

going on.
• attitude They can show a w riter's attitude to w hat he or she is saying, or to

the read er’s expectations.

1 What am I talking about?

Some discourse m arkers say w hat a writer is about to focus on, and may show a
link with previous discussion. Others show subdivisions and changes of topic.

focusing: with reference to; regarding; as regards; as fa r as . . . is/are
concerned

With reference to your letter o f 17 March, I am pleased to inform you . . .
Regarding the proposal to reinvest all profits, it was felt that further discussion

was needed.
As regards other aspects o f social policy, the government o f the day was under

great pressure to improve health care.
As f a r as heart disease is concerned, saturated fats are considered to be a

principal danger.

subdividing: first o f all; firstly, secondly, etc; in the first place;
before turning to; lastly; finally

First o f all, it is im portant to distinguish two m ain types o f problem. Secondly,
solutions to both need to be evaluated.

Before turning to the question o ffinance, the directors discussed m inim um
staffing levels.

Finally, it is appropriate to m ention the contribution o f his fam ily to his
success.

new subject: turning now to . . .

Turning now to his years in America, we will trace his gradual acceptance by
the scientific establishment.

returning to previous subject: to return to the previous point

To return to the previous point, it would be a mistake to overlook the basic
need fo r research.

grammar • 284 discourse markers in writing

Written Texts Section 2 6

summing up: in conclusion; to sum up; briefly; in short

In conclusion / To sum up, it seems clear that none o f the factors already
discussed contributed to the spread o f the epidemic.

Briefly, three senators have been accused o ffraud, bribery and tax evasion in
the past three years, but they have all been cleared o f these charges
by other senators.

In short, the decision to invade was a disastrous error o fjudgement.

What am I doing?

Some discourse markers make it clear w hat kind of com m unication is going on.

generalising and exceptions: on the whole; to a great extent;
to some extent; in general; in all/m ost/m any/som e cases; broadly speaking;
apartfrom; exceptfor

On the whole / In general, people like to help others.
On the whole / In general, the higher an individual is in the social strata the

less likely he or she is to be arrested, prosecuted and (if prosecuted)
fo u n d guilty.
In som e cases, an unhappy childhood can lead to criminal behaviour.
To som e extent, people’s religious views tend to reflect those o f their parents.
Broadly speaking, trees can be divided into two groups: evergreen
and deciduous.
Central European languages, exceptfo r / apa rt fr o m Hungarian, are related to
each other.

showing a logical or causal connection: consequently; therefore;
as a result; so; then

Atmospheric pressure is lower a t altitude. Consequently, climbers can fin d it
difficult to get enough oxygen.

Unfortunately, your exam ination marks did not reach the required standard.
Therefore we are unable to offer you a place.

His first novel was a remarkable success. As a result, he was offered a contract
to write a sequel.

showing similarity: similarly; in the same way; ju st as

Russia relies on its grain harvests to feed its population. Sim ilarly / In the
sam e way, India a nd China are dependent on rice.

Just as some children have imaginary friends, others invent complicated past
events that never happened.

showing a contrast: nevertheless; nonetheless; despite this/that; yet;
however; in spite o f this/that

The Greeks and Romans had no symbol fo r zero. Nevertheless/Nonetheless,

they made remarkable progress in mathematics.

Theirfather died when they were small. In spite o f that / Despite that, they

had a happy childhood.

England has occasional heavy snowfalls in January and February. However,

most winters are relatively mild. ->

grammar • 284 discourse markers in writing

balancing contrasting points: on the one hand; whereas; while;
on the other hand

On the one hand, we need to reduce costs. On the other hand, investment in
research is a crucial priority.

Arranged marriages are common in m any Middle Eastern countries. In the
West, on the other hand, they are unusual, ( n o t . . . on the contrary, they

He liked the mountains, whereas/w hile his wife preferred the sea.

persuading: after all (► 361)

It is scarcely surprising that he chose a military career. After all, his father and
both his grandfathers were professional soldiers.

contradicting: on the contrary; quite the opposite

The violin is not easy to play well. On the contrary, it is one o f the most
challenging instruments.

Do not be afraid that people will look down on you because o fyour regional
accent. Quite the opposite, in some professions your accent m ay be your
most interesting and valuable possession.

concession: it is true (that); certainly; granted; if; may; o f course

counter-argument: nevertheless; nonetheless; however; even so; but; still;
all the same

These expressions are often used in a three-stage argument structure:
1. We say som ething that points in a certain direction.
2. We agree (the concession) that there are facts that point in the other direction.
3. But we finish (the counter-argum ent) by going back to the original position.

. . . cannot agree with colonialism. It is true that the British m ay have done
some good in India. Even so, colonialism is basically evil.

He was incapable o f lasting relationships with women. Certainly, several
women loved him, and he was married twice. A ll the same, the women
closest to him were invariably deeply unhappy.

Very fe w people understood Einstein’s theory. O f course, everybody had heard
o f him, a n d a fa ir num ber o f people knew the word ‘relativity’. B u t hardly
anybody could tell you w hat he had actually said.

His poetry was popular, and, i f difficult to understand, nonetheless had a good
deal o f charm.

Note the use of certainly and o f course in the above examples. W hen they are
used in this way, an experienced reader knows that they will be followed by but,
all the same or a similar expression.

adding: moreover; furthermore; further; in addition; w hat is more;
also; besides

Air travel is tiring. M oreover/Furthermore, it is generally uncomfortable
and expensive.

gram m ar • 284 discourse markers in writing

referring to the hearer’s/reader’s expectations: in fact; actually

These expressions introduce inform ation that will contradict (usually) or
perhaps confirm what the hearer or reader thinks.

It is generally believed that Marquez died in the civil war. In fa c t / Actually,
recent research shows that he survived a nd fled to Bolivia, where . . .

4 reporting verbs showing attitude

Some reporting verbs can show the w riter's attitude to w hat is being reported.
Suggest and im ply make it clear that h e/sh e is not reporting definite facts.
Claim often throws doubt on w hat follows.

These findings suggest/im ply that a cure fo r the comm on cold m ay be close.
The Minister claim s that the new working practices will increase efficiency

by 35%.
Allege is com m on in reports of unproved criminal accusations.

It is alleged that, during the night o f June 17th, Hawkins broke into the factory.

285 reading complicated structures

Language learners (and many native-speaker readers) can have trouble reading
long and complicated sentences. Certain kinds of structure, in particular, can
slow down unskilled readers, and perhaps cause them to get lost, so that they
lose sight of 'w here a sentence is going’. This is often the case w hen sentences
begin with complex noun phrases.

1 complex noun phrases: premodification

Written noun phrases can be very elaborate, with various kinds of premodifier
(determiners, adjectives, participles and nouns) coming before the head noun.

The only efficientfunctioning X-Ray machine was in constant demand.
Premodifiers can have their own premodifiers, which adds to the complexity.

The only really efficient fully-functioning high-speed X-Ray machine was in
constant demand.

But note that premodifiers cannot usually be followed by their own
postmodifiers.

a broken promise
a cynically broken promise (but not a broken for political advantage promise)
interest rates
short-term interest rates ( but n o t interest paid m onthly rates)

2 complex noun phrases: postmodification

Postmodifiers (e.g. prepositional phrases or relative clauses) can m ake noun
phrases even more complex and difficult to process efficiently.

The only really efficientfully-functioning high-speed X-Ray machine in the
hospital that nurses could use was in constant demand.

The strikes on a num ber o f airlines in recent months, which have caused
serious disruption to travellers, are likely to continue if agreement
is not reached.

grammar • 285 reading complicated structures

Written Texts Section 2 6

3 nominalisation and coordination: Daniel's failure

Writing often nominalises (expresses as nouns) elements which in speech would
be expressed in other ways. This, too, makes for complex noun phrases.

D aniel’s fa ilu re to gain a degree caused his parents considerable concern.
(six-word noun phrase as subject)

The spoken equivalent might be, for example:
Daniel, you know, he d id n ’t get a degree, and o f course, his parents, they got
really worried, (one-w ord n o u n phrase as subject)

Co-ordination can make things even more complex.
Daniel's failure to gain a degree, and his subsequent refusal to look fo r
work, caused his parents considerable concern, (fourteen-word noun phrase
as subject)

Possible spoken equivalent:
Daniel, you know, he d id n ’t get a degree, a nd then he wouldn't do anything
about getting a job, and o f course, his parents, they got really worried.

4 clause subjects: getting up early

W hen the subject is a participle clause or a w hat-clause, this can also make the
overall structure m ore difficult to follow.

Getting up very early in the m orning typically makes people feel quite
unnecessarily superior.

W hat A n n a 's little sister w anted above everything else in the world was
a horse.

5 Why do these structures make reading difficult?
breaking things up

Complex noun phrase structures can cause readers to lose sight of the basic
subject-verb relationship. This is particularly the case with heavy post­
modification: the head noun may be separated from its verb by other nouns and
verbs, and a non-fluent reader may struggle to see which noun goes with
which verb.

The strikes on a num ber o f airlines in recent months, which have caused
serious disruption to travellers, are likely to continue if agreement is not
reached, (five other nouns and another verb between the head noun
and its verb)

That picture o f the children standing in fro n t o f the palace talking to the
Prime M inister impressed everybody. (It was not the children, the palace or
the Prime Minister that impressed everybody.)

Pasteur’s discovery that microscopic bacteria caused diseases revolutionised
medicine. (It was not the bacteria or the diseases that revolutionised
medicine.)

A Liverpool m a n who lives alone exceptfo r his cat has ju st won the lottery.
(The cat has not won the lottery.)

These structures can create confusing-looking pairs of verbs.
A bus which ran downhill out o f control after its brakes fa ile d crashed into a
factory wall, dam aging the premises a nd slightly injuring several passengers.

grammar • 285 reading complicated structures

Unlike speech (► 299.1), formal writing does not allow subjects to be repeated
by pronouns.

M inisterj-iHmpressed everybody,

6 leaving out that: people Martin knew well

W hen that (or another relative pronoun) is left out, this can cause further
problems for readers who are not used to formal written texts, especially if their
language does not work in the same way. For example, it can bring two noun
phrases together in confusing ways.

Several people M artin knew well when he was at university years before had
now become prom inent members o f the government. (= . . . people th at
M artin knew . . .)

The m a n the terrorists bought the guns fro m was an undercover police officer.
Extra difficulty can be caused w hen relative clauses end in prepositions.

The spanner the service engineer was attem pting to tighten the windscreen nuts
w ith was the wrong size.

Dropping the conjunction that can also make the structure of a sentence
less clear.

The w om an insisted she thought the police officer understood she was lost.
(that omitted three times)

7 reduced relative clauses: the objects recovered

Reduced relative clauses (► 237.10) can make sentences particularly
hard to read.

M any o f the objects recovered by the police were fo u n d to have been stolen
fro m homes in the neighbourhood. (= . . the objects that
were recovered . . .)

Two wolves seen roam ing in the N ew Forest are believed to have escaped from
a nearby private zoo. ( = ' . . . wolves that have been seen . . .’)

Regular past participles look the same as past tenses, and this can
cause confusion.

A num ber o f the children asked fo r comments on the proposals to expel some
immigrants told the police they disagreed. (The children didn’t ask for
com m ents: the m eaning is '. . . the children who were asked . . . told . . .’.)

8 embedded adverbial clauses

Sometimes an adverbial clause is put into the middle of another clause,
separating the subject from its verb.

A m i, w hen shefin a lly m anaged to go to sleep,(hadja series o f bad dreams.

(The government), i f recent reports can be trusted, (has/decided not to raise
interest rates.

In these structures, confusingly, a noun may not be the subject of a verb that
com es just after it.

Mr Andrews, when he saw the police officer, started running as fa st as
he could. (It was not the police officer who started running.)

grammar • 285 reading complicated structures

Written Texts Section 2 6

The M anaging Director, after he had completed his discussions with the bank
manager, drew a large sum o f m oney out o f the bank and caught the next
plane to Paris. (A learner might think that it was the bank m anager who
took the money and went to Paris.)

9 heavy indirect object

A heavy indirect object can create a large gap betw een the verb and its direct
object, which can also m ake the structure difficult to follow.

She gave all the people who had helped her with her research copies
o f her book.

10 complicated negative structures

In both speech and writing, putting together several negative items can
cause confusion.

It was n o t that Emily d id n ’t believe that Jack had n o t been telling the truth.
(Did she think he had or not?)

There is no sound basis fo r denying reports that no members o f the expedition
fa ile d to reach their goal. (Did they all get there?)

11 reporting expressions: the man who Anna had said would tell us

Complicated structures can be produced when reporting expressions are
included in sentences.

We were unable to fin d the m an who A n n a h a d said would tell us about
the church.

They spent none o f them could rem em ber how m uch m oney on their trip.

12 more examples

Here are some m ore examples of the structures discussed in this entry, most of
them taken from authentic written sources. It might be interesting to consider
why each one might cause difficulty to an unskilled reader.

A picture a schoolboy bought fo r £5 has turned out to be worth £10,000.
Money makes money, and the money money makes makes money.

(B enjam in Franklin)

Pictures o f the baby the judge ordered should not be identified by reporters

appeared in a Sunday newspaper.

A young civil servant arrested after shootings on Tyneside left one person dead

is to be charged with murder.

Police called to a house in Hampshire after neighbours reported cries fo r help

fo u n d 18-year-old M F stuck in a small toilet w indow after being locked out

o f his home.

Three immigrants returned to their countries by the authorities are to appeal

against their deportation.

A 24-year-old labourer who was arrested in Trafalgar Square when he

allegedly attem pted to knife a traffic warden is said to have injured

three policemen.

The rebel leader fo u n d out that in spite o f the precautions o f the soldiers he had

bought the guns fro m the police had planted an informer am ong them.

Police hunting thieves who dum ped a ten-month-old baby in an alley after

fin d in g him inside a car they stole have charged two teenage boys. -*

grammar • 285 reading complicated structures

One way o f deciding w hat to do if you have difficulty in deciding your next
course o f action is to toss a coin.

If predictions that the British National Party will gain at least one seat when
the European Parliament election results are announced tonight are
accurate, m any Labour MPs will see it as a political disaster grave enough to
spark a major revolt.

But what bothered him more than what the files that were in the drawer could
contain was the feeling that something was certainly missing.

Taking one's break out o f season when everyone else is working can save one a
great deal o f money.

M any o f the gold and silver objects excavated fro m the 3000-year-old royal
tombs resemble items o fjewellery still m ade today by craftsmen trained in
the traditional skills.

It is not unlikely that the ongoing investigation will show that the allegations of
corruption against the President are not withoutfoundation.
(Is the President probably corrupt?)

The report will look into claims the design o f the courthouse the men escaped
from was atfault.

Further details emerged shortly after the clergyman at the centre o f the dispute
about anti-capitalist protesters camped outside St Paul’s Cathedral broke a
week’s silence to defend the decision to close the cathedral.

M illennium Dome chiefs have refused to discuss reports they ignored advice
attendance figures at the attraction would be lower than hoped. The Sunday
Times says the M illennium Commission warned Dome users the New
M illennium Experience Company its own estimate was between 4.5m
a nd 5m. NMEC repeatedly insisted there would be a t least 7m visitors
this year.

(from a rep o rt on th e e n o rm o u s loss o f m o n ey by th e M illennium D om e, built as a tourist
attraction to celebrate the year 2000)

286 paragraphs

W ritten English text is usually divided into blocks called 'paragraphs', to make it
easier to read. Paragraphs can vary in length, from several hundred words (for
example in literary or academic writing), to a few sentences (for example in
journalism or letters). A paragraph division is usually shown by starting the text
on a new line and 'indenting’ (leaving a space at the beginning of the line).
The paragraph divisions break the material up into easily 'digestible' sections,
providing places where the reader can pause and think for a m om ent if
necessary. And good writers can show the structure of their texts by making
paragraph divisions in suitable places, for example when they move to a new
stage in a story, a new point in a discussion or a new part of a description.

grammar • 286 paragraphs

Written Texts Section 2 6

Sam decided that it was too late to start slimming, an d p u t some more sugar
in his coffee. The w ay things were, he needed all the help he could get.
Everything was going wrong at work, everything had already gone wrong
a t home, and the weather in Edinburgh in Novem ber was lousy. The only
remaining question was: should he com m it suicide now or wait until after
payday and get drunk first?

Three m onths ago everything had seemed so perfect. His boss had told him
that he had an excellentfuture with the firm.

There are a lot o fadvantages to working a t home. You don't have to travel to
yourjob, you can choose your own working hours, you can take a day o ff if
you w a n t to, you don't waste tim e in endless unnecessary meetings, and -
perhaps most im portant o fall -y o u don't have a boss constantly checking up
on you.

On the other hand, it can be lonely working by yourself. W ithout
colleagues around y o u ...

Another practice, com m on in typed letters and docum ents, is to leave a blank
line without indenting.

Dear Sir/Madam
Three m onths ago I sent you an orderfo r a set o fglasses, together with fu ll
paym ent. You wrote acknowledging m y order, and said that the glasses
would be dispatched in 15 days.
I have still not received the glasses, a n d repeated telephone calls to your
office have had no re su lt...

287 repetition

avoidance of repetition

In English, unnecessary repetition is generally avoided. Careful writers try not to
repeat words and structures in the same clauses and sentences without a good
reason. For instance, we do not normally put related nouns and verbs together.

We m ade wonderful plans, or We planned wonderful things.

She wrote an interesting piece, o r She did an interesting piece o f writing.

There are som e fixed expressions which are exceptions: for example sing a song,
live a good life, die a violent death.
Most of the repetitions in the following text would be avoided by a careful writer,
by varying the structure and by careful use of synonyms (e.g. tried/attempted,
summarise / describe briefly, forecast/predict).

grammar • 287 repetition

In this report, I have tried to forecast likely developments over the next three
years. In the first section, I have tried to summarise the results o f the last two
years, a nd I have tried to sum m arise the present situation. In the second
section, I have tried to forecast the likely consequences o f the present situation,
and the consequences o f the present financial policy.
Casual repetition is m ore com m on in informal language, but even in
conversation people often sound monotonous or clumsy if they do not vary their
sentence structure and vocabulary (► 300). Some kinds of repetition are actually
ungram m atical in both writing and speech (► 282.1).

2 deliberate repetition

Writers (and speakers) can of course repeat vocabulary and structures
deliberately. This may be done for emphasis.

That was a very, very unfortunate decision.
The head doctor made a point o f knowing the nam e o f every patient in the

hospital: every m an, every wom an a nd every child.
Structural repetition can show how ideas are similar or related, by using the
same structure for the same kind of item.

First o f all, I wish to congratulate you all on this year's splendid results.
Secondly, I wish to give you some interesting news. A nd finally, I wish to
thank you a ll.. .

3 literary examples

Here are two contrasting examples of repetition used deliberately for literary
purposes. In the first, by John Steinbeck, structures and key vocabulary
(especially nouns and verbs) are repeated and rhythmically balanced in order to
create an impressive (or mock-impressive) effect - to make the story and
characters sound striking and important.

This is the story o f Danny and o f D anny's friends and o f Danny's house. It is a
story o f how these three became one thing so that in Tortilla Flat if you speak
o f D anny’s house you do not m ean a structure o f wood flaked with old white­
wash, overgrown with an ancient untrim m ed rose o f Castile. No, when you
speak o f D anny’s house you are understood to m ean a unit o f which the parts
are men, from which came sweetness and joy, philanthropy, and, in the end, a
mystic sorrow. For D anny's house was not unlike the Round Table, and
D anny's friends were not unlike the knights o f it. A n d this is the story o f how
the group came into being o f how it flourished an d grew to be an organisation
beautiful a nd wise. This story deals with the adventuring o f D anny’s friends,
with the good they did, with their thoughts and their endeavors. In the end, this
story tells how the talisman was lost and how the group disintegrated.

(John Steinbeck, Tortilla Flat)

In contrast, the following text, by Ernest Hemingway, uses a kind of style which
'good’ writers would normally avoid, repeating pronouns and simple structures
in an apparently m onotonous way. Hemingway’s purpose is to show the
simplicity of his hero, an uneducated old fisherman, by using a style that is
supposed to reflect the way he thinks and speaks.

grammar • 287 repetition

Written Texts Section 2 6

He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by
himself He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung
at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his watch in the smacks or
in the turtle boats. He had probably started to talk aloud, when alone, when
the boy had left. But he did not remember.

(Ernest Hemingway, The Old Man and the Sea)

288 academic writing

The writing found in academic journals and similar contexts (for example
research reports, theoretical discussion and debate, historical accounts) is
normally formal in tone, and follows the conventions of formal writing discussed
in other parts of this Section. In particular:

1 vocabulary

Informal wording is usually avoided. Contractions are not used, and 'general-
purpose' w ords like do, have and get are replaced by m ore specific terminology.

Further research will be carried out. (better than . . . will be done)
The team experienced a number o f problems.

(better than .. . had a lot o f problems)
Early investigators obtained ambiguous results.

(better than . . . got ambiguous results)

2 impersonal writing

Academic writing is m ost often im personal, so for example the authors or
researchers may not often appear as subjects of sentences.

This report questions the conclusions o f earlier researchers.
(rather than We question . . .)

Passives are common.
All well-dated Neanderthal sites have been fo u n d to be at least 39,000
years old.

Impersonal structures with it are frequently used.
It is clear th a t . . . It is likely th a t. . . It is im portant to . . .

And academic writers may avoid presenting over-definite conclusions, by using
verbs such as may, suggest, or adjectives such as possible, arguable.

Preliminary results suggest th a t. . . It is possible th a t. . .

3 nominalisation

Nominalisation (expressing actions by nouns, ►285.3) can help to make
writing impersonal.

The discovery o f penicillin transformed the treatment o f bacterial infections.
(rather than When Fleming discovered penicillin . . .)

Chemical analysis o f their bones shows that their diets differed from those o f
modern humans.

grammar • 288 academic writing

4 pre- and post-modifiers

Complex noun phrases may be used to package information, with several pre­

modifiers a n d /o r post-m odifiers (► 285.1-285.2).

accelerating climate change a clear evolutionary pathway

im portant survival information ongoing hydrotherm al activity

the divergence o f the species fro m its apelike cousins

laws o f m otion and gravitation that connected everything in the cosmos

evidence fo r the way in which m irror cells work

brain areas associated with reward

chemical reactions between rock a nd water

5 discourse markers

Academic writers use discourse m arkers (► 284) to make the structure of their
text clear, for instance by signalling points which add to or contrast with what
has come before.

In addition, M RI scans consistently showed tissue abnormalities.
These results, however, m ust be regarded as provisional pending further

investigation.
Note the use offurtherm ore and w hat is more to strengthen an argum ent.
Compare:

Participants completed tests o f endurance. In addition, their lung capacity was
measured, (simply adding information)

A clear relationship was fo u n d between lung capacity and endurance.
Furtherm ore / W hat is more, training which increased endurance was
shown to have a positive effect on lung capacity, (adding another piece of
evidence for the w riter’s claims)

Note also the use of on the other hand to emphasise a contrast. Compare:
Several studies have provided evidence that playing classical music to cows
increases their m ilk yield. However, no similar studies to date have been
carried out on goats, (a different point, but not an em phatic contrast)
Playing classical music to cows has been shown to increase their m ilk
production. Rock music, on the other hand, is fo u n d to result in significantly
reduced yields, (a m ore em phatic contrast)

6 collocations and formulaic language

Academic writing involves two kinds of formulaic language (► 332). One type
consists of the fixed expressions that are commonly used in the particular area
of study concerned, and which anyone writing academic material in that area
needs to be familiar with.

to take a blood sample (medicine)
to draw out / trace out a floor plan (architecture)
communicative competence (linguistics)
The other kind of fixed expressions are those that are used, in any subject of
study, when discussing research, evaluating evidence, developing an argument,
agreeing and disagreeing with published views, and so on. A few examples:
to conduct / carry out research
to com pile/analyse/present data to raise an issue
to p u t forw ard / question / take issue with / challenge / contest /

dismiss: a view / an argument / a theory / a hypothesis / a claim

grammar • 288 academic writing

Written Texts Section 2 6

to make/reject a claim / an assumption
to claim th a t. . . to assert th a t. . . to suggest th a t. . .
to draw a conclusion to prove/disprove solid theoretical reasoning
proof/evidence for/that powerful/persuasive/compelling evidence
sound empirical evidence lack o f evidence little evidence f o r . . .
research findings a strong implication a logical conclusion
on both theoretical and practical grounds
based on unproved hypotheses
broad agreement to take something into account
English, like any language, contains a very large num ber of formulaic
expressions. The m ost im portant thing for students of academ ic writing is to
note, and learn, those that are com m only used for their subject matter, but to
understand that they cannot realistically expect to m aster all of the formulaic
vocabulary of English in a limited time.

289 correspondenceHetters

Traditionally-constructed letters are now m uch less com m on than other forms of
correspondence such as emails. However, it is useful to know the normal
conventions used in English-speaking cultures - for instance, in letters of
application.

1 Put your own postal address at the top on the right or in the centre. Addresses
generally follow the rule of ‘smallest first': house num ber, then street, then town
(and sometimes county) plus postcode. Telephone num bers and electronic
addresses come last. D on’t put your nam e with the address.

2 In formal letters and business letters, put the nam e and address of the person
you are writing to on the left side of the page, starting on the line after
your own address.

3 Put the date on the right, on the line after the address of the person you are
writing to. A com m on way to write the date is to put the num ber of the day,
followed by the m onth and year (e.g. 17 M ay 2005). For other ways (and
differences betw een British and American customs), ►324.

4 Different styles are com m on in formal letters on paper which has the address
ready-printed at the top of the page. For example, the date may be put on the
left, and the address of the person w ritten to may com e at the end of the letter
or of the first page.

5 Begin the letter (Dear X ) on the left. Com m on ways of addressing people are:
• by first nam e (informal): Dear Penny
• by title and surnam e (more formal): Dear Ms Hopkins
• especially to som ebody whose nam e is not known: Dear Sir or Madam,
Dear Sir/M adam , Dear Sir, Dear M adam , Dear Sirs (to a company)

6 Some people like to use the first nam e and surnam e (Dear Penny Hopkins)
w hen writing to strangers or people that they do not know well.
Do not use a tide like M r together with a first nam e ( no t Dear Mr James Carter
or Dear Mr James).

grammar • 289 correspondence: letters

7 After Dear X, p u t a com m a or nothing at all, not an exclamation m ark (!).
A colon (:) is used in American business letters. Either leave an empty line after
Dear X and start again on the left, or start again on the next line, a few spaces
from the left. Do the sam e for each new paragraph. (The first m ethod is now the
most com m on in Britain.)

8 Letters w hich begin with form ulae like Dear Sir(s) or Dear M adam usually finish
Yours faithfully in British English. Formal letters which begin with the person's
nam e (e.g. Dear Ms Hawkins, Dear Peter Lewis) usually finish Yours sincerely.
In American English, com m on endings are Sincerely, Sincerely yours, Yours truly
and Cordially. Other less com m on formulae are (With) best wishes and (With)
kind regards.

9 Sign with your first nam e (informal) or your full nam e (formal), but without
writing any title (M r/M s/D r, etc). Ways of writing one's full name: Luke Forbes,
L Forbes, L J Forbes.
In a formal printed letter, add your full printed nam e after your handw ritten
signature. Friendly business letters are often signed with the first nam e only
above the full printed nam e:

Yours sincerely

Лабе

Luke Forbes

10 On the envelope, put the first nam e before the surname. People usually write a
tide (Mr, Mrs, etc) before the nam e. You can write the first nam e in full
(Mrs Angela Brookes), or you can write one or more initials (Mrs A E Brookes).

11 British people now usually write abbreviated titles, initials, addresses, dates, and
opening and closing formulae w ithout com m as or full stops.

12 American usage is different from British in som e ways:
• Dates are w ritten differently (m onth before day) ►324.
• Americans are often addressed (and sign their nam es) with the first nam e
in full, followed by the initial of a middle nam e (Luke ]. Parker). This is
less usual in Britain.

13 Letter to strangers often being with an explanation of the reason for writing.
Dear X
I am writing to ask . . .

One does not normally begin a letter to a stranger with an enquiry about health.
(not Dear X, How are you gceting on?)

For m ore inform ation about nam es and titles, ►326.
For m ore inform ation about the use of com m as and full stops, ►293, 296.
For m ore inform ation about paragraphing, ►286.

grammar • 289 correspondence: letters

Written Texts Section 2 6

Example of a formal letter and envelope

The Secretary 14 Plowden Road
Hall School of Design Torquay
Devon
39 Beaumont Street TQ6 1RS
London Tel 0742 06538

W4 4LJ 16 June 2016

Dear Sir or Madam

I would be grateful if you would send me information
about the regulations for admission to the Hall School
of Design. Could you also tell me whether the School
arranges accommodation for students?

Your faithfully

Keith р яИ ге г

Keith Parker

The Secretary
Hall School of Design
39 Beaumont Street
London
W4 4U

correspondence: emails, text messages, etc

formal emails: style and layout

Formal emails are similar in style to letters on paper. The w riter’s postal address
and phone num bers, if they are included, follow the signature.

personal messages

Personal m essages sent by email, by (SMS) text messages and other social media

(such as WhatsApp, Twitter, Tumblr, online chatrooms) are usually m uch more

informal in style than letters on paper. Instead of Dear X, they might begin for

example X, Hi, Hi X, Hello X, Good morning X, or with no salutation at all.

Sentence structure m ay be reduced: for example Can’t come because work.

Afterthoughts that are added after the signature (or in following messages) are

often introduced by PS (AmE P.S.), an abbreviation of Latin post scriptum

(= written afterw ards’). People who have forgotten to include an attachm ent

often send it in a follow-up message beginning 'Oops!'. -»

grammar • 290 correspondence: emails, text messages, etc

3 addresses

email addresses are read as follows:

j.harris@ funbiz.co.uk ‘j dot harris at funbiz dot со dot u k'
[email protected] 'emily at log dash farm dot com ’
[email protected] 'the underscore rabbit at coolmail dot g r'

Note also the nam es of symbols in ‘urls’ (internet addresses):

/ 'forward slash’ \ 'backslash' : 'colon’

Example of an informal email

И

To... [email protected]
Cc... new address
Subject:

Hi Phil,

Good to hear from you.

How about 29 or 30 Sept?

I am working like crazy - still a lot to do around the house.
Also signed up for a creative writing course - don't laugh!

Enjoying the village - very interesting world this, but there
are times when they talk a language I don't understand. ©

New address etc below.

Yours
Robin

63 Baker Lane
Carstairs
Yorkshire LS7 3P0
Tel 01466 790256

4 txt msgs (text messages)

A num ber of abbreviations are commonly used in text messages, especially by
younger people. A few examples:

2bsy too busy ajk away from keyboard
asap as soon as possible
btw by the way atm at the moment
for your information
Jyi great cu see you
gr8
gd good
idm I do n ’t m ind

grammar • 290 correspondence: emails, text messages, etc

Written Texts Section 2 6

jk just kidding I8r later
lol laugh out loud ngl not gonna lie
nm never mind np no problem
omg Oh, my God! rn right now
ruok? Are you OK? tbh to be honest
tx, thx thanks

291 abbreviated styles

Some styles of writing and speech have their own special gram mar rules, often
because of the need to save space or time.

1 advertisements and instructions

Small ads and instructions often leave out articles, subject or object pronouns,
forms of be and prepositions.

Single man looking fo r fla t Oxford area. Phone 806127 weekends.
Job needed urgently. Will do anything legal. Call 312654.
Pour mixture into large saucepan, heat until boiling then add three pounds

sugar and leave on low heatfor 45 minutes.

2 notes

Informal notes, to-do lists, diary entries, etc often follow similar rules.
Gone to hairdresser. Back 12.30. Get tickets phone Anna
see Josh 11.00 meeting Em m a lunch

The sam e style is com m on in postcards, emails and text messages.

Hi, Gran

Watching tennis on TV. A good book. Three meals a day.

No washing-up. Clean sheets every day. Everything done

for me. Yes, you've guessed - in hospital!! Only went to

doctor for cold - landed up in hospital with pneumonia!!

If you have time please tell the others - would love some

visits to cheer me up.

Hope to see you.

Love, Amy 14.15

gram m ar «291 abbreviated styles

То joe@ gcom .org.net
Сс
Subject meeting

Hi Joe,
Tell Dan can't manage meeting, papers attached, will fix
new date for next week.

Cheers, Ally

3 commentaries

C om m entaries on fast-moving events like football m atches also have their own
kind of gram m ar. Auxiliaries and other less im portant verbs are often left out.

Goal k ic k . . . A n d the score still Spurs 1, Arsenal 3 . . . that's Pearce . . . Pearce
to Coates . . . good b a ll. . . Sawyer running wide . . . Billings takes it, through
to Matthews, Matthews with a cross, oh, and Billings in beautifully, a good
chance there - and it's a goal!

4 titles, notices, etc

Titles, labels, headings, notices and slogans usually consist of short phrases, not
complete sentences. Articles are often left out, especially in the nam es of
buildings and institutions.

ROYAL HOTEL INFORMATION OFFICE MORE MONEY FOR NURSES!

5 headlines

News headlines have their own special grammar and vocabulary.
For details, ►292.

RECORD DRUGS HAUL AT AIRPORT: SIX HELD FOUR DIE IN M6 BLAZE

For other rules about leaving words out (‘ellipsis'), ►275-280.

gram m ar «291 abbreviated styles

Written Texts Section 2 6

292 headlines

1 special language

Headlines are the short titles above news reports (e.g. dog fin d s r o m a n
TREASURE). English news headlines can be very difficult to understand.

One reason for this is that headlines are often written in a special style, which is
very different from ordinary English. In this style there are some special rules of
grammar, and words are often used in unusual ways.

2 grammar

a Headlines are not always complete sentences. Many headlines consist of noun
phrases with no verb.

MORE WAGE CUTS LUXURY HOTEL DEATH
EXETER MAN’S DOUBLE MARRIAGE BID

b Headlines often contain strings of three, four or m ore nouns; nouns earlier in

the string modify those that follow.

FURNITURE FACTORY PAY CUT PROTEST

Headlines like these can be difficult to understand. It som etim es helps to read

them backwards, furniture facto ry p a y cu t pro test refers to a protest about
a CUT (reduction) in PAY at a FACTORY that m akes FURNITURE.

с Headlines often leave out articles and the verb be.
SHAKESPEARE PLAY IMMORAL SAYS HEADMASTER
SCHOOLBOY WALKS IN SPACE

d In headlines, simple tenses are often used instead of progressive or

perfect forms. The simple present is used for both present and past events.
STUDENTS FIGHT FOR COURSE CHANGES . are fighting . .)
BLIND GIRL CLIMBS EVEREST (= . . . has climbed . . .)

The present progressive is used to talk about changes. Be is usually dropped

BRITAIN GETTING WARMER, SAY SCIENTISTS TRADE FIGURES IMPROVING

e Many headline words are used as both nouns and verbs, and nouns are often
used to modify other nouns (paragraph b above). So it is not always easy to
work out the structure of a sentence. Compare;

US CUTS AID TO THIRD w o rld (= The US reduces its help . . . CUTS is a verb
AID is a noun.)

AID CUTS PROTEST (= There has been a protest about the reduction in aid.
a id and CUTS are both nouns.)

CUTS a id REBELS (= The reduction is helping the revolutionaries. CUTS is a
noun, a id is a verb.)

f Headlines often use infinitives to refer to the future. ->

PM TO VISIT a USTRALIA HOSPITALS TO take few er pa tien ts
For is also used to refer to future m ovements or plans.

TROOPS FOR GLASGOW? (= Are soldiers going to be sent to Glasgow?)

grammar • 292 headlines

g Auxiliary verbs are usually dropped from passive structures.
MURDER HUNT: MAN HELD (= . . . a m an is being held by police.)
SIX KILLED IN EXPLOSION (= Six people have been killed . . .)

Note that forms like HELD, ATTACKED are usually past participles with passive
meanings, not past tenses (which are rare in headlines). Compare:

- AID PROTEST: PRESIDENT ATTACKED (= . . . the President has been attacked.)
AID PROTEST: PRESIDENT ATTACKS CRITICS (= . . . the President has attacked
her critics.)

- BOY FOUND SAFE (= The missing boy has been found safe; he is safe.)
BOY FINDS SAFE (= A boy has found a safe.)

h As and in are often used instead of longer connecting expressions.

HOSPITAL BOSS AXED AS PATIENTS DIE (= . . . because patients have died.)
FOOTBALL MANAGER IN CAR CRASH

i A colon (:) is often used to separate the subject of a headline from w hat is said

about it.
STRIKES: PM TO ACT MOTORWAY CRASH: DEATH TOLL RISES

Quotation marks ('. . .’) are used to show that words were said by som ebody
else, and that the report does not necessarily claim that they are true.

CRASH DRIVER 'HAD BEEN DRINKING’
A question m ark (?) is often used w hen som ething is not certain.

CRISIS OVER BY SEPTEMBER?

For other styles with special grammar, ►291.

3 vocabulary

Short words save space, and so they are very com m on in headlines. Some of the
short words in headlines are unusual in ordinary language (e.g. curb, m eaning
'restrict' or ‘restriction’), and some are used in special senses which they do
not often have in ordinary language (e.g. bid, m eaning ‘attem pt’). Other words
are chosen not because they are short, but because they sound dramatic
(e.g. blaze, which m eans ‘big fire’, and is used in headlines to refer to any fire).
The following is a list of com m on headline vocabulary.

act take action; do something
aid FOOD CRISIS: GOVERNMENT TO ACT

alert military or financial help; to help
allege MORE AID FOR POOR COUNTRIES
appear UNIONS AID HOSPITAL STRIKERS
axe
alarm, warning
FLOOD ALERT ON EAST COAST

make an accusation
WOMAN ALLEGES UNFAIR TREATMENT

appear in court accused of a crime
MP TO APPEAR ON DRUGS CHARGES

abolish, close down; abolition, closure
COUNTRY BUS SERVICES AXED
SMALL SCHOOLS FACE AXE

BA British Airways
BA MAKES RECORD LOSS

grammar • 292 headlines

Written Texts Section 2 6

back support
ban AMERICA BACKS BRITISH PEACE MOVE

bar forbid, refuse to allow something; prohibition
US BANS STEEL IMPORTS
bid NEW BAN ON DEMONSTRATIONS
blast
refuse/refusal to allow entry
blaze HOTEL BARS FOOTBALL FANS
block NEW BAR ON IMMIGRANTS
blow
bolster attem pt
bond JAPANESE WOMEN IN NEW EVEREST BID
boom
boost explosion; criticise violently
brink BLAST AT PALACE
Brussels PM BLASTS CRITICS

call (for) fire
SIX DIE IN HOTEL BLAZE
campaign
cash stop, delay
charge TORIES BLOCK TEACHERS’PAY DEAL
chop
City bad news; discouragement; unfortunate happening
SMITH ILL: BLOW TO WORLD CUP HOPES
-»
give support/encouragem ent to
EXPORT FIGURES BOLSTER CITY CONFIDENCE

political/business association
NEW TRADE BONDS WITH ICELAND

big increase; prosperous period
SPENDING BOOM OVER, SAYS MINISTER

encourage(ment); increase (noun or verb)
PLAN TO BOOST EXPORTS

edge (of disaster)
WORLD ON BRINK OF WAR

the European Union administration
BRUSSELS BANS BRITISH BLACKBERRY WINE

dem and/appeal (for)
CALL FOR STRIKE TALKS
HOSPITAL SCANDAL: MP CALLS FOR ENQUIRY

organised effort to achieve social or political result
MP LAUNCHES CAMPAIGN FOR PRISON REFORM

money
MORE CASH NEEDED FOR SCHOOLS

accusation (by police)
THREE MEN HELD ON BOMB CHARGE

abolition, closure
300 BANK BRANCHES FACE CHOP

London's financial institutions
NEW TRADE FIGURES PLEASE CITY

grammar • 292 headlines

claim (make) a statem ent that som ething is true (especially w hen
there may be disagreement); pay claim dem and for higher
clamp wages
down on SCIENTIST CLAIMS CANCER BREAKTHROUGH
NEW POLICE RACISM CLAIM
clash TEACHERS' PAY CLAIM REJECTED

clear deal firmly with (usually som ething illegal)
Commons POLICE TO CLAMP DOWN ON SPEEDING
con
crackdown quarrel, fight (noun or verb)
crash PM IN CLASH OVER ARMS SALES
curb STUDENTS CLASH WITH POLICE
cut
find innocent
cutback DOCTOR CLEARED OF DRUGS CHARGE

the House of Commons (in Parliament)
MINISTERS IN COMMONS CLASH OVER HOUSING

swindle
TEENAGERS CON WIDOW OUT OF LIFE SAVINGS

firm application of the law
GOVERNMENT PROMISES CRACKDOWN ON DRUGS DEALERS

financial failure
BANK CRASH THREATENS TO BRING DOWN GOVERNMENT

restrict; restriction
NEW PRICE CURBS

reduce; reduction
BRITAIN CUTS OVERSEAS AID
NEW HEALTH SERVICE CUTS

reduction (usually financial)
TEACHERS SLAM SCHOOL CUTBACKS

dash (make) quick journey
deadlock PM IN DASH TO BLAST HOSPITAL
deal
demo disagreement that cannot be solved
ditch DEADLOCK IN PEACE TALKS
dole (BrE)
drama agreement, bargain
drive TEACHERS REJECT NEW PAY DEAL
drop
dem onstration
due 30 ARRESTED IN ANTI-TAX DEMO

abandon
EDUCATION MINISTER DITCHES FEES CUT PLAN

unemployment pay
DOLE QUEUES LENGTHEN

dramatic event; tense situation
PRINCE IN AIRPORT DRAMA

united effort
DRIVE TO SAVE WATER

give up, get rid of; fall (noun)
GOVERNMENT TO DROP CHILD LABOUR PLAN
BIG DROP IN INDUSTRIAL INVESTMENT

expected to arrive
QUEEN DUE IN BERLIN TODAY

grammar • 292 headlines

Written Texts Section 2 6

duo two people
DISABLED DUO ROW ACROSS ATLANTIC
EU
edge the European Union
envoy EU TRADE MINISTERS TO MEET

face move gradually
WORLD EDGES TOWARDS WAR
feud
find ambassador
firm FRENCH ENVOY DISAPPEARS
flak
flare be threatened by
foil HOSPITALS FACE MORE CUTS
fraud STRIKERS FACE SACK
freeze
long-lasting quarrel or dispute
fuel FAMILY FEUD EXPLODES INTO VIOLENCE: SIX HELD

gag (noun) som ething that is found
BEACH FIND MAY BE BONES OF UNKNOWN DINOSAUR
gems
go determined not to change
PM FIRM ON TAX LEVELS
go for
go-ahead heavy criticism
grab GOVERNMENT FACES FLAK OVER VAT

begin violently -»
RIOTS FLARE IN ULSTER

prevent somebody from succeeding
TWELVE-YEAR-OLD FOILS BANK RAIDERS

swindle, deceit
JAIL FOR TICKET FRAUD MEN

keep(ing) prices, etc at their present level;
block(ing) a bank account
MINISTER WANTS TWO-YEAR PAY FREEZE
DRUG PROFITS FROZEN

provide reason for growth (of anger, protest, etc)
PAY FREEZE FUELS UNION ANGER

censor(ship), prevent(ion) from speaking
AFRICAN PRESIDENT ACTS TO GAG PRESS
FURY AT PRESS GAG

jewels
£2M GEMS STOLEN

resign; be lost, disappear
PM TO GO?
4,000 JOBS TO GO IN NORTH

be sold for
PICASSO DRAWING GOES FOR £5M

approval
SCOTTISH ROAD PLAN GETS GO-AHEAD

take quickly or violently
INVESTORS GRAB SHARES IN SCOTTISH COMPANIES

grammar • 292 headlines

grip tight hold; hold tightly
REBELS TIGHTEN GRIP ON SOUTH
gun down COLD WAVE GRIPS COUNTRY

hail shoot
halt TERRORISTS GUN DOWN PRIEST
haul
welcome, praise
head PM HAILS PEACE PLAN

head for/ stop (noun or verb)
to CAR PLANT TO HALT PRODUCTION

heed am ount stolen in robbery, or seized by police or customs
hike TRAIN ROBBERY: BIG GOLD HAUL
RECORD DRUGS HAUL AT AIRPORT
(AmE)
hit lead; leader
hit out at PM TO HEAD TRADE MISSION
hitch COMMONWEALTH HEADS TO MEET IN OTTAWA
hold
move towards
in (the) ECONOMY HEADING FOR DISASTER, EXPERTS WARN
red
pay attention to
jail GOVERNMENT MUST HEED HOUSING CRISIS, SAYS BISHOP
jobless
rise in costs, prices, etc
key INTEREST HIKE WILL HIT BUSINESS

landslide affect badly
launch SNOWSTORMS HIT TRANSPORT

attack (with words)
PM HITS OUT AT CRITICS

problem that causes delay
LAST-MINUTE HITCH DELAYS SATELLITE LAUNCH

arrest; keep under arrest
MAN HELD AFTER STATION BLAST
POLICE HOLD TERROR SUSPECT

in debt; making a financial loss
BRITISH STEEL IN RED

prison
IAll. FOR PEACE MARCHERS

unemployed (people)
THREE MILLIONJOBLESS BY APRIL?

im portant, vital
KEY WITNESS VANISHES

victory by large majority in election
LANDSLIDE FOR NATIONALISTS

send(ing) (satellite, etc) into space; begin(ning) (campaign,
etc); put(ting) (new product) on market
ENVIRONMENT MINISTER LAUNCHES CAMPAIGN
FOR CLEANER BEACHES
BRITISH COMPANY LAUNCHES THROW-AWAY CHAIRS
SPACE TELESCOPE LAUNCH DELAYED

grammar • 292 headlines

Written Texts Section 2 6

lead clue (in police enquiry)
leak NEW LEAD IN NIGHTCLUB MURDER CASE
leap
life unofficial publication of secret information
link PM FURIOUS OVER TAX PLAN LEAKS
loom
Lords big increase
lotto LEAP IN IMPORTS

m ar im prisonm ent 'for life’
m edia LIFE FOR AXE MURDERER
m ercy
m ission connection, contact
mob NEW TRADE LINKS WITH PERU

move threaten to happen
МЕР VAT ON FOOD: NEW PROTESTS LOOM
MP
the House of Lords (in Parliament)
nail LORDS VOTE ON DOG REGISTRATION
net
No 10 the national lottery
DANCING GRANDMOTHER IN RECORD LOTTO WIN
OAP (BrE)
odds spoil
on CROWD VIOLENCE MARS CUP FINAL
opt for
newspapers, radio and TV
GOVERNMENT TIGHTENS GRIP ON MEDIA

intended to save lives
DOCTOR IN MERCY DASH TO EVEREST

delegation (official group sent to conference, etc)
SHOTS FIRED AT UN MISSION

angry crowd; (AmE) organised crime / Mafia
MOBS RAMPAGE THROUGH CITY STREETS
MOB LEADERS HELD

step towards a particular result (often political)
MOVE TO BOOST TRADE LINKS WITH JAPAN

Member of the European Parliament
MEPS WANT MORE PAY

Member of Parliament
MP DENIES DRUGS CHARGE

force somebody to admit the truth
MP NAILS MINISTER ON PIT CLOSURE PLANS

win, capture
TWO SISTERS NET £3M IN POOLS WIN

N um ber 10 Downing Street (the Prime M inister’s residence)
ANOTHER PETITION HANDED IN AT NO 10

old-age pensioner; anybody over retirement age -»
OAPS MARCH AGAINST WAR PLANS

chances, probability
JONES RE-ELECTED AGAINST THE ODDS

about, on the subject of, concerning
NEW MOVE ON PENSIONS

choose
WALES OPTS FOR INDEPENDENCE

grammar • 292 headlines

oust drive out, replace
out to MODERATES OUSTED IN UNION ELECTIONS
over
intending to
NATIONALISTS OUT TO CAPTURE MASS VOTE

about, on the subject of, because of
PROTESTS OVER AID CUTS

pact agreement
pay DEFENCE PACT RUNS INTO TROUBLE
PC (BrE)
peak wages
peer TRANSPORT PAY TALKS BREAK DOWN
peg (BrE)
pensioner police constable
PC SHOT IN BANK RAID
(BrE)
peril high point
pit BANK LENDING HITS NEW PEAK
plant
plea lord; M ember of the House of Lords
pledge PEERS REJECT GOVERNMENT WAGE-FREEZE BAN
PM
poised to hold (prices, etc) at present level
poll BANKS PEG INTEREST RATES
pools
old age pensioner; anybody over retirem ent age
premier PENSIONER SKIS DOWN MONT BLANC
press
press (for) danger
FLOOD PERIL IN THAMES VALLEY
probe
coal mine
PIT TURNED INTO MUSEUM

factory
STEEL PLANT BLAZE

call for help
BIG RESPONSE TO PLEA FOR FLOOD AID

promise
GOVERNMENT GIVES PLEDGE ON JOBLESS

Prime Minister
EGG THROWN AT PM

ready to, about to
TORIES POISED TO MAKE ELECTION GAINS

public opinion survey
TORIES AHEAD IN POLLS

football pools: a form of gambling in which people guess the
results of football matches
SISTERS SHARE BIG POOLS WIN

prime minister
GREEK PREMIER TO VISIT UK

the newspapers
BID TO GAG PRESS OVER DEFENCE SPENDING

urge, encourage, ask for urgently
MINISTER PRESSED TO ACT ON HOUSING
OPPOSITION PRESS FOR ENQUIRY ON AIR CRASHES

investigation; investigate
CALL FOR STUDENT DRUGS PROBE
POLICE PROBE RACING SCANDAL

grammar • 292 headlines

Written Texts Section 2 6

pull out withdraw; pull-out withdrawal
US PULLS OUT OF ARMS TALKS
push for MINISTER URGES PULL-OUT FROM OLYMPICS

quake ask for, encourage
quit SCHOOLS PUSH FOR MORE CASH

quiz earthquake
HOUSES DAMAGED IN WELSH QUAKE
raid
resign, leave
rampage CHURCH LEADER QUITS
rap MINISTER TO QUIT GOVERNMENT
rates
record question (verb)
riddle POLICE QUIZ MILLIONAIRE SUPERMARKET BOSS
rift
rock enter and search; attack (noun and verb), rob, robbery
POLICE RAID DUCHESS'S FLAT
row (BrE) BIG GEMS RAID
rule out
riot
sack (BrE) FOOTBALL FANS RAMPAGE THROUGH SEASIDE TOWNS
saga
scare criticise
scoop DOCTORS RAP NEW MINISTRY PLANS
scrap
seek (bank) interest rates
RATES RISE EXPECTED
-»
bigger than ever before
RECORD LOSS BY INSURANCE COMPANY

mystery
MISSING ENVOY RIDDLE: WOMAN HELD

division, disagreement
LABOUR RIFT OVER DEFENCE POLICY

shock, shake
BANK SEX SCANDAL ROCKS CITY
IRELAND ROCKED BY QUAKE

noisy disagreement, quarrel
NEW ROW OVER PENSION CUTS

reject the possibility of
PM RULES OUT AUTUMN ELECTION

dismiss(al) from job
STRIKING TRAIN DRIVERS FACE SACK

long-running news story
NEW REVELATIONS IN RUNAWAY DUKE SAGA

public alarm, alarming rum our
TYPHOID SCARE IN SOUTHWEST

win (prize, etc)
PENSIONER SCOOPS LOTTO FORTUNE

throw out (as useless)
GOVERNMENT SCRAPS NEW ROAD PLANS

look for
POLICE SEEK WITNESS TO KILLING

grammar • 292 headlines

seize take (especially in police and customs searches)
POLICE SEIZE ARMS AFTER CAR CHASE
set to £3M DRUGS SEIZED AT AIRPORT
shed
slam ready to; about to
slash INTEREST RATES SET TO RISE
slate
slay (AmE) get rid of
slump CAR MAKERS TO SHED 5,000 JOBS

snatch criticise violently
GENERAL SLAMS DEFENCE POLICY
soar
spark cut, reduce drastically
split GOVERNMENT TO SLASH HEALTH EXPENDITURE
spree
stake criticise
storm PM SLATES BISHOP
storm out
m urder
of FREEWAY KILLER SLAYS SIX
stun
surge fall (economic)
swap EXPORTS SLUMP
sway CITY FEARS NEW SLUMP
switch
steal, robbery
swoop BIG WAGES SNATCH IN WEST END
TEENAGE ROBBERS SNATCH POLICE CAR

rise dramatically
IMPORTS SOAR FOR THIRD MONTH

cause (trouble) to start
REFEREE'S DECISION SPARKS RIOT

disagree(m ent)
CABINET SPLIT ON PRICES POLICY

wild spending expedition
BUS DRIVER SPENDS £30,000 IN THREE-DAY CREDIT CARD SPREE

financial interest
JAPANESE BUY STAKE IN BRITISH AIRWAYS

angry public disagreement
STORM OVER NEW STRIKE LAW

leave angrily
TEACHERS' LEADERS STORM OUT OF MEETING

surprise, shock
JOBLESS FIGURES STUN CITY

sudden increase; rise suddenly
SURGE IN JOBLESS FIGURES

exchange
HEART SWAP BOY BETTER

persuade
HOSPITAL PROTEST SWAYS MINISTERS

change (noun or verb)
DEFENCE POLICY SWITCH
MORE HOMES SWITCH ELECTRICITY SUPPLIERS

to raid; a police raid
POLICE IN DAWN SWOOP ON DRUGS GANG

gram m ar • 292 headlines

Written Texts Section 2 6

threat danger
toll THREAT OF FLU EPIDEMIC
top
top num ber killed
Tory QUAKE TOLL MAYBE 5,000
trio
troops (adj) senior, most important
TOP BANKER KIDNAPPED
UK
UN (verb) exceed
urge IMPORTS TOP LAST YEAR'S FIGURES
US
Conservative
VAT VICTORY FOR TORY MODERATES
vow
three people
walk out JAILBREAK TRIO RECAPTURED
wed
soldiers
MORE TROOPS FOR BORDER AREA

the United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

BRUSSELS CRITICISES UKJAIL CONDITIONS

the United Nations

UN IN RED: CANNOT BALANCE BUDGET

encourage

GOVERNMENT URGED TO ACT ON POLLUTION

the United States of America

US URGED TO PULL OUT OF MIDDLE EAST

value added tax
NEXT, VAT ON BABY FOOD?

promise
EXILED PRESIDENT VOWS TO RETURN

leave in protest
CAR WORKERS WALK OUT OVER WAGE FREEZE

marry
BISHOP TO WED ACTRESS

293 punctuation: full stop, question mark

and exclamation mark

1 sentence division

Full stops (AmE periods), question marks and exclamation marks
(AmE exclamation points) are used to close sentences. After one of these, a new
sentence has a capital letter.

I looked out o f the window. It was snowing again.
Why do we try to reach the stars? W hat is it all for?
We need more houses! N ot one day, not next year - now!
We do not normally use full stops, question or exclamation marks to close
grammatically incomplete sentences.
She phoned m e as soon as she arrived, (not She phoned me. As soon as

she arrived.)

gram m ar • 293 punctuation: full stop, question m ark and exclamation mark

In his jo b he has to deal with different kinds o f people, (not :
to deal with different kinds o f people.)

Did you understand why I was ,
Why I was upset?)

However, sometimes we can emphasise a clause or phrase by separating it with
a full stop and capital letter.

People are sleeping out on the streets. In Britain. In the 21st century.
Because there are not enough houses.

abbreviations

Full stops can be used after m any abbreviations (► 336). But they are often
dropped in m odern British English.

Dr. Andrew C. Burke, M.A. (or Dr Andrew С Burke, MA)

indirect questions

We do not use question marks after indirect questions (► 260).
I asked her w hat time it was. (not . . . w hat time it was?)

4 punctuation: colon

1 explanations

A colon (:) usually introduces an explanation or further details.
We decided not to go to Mexico: we had too little money.
There was a problem with the car: it was losing oil.

2 lists

A colon can introduce a list.
The m ain points are as follows: (1) . . . , (2) . . . , (3) . . . .
We need three kinds o f support: economic, moral and political.

3 subdivisions

A colon can introduce a subdivision of a subject in a title or heading.
PUNCTUATION: COLON

4 capitals

In British English, it is unusual for a capital letter to follow a colon (except at the
beginning of a quotation). However, this can happen if a colon is followed by
several complete sentences.

My m ain objections are as follows:
First o f all, no complete budget has been drawn up.
Secondly, there is no guarantee th a t. . .

In American English, colons are more often followed by capital letters.

5 letters

Americans usually put a colon after the opening salutation (Dear . . .)
in a business letter.

Dear Mr. Callan:
I am writing to . . .
British usage prefers a com m a or no punctuation m ark at all in this case.

grammar • 294 punctuation: colon

Written Texts Section 2 6

6 direct speech

Normally, direct speech is introduced by a com m a in writing.
Stewart opened his eyes and said, 'Who's your beautiful friend?’

But a long passage of direct speech may be introduced by a colon.
Introducing his reportfo r the year, the Chairman said: A number o ffactors
have contributed to the company's very gratifying results. First o f all, . . .'

And a colon is used w hen direct speech is introduced by a nam e or short phrase
(as in the text of a play, or when famous sayings are quoted).

p o l o n i u S : W hat do you read, m y lord?
h a m l e t : Words, words, words.

In the words o f Murphy's Law: A nything that can go wrong will go wrong. ’

295 punctuation: semi-colon

1 instead of full stops

Semi-colons (;) are som etim es used instead of full stops, in cases where
sentences are grammatically independent but the m eaning is closely connected.
Semi-colons are not nearly as com m on as full stops or commas.

Some people work best in the mornings; others do better in the evenings.
It is a fin e idea; let us hope that it is going to work.
Com m as are not usually possible in cases like these (► 296.7).

2 in lists

Semi-colons can also be used to separate item s in a list, particularly w hen these
are grammatically complex.

You m ay use the sports facilities on condition that your subscription is paid
regularly; that you arrange fo r all necessary cleaning to be carried out; that you
undertake to make good any dam age;. . .

For commas in lists, ►296.

296 punctuation: comma

1 the basic sentence

We do not use commas to separate the basic parts of a sentence (subject and
verb, verb and object).

The standard o f living o f the dock workers was slowly improving.

M any o f them were able to begin buying their own homes.

before and after the basic sentence

If we put long adverbial expressions before the basic sentence, we often

use a comma. Compare:

At that time the standard o f living o f the dock workers was slowly improving.

During the late 1920s a n d early 1930s, the standard o f living o f the dock

workers was slowly improving. -»

grammar • 296 punctuation: comma

We do not so often put com m as w hen adverbial expressions com e after the
basic sentence.

The standard o f living o f the dock workers was slowly improving during the
late 1920s and early 1930s.

3 inside the basic sentence

When adverbial expressions come between or inside parts of the basic sentence,
we may put com m as before and after them.

The standard o f living o f the dock workers, during the late 1920s and early
1930s, was steadily improving.

4 noun phrases

We do not usually separate a noun from the adjectives or other expressions that
go with it.

the m ainly foreign labourers (not the m ainly foreign, labourers)
the m ainly foreign labourers in the north-eastern docks (not the m ainly foreign

labourers, in the no rth-eastem -doeks)
However, we do use com m as to separate non-identifying expressions (► 234).

Andreas Bergmeister, who established the dock workers' u n ion ,. . .

5 sentences with conjunctions

We often put commas in sentences with conjunctions, especially
in longer sentences. Compare:

The situation changed when the export markets began to contract.
The situation changed noticeably fo r the worse after 1932, when the export

markets began to contract.
We usually use a comma if we start with the conjunction.

When the export markets began to contract, the situation changed.

6 indirect speech

We do not put commas after verbs of saying, thinking, etc in indirect speech.
M any commentators declared that the economy was in serious trouble.
( not M any commentators declared, that the economy . . .)
No one knew how serious the situation would become, (not No one knew,
how serious . . .)

A useful rule: we do not put a comma before that (conjunction or
relative pronoun).

They did not understand that the economic conditions that had existed earlier
had disappeared fo r good.

7 between grammatically separate sentences

Between grammatically separate sentences (with no conjunction), we use a full
stop or a semi-colon, but not a comma. Compare:

Orders began to dry up, a nd m ost companies reduced their workforce.
(comma and conjunction)

Orders began to dry up. M ost companies started to reduce their workforce.
or Orders began to dry up; m ost companies started to reduce their

grammar • 296 punctuation: comma

Written Texts Section 2 6

8 conjunctions and adverbs

Note that some linking words (e.g. consequently, however, therefore) are
adverbs, not conjunctions. A sentence beginning with an adverb is

S m i™ n T Cally S6parate f™m the sentence before it; consequently, a hill stop or
semi colon is necessary betw een the sentences (► 283).

Orders began to dry up. Consequently, most companies started to reduce their
workforce, ( n o t Orders began to dry up, consequently, most companies-. . .)
rders began to dry up; however, some companies tried to carry on as before.
' NOT r -' began to dry up, however, some companies . . .)

9 commas between adjectives

si:mos,ly,osepara,eadiecBves,hat8ive,he^

a tall, impressive figure a long, boring speech
an expensive, ill-planned, wasteful project
Commas are sometimes dropped between short adjectives.
a tall(,) dark(,) handsome cowboy

Commas are not dropped when adjectives or other modifiers refer to different
parts of something.

a green, red and gold carpet ( n o t h green red and gold carpet)
concrete, glass and plastic buildings

й г г “ areno‘ "ormal,y,,sedиьепad,ec,ives^

Have you m et our handsom e new fin an cial director? ( n o t . . -cur handzomc
new, financial director)

surprising new developments gloomy economic forecasts
After be and other linking verbs, adjectives are punctuated like a list (see below).

His speech was long, boring, detailed a n d irrelevant.
The cowboy was tall, dark a n d handsome.

10 lists

We use commas to separate the different things in a list (but not usually before
a n d unless the last item is long). Compare:

The developing crisis affected manufacturers, distributors, marketing
organisations, banks a n d credit agencies.

■. . marketing organisations, banks, an d some o f the major credit agencies.

11 numbers

Commas are used to divide large num bers into groups of three figures, by

separating off the thousands and millions.

6,435 ( n o t 6A35) 7,456,189

tadatesn0t USe C° mmaS 1П f° Ur~figUre n u m bers, and they are never used

3,164 or 3164 the year 1946
Spaces are sometimes used instead of commas.

There are 1000 millimetres in 1 metre.
We do not use com m as in decimals (► 322.1).

3.5 = three point five o r three and a

grammar • 296 punctuation: comma