Ijtihad '17

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The Marxist interpretation of Delhi ‘counter-epics’ focused on the heroic
Sultanate pioneered by Mohammed Habib nature of Rajput resistance and demonized
and K.A. Nizami represented a crucial Muslim conduct4. There were also some
break from conventional historiography. remarkably motivated readings of these
Within the Marxist framework, two factors materials to vindicate the communalist
became central: first was the state’s argument of innate differences between
ambition to mobilize resources and second, Hindus and Muslims, and a long violent
the egalitarian ideology of Islam. Within history of conflict between the two
the caste-ridden context of ‘Hindu’ society, communities. A classic example of this is
the ostracized low castes and untouchables Sita Ram Goel’s work, ‘Hindu Temples:
saw in ‘Muslim’ society an opportunity to What Happened to Them?’5
participate in the urban economy of the
new state. Muslim rulers welcomed their This communal view of the Sultanate
participation because it consolidated the period, however, has been questioned by
revenue resources of the state. Islamic scholars such as Richard Eaton, Cynthia
ideology disregarded caste divisions and Talbot and Romila Thapar, who have
hence, in Mohammed Habib’s opinion, problematised the idea that there were
Ghurid invasion “was not a conquest” of historically well-defined Hindu or Muslim
India but “a turnover of public opinion… a communities or that they were
revolution of Indian city-labour led by antagonistic to each other6. They have also
Ghurian Turks.”3 pointed out that Turkish raids like those of
Mahmud Ghazni, though justified in the
This understanding of the Sultanate period name of Islam, were essentially borne out
is largely predicated on Persian literary of a need for political legitimacy or
sources. The biases inherent in these political necessity. Most scholars, however,
sources have posed a number of problems.
Take, for instance, the genre of literature 4 Aziz Ahmad, “Epic and Counter-Epic in Medieval
that Aziz Ahmad describes as ‘the epics and India” in India’s Islamic Traditions, 711-1750, ed.
counter-epics’ of conquest and resistance. Richard M Eaton, (Delhi: Oxford University Press,
While Persian chronicles routinely 2006) p 37-49
valorised the campaigns of the ‘armies of 5 Sita Ram Goel, Hindu Temples: What Happened
Islam’ and Sultanate conquest over infidels, to Them? , vol. 1: A Preliminary survey (New Delhi:
Voice of India, 1990)
ed. RC Majumdar (Bombay, Bharitya Vidya Bhavan, 6 Richard M Eaton, “Temple Desecration and Indo-
1957) p viii Muslim States” in Beyond Turk and Hindu:
3 Mohammed Habib, ’Introduction’: “Sultan Rethinking Religious Identities in Islamicate South
Mahmud of Ghazni,” in Politics and society during Asia, ed. David Gilmartin and Bruce B Lawrence
the Medieval Period: Collected works of Professor (New Delhi: Indian Research Press, 2002), 246-81.
Mohammad Habib, ed. KA Nizami(New Delhi: Cynthia Talbot, “Inscribing the Other, Inscribing
People’s Publishing House, 1981 reprint),pp xiv the Self: Hindu-Muslim identities in Pre Colonial
India,” Comparative studies in Society and History
37, no 4 (1995): 692-722. Romila Thapar, Somnatha:
The many voices of history (Verso,2005).

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have based their arguments on the literary important, however, to go beyond the
sources of the Sultanate period. The narrative of Persian chronicles which
inscriptional evidence of the Sultanate seldom waver from their preoccupation
period, particularly in Sanskrit, has been with the narrative of the king, the court
largely neglected. Even Cynthia Talbot’s and the events which affected these. It is in
study of Hindu-Muslim identities in the this context that inscriptions become
pre-modern period is based on a study of significant sources of non-dynastic and
Telugu inscriptions of medieval Andhra cultural history.
Pradesh7.
Indian Islamic inscriptions date from the
The study of the Delhi Sultanate, therefore, last decade of 12th century AD when
has been dominated by the use of Persian Muhammad Ghori conquered Delhi and
literary sources and chronicles. A large established his kingdom there. The
corpus of historical literature was produced language of the records of the early period
during the Sultanate period and prominent of the Delhi Sultanate is Arabic. Majority
chronicles range from Minhaj-us Sirhaj’s of the epigraphic records are in Persian in
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, Isami’s Futuh al-Salatin view of the fact that Persian had been the
to Ziauddin Barani’s Tarikh-i-Firozshahi state or official language right from the
and Fatawa-i-Jahandari, among others. beginning of Muslim rule. The
As Sunil Kumar points out, “The expansive consolidation of Islamic rule over much of
canvas of Persian chronicles effectively India from the late 12th century onwards
relegates epigraphic, numismatic, did not have a detrimental impact on
architectural and archaeological evidence Sanskritic inscriptions as they continued to
to a secondary, corroborative role.”8 The be recorded in good numbers well into the
Persian chronicles of the 13th century fourteenth century, especially in central
provide evidence, which is quite opposite and southern India. From the 15th century
in quality to the epigraphic-archaeological. on, Sanskrit inscriptions became still rarer,
These histories or Tawrikh, narrate events being largely supplanted by those in
which have the courts of rulers and their Persian, Arabic and Dravidian. Though
capitals as their focus. The Tawrikh of the bilingual inscriptions are common in the
Delhi Sultans have facilitated the South, they are sometimes found in the
production of narratives of state formation North as well. In general, Sanskrit
and institutions and are pivotal sources for inscriptions of the Islamic era are less
the political history of the period. It is also extensively studied and documented than
those of the earlier times, but they are
7 Cynthia Talbot, Precolonial India in practice: nonetheless of considerable interest and
Society, Region and Identity in Medieval Andhra importance as literary, historical and social
(Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001) documents. Inscriptions in Sanskrit issued
8 Op. Cit., Kumar, S., 1972, 21.

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by or under Muslim rulers are found in Study of Titles
some numbers, for instance, the Burhanpur The political scenario and power dynamics
inscription of Adil Shah recording the of a region during a particular epoch can be
dedication of a mosque. gleaned from its administrative structure,
territorial expanse, military expeditions
This paper attempts to inquire into the etc. The terms used for the ruling elite in
question of social identities and how they inscriptions also contribute to the
were perceived during the Sultanate period understanding of the extent of power
through a study of Sanskrit inscriptions wielded by them. The focus, however, here
found in Delhi between 1200 and 1550 AD. is upon the perception of ruling elites in
Juxtaposing epigraphic evidence with Sanskrit Inscriptions. The coins with
numismatic evidence, it also analyzes the Nagari legends add another dimension to it
attempts made by the Sultanate ruling elite – they tell us what rulers wanted to be
to reach out to the masses as well as the perceived as. Imperial titles adopted or
perception of the ruling elite among the conferred upon monarchs indicate the
masses. All of the inscriptions under king’s position in the political hierarchy. In
consideration are from in and around Delhi such a scenario, the title of the king itself
since it was the political centre of the becomes an aspect of scrutiny. As far as
Sultanate. Bilingual inscriptions in Sanskrit Delhi Sultans are concerned, they also
and Persian are also a part of our study. adopted Sanskritised versions of Persian
titles, both of which were inscribed on
Most of the inscriptions examined in this coins.
paper are of a non-political nature i.e. they
have not been issued by Sultans. The Numismatic Evidence
inscriptions and coins under consideration Coins of Delhi Sultans are an engaging
carry the Sanskritised version of the source to probe the socio-cultural
Persian titles given to Delhi Sultans. A dynamics. The Indian subcontinent has
close study of the Sanskritised titles on seen many such invaders who made India
coins and inscriptions reveals significant their homeland and issued coins in their
information about socio-cultural dynamics names. As mentioned earlier, the coins also
of the Sultanate. The subject matter of contained Sanskritised versions of titles
these inscriptions is also varied. While adopted by Sultans, though this kind of
some of them record the construction of coinage was not the only one to be issued.
step- wells or baolis there are also a set of The National Museum collection has on
Nagari inscriptions by Hindu workmen display coins of different Sultans with
inside the Qutub Minar complex recording Nagari legend on them. First, in that series
the repair/maintenance of the structure. is the coin of Muhammad Ghori which has
‘Sri Muhammad’ written in Devnagari

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script. Another coin issued by the same secure legitimacy in the eyes of the
ruler has ‘srihammira’. Ruknuddin Firuz subjects in a newly conquered dominion.
issued a coin with Nagari legend ‘suritana Adopting Sanskritised titles and inscribing
siri rakanadin’ on the obverse and them on coins may have helped to disperse
‘srihammira’ on the reverse. Coins with the propaganda about the king’s
Nagari legend issued by rulers till Razia are consideration of indigenous culture and
of Bull-Horseman type. This type of coin language. But it’s a fact that later Sultans
was issued by Rajput rulers previously. too continued this endeavour well after the
Even though, depictions of living beings needs of legitimacy may have subsided.
were prohibited under Islam, the Sultans But, if one considers this seriously we have
adopted the bull-horseman type of coinage. to then come to terms with the high-
It aptly illustrates the fact that the Sultans sounding Perso-Arabic titles riddled with
were not orthodox in their religious views. religious fervour nestling close to the
In subsequent centuries, Sultans Nagari legends. For example al-zillahlah
discontinued this type of coin-device, but which meant shadow of God on earth. This
the Nagari legend lingered on. was in any case a pragmatic measure on
part of the Sultans to appease their own
The prominent examples being that of theocratic tendencies, at the same time
Balban who issued a coin with “balban” conveying the message of authority to the
written in Persian along with ‘Sri Sultan subjects in their own scripts.
Gayasadin’ written in Nagari script on the
reverse. Kaiqubad also followed suit. On Gleanings from Epigraphs
his coins, “kaiqubad” was written in Arabic Inscriptions written in Sanskrit have been
along with Sri Sultan Muizuddin in Nagari found in considerable number in Delhi.
on the reverse of the coins. Even later The inscriptions, although not directly
rulers like Sher Shah Suri adopted the issued by the Sultans provide us
practice of inscribing Nagari legends on considerable knowledge through the
their coins. terminology used for Sultans.

Coins have for long been considered the Palam Baoli inscription9 dated to 1333 A.D
imperial messengers and heralders of mentions the name of the kings ruling in
political announcements. A shift of Delhi in succession, starting from
political fortunes of kings is best illustrated Mohammad Ghori (Shihabuddin) to
on their coins. The Delhi Sultans, too, in Ghiyasuddin Balban. The reigning
that sense, wanted to convey some ideas monarch Balban is also given the title of
through their coinage. The message goes ‘Nayaka’, which otherwise meant ‘a
far beyond the mere adoption of formal
rulership. It may have been intended to 9 Pushpa Prasad, Sanskrit Inscriptions of Delhi
Sultanate 1191-1526 (Delhi: OUP, 1990), 3.

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powerful military chief’, had become just a different scenario. An inscription whose
laudatory title for the period concerned. It motive was to record the construction of a
is interesting to note how the Persian title well in order to memorialize the ancestors
“amir” was adapted to “Hammira” in of a merchant family, contains a eulogistic
Sanskrit. The mention of rulers often description of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s
accompanied a eulogistic description, attributes. The stanza riddled with
exaggerated by their territorial claims, metaphors narrates how Mahamad Sahi
achievements, honours etc. Balban is crushed his enemies, made the mountains
referred to as “the central gem in the pearl shudder with his bravery and that he was
necklace of the seven-sea girth” while supreme among all the monarchs of the
Aibak is the “master of the earth”. world. The literary expressions are full of
exaggerations and hyperbole characteristic
The epithet of Sri is prefixed to all of their of such panegyrics. But it is not always that
names. The inscription through its rulers are eulogized with such
genealogies also furnishes information on praiseworthy metaphors.
the social background of the people who
got the inscription engraved to record the The kings are sometimes referred to as
act of digging of a well. The ancestors of plainly as just “Turusakas” and even
the said persons belonged to Multan. It is a “Mlechha” (Sarban Stone Inscription
well-known fact that, during the reign of dated-1384).11 Before jumping to any
Balban, merchants from Multan became conclusions, the historicity of these terms
exceptionally wealthy as they advanced has to be kept in mind. Turuska is a term
loans to him. The highly eulogistic titles that denotes Turks, an ethnic
and exaggerated achievements attached to identification. Mlechha is generic term for
each one of the rulers hint at a kind of ‘foreigners’ or ‘others’ with a derogatory
symbiotic relationship between this social connotation. It is so because, labelling of
group and those at the helm. communities had always existed in
brahmanical discourse of society and it was
Another intriguing piece of information not concerned with religious belief. The
emerges from the Naraina Stone main apprehension was about the collapse
inscription10 (1327 AD). The inscription of social order through the instrumentality
contains two stanzas of panegyric of the other. The inclusion of Sultans in
dedicated to Muhammad bin Tughlaq who this list removes any specific hostility to
was the reigning Sultan at that time. the religious affiliation of the rulers12. All
Niversal Traditionally court poets would
compose eulogies and the king would have 11 Ibid., 21
them inscribed at places. But here it’s a 12 B.D. Chattopadhyaya, Representing the Other?
Sanskrit Sources and the Muslims: 8th to 14th
10 Ibid., 22 century (New Delhi: Manohar Publishers, 1998)

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the more, if the Sarban Stone Inscription is Qutub Minar too. Obscure inscriptions
read further one finds praises of Ghori’s inside the Qutub Minar have been
valour. It may be deduced from this fact inscribed by chief of workers mainly
the term mlechha in this point in history regarding the repair work of the structure
connoted just an outsider with no specific along with the name of reigning monarch
hostility attached to it. and date. An inscription found on the left
hand abutment of the door leading to the
New Dimensions balcony of fourth tier reads “the victory
Qutub Minar was one of the earliest pillar of Sri Alavadi”14. Apart from giving
structures commissioned by the emerging us the Sanskrit name of Alauddin Khilji,
Sultanate. Although built to fulfil the needs the inscription refers to the minar as
of a congregational mosque, the rulers ‘victory pillar’. We already know from
sought to solidify the claim to an empire other sources that Alauddin fashioned
through this structure. Subsequent rulers himself as the ‘Second Sikander’. He was a
made additions to the complex. The very ambitious ruler who harboured
association with the complex accorded a dreams of imperial ascendency which
measure of legitimacy to the concerned reflected itself in his expansionist policies.
King. On the outside, the structure housed Did the inscriber find the Qutub Minar to
the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque which be an apt place to express this
translates into the ‘Might of Islam’ which phenomenon? Or was the inscriber aware
Sunil Kumar feels is a later forgery.13 The of the powerful symbolism behind such
earlier name of the congregational mosque powerful structures?
was ‘Qubbat al-Islam’ that meant
‘Sanctuary of Islam’ or Axis of Islam. A very interesting piece of information
emerges from the inscription found in the
In any case, this structure was to become a south jamb of the doorway on the fourth
leading centre of Islamicate Culture under storey15. Dated Feb. 1, 1369, the inscription
the generous patronage of Sultans. Given records the renovation of minar
this political and religious affiliation one undertaken under Feroz Shah Tughlaq.
expects to find rhetoric charged with Interestingly the engraver credits the
religious fervour. But this does not happen. successful completion of the task to Sri
The inscriptions inside the minar, on the Visvakarma, the ‘Divine Architect’. The
other hand, adds another dimension to this invocation of a Hindu deity inside a
rhetoric. A set of Nagari inscriptions have congregational mosque opens many
been found inside the different storeys of avenues of discussions before us. From
other inscriptions, we know that the
13 Sunil Kumar, “Qutub and Modern Memory” in
The Partitions of Memory, ed. Suvir Kaul, (Delhi: 14 Prasad, Sanskrit inscriptions, 18.
Permanent Black, 2001) p. 171. 15 Ibid., 33

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master-masons were Hindus. These the complexities and various strands of
inscriptions provoke us to think whether a interpretations. It is safe to say that the
free cultural space was in existence or not. religious identities were fluid in the pre-
The main motive of this paper was to modern period and these were
examine various facets of perception of conveniently moulded to express the
rulers and how far it was motivated by ideology of the ruling class. Clearly, the
their social identity. Since ages in the religion of the Sultans was brought to play
Indian soil, the powerful and the learned when there was a need to exalt his status,
have been in alliance to manipulate the describe him as the ‘Chosen One’ and
social mores to their benefits. accord legitimacy to his reign. Otherwise,
as we see in inscriptions, their political
Power changed hands often and did not achievements, their ethnic origin and
always rest with the group it was required personal attributes are projected.
to. But as soon as, a new group assumed Therefore, the ruling elite managed to
power it endeavoured to maintain the convey a carefully crafted image of
status quo by enlisting the support of the themselves, which justified their rule over
Brahmins to proclaim them as the rightful a large multi-ethnic populace.
rulers. However, since there was a constant
inflow of invaders, this kind of alliance The perception of Delhi Sultans had
took time to build up. In the intervening various facets to it. Each source magnifies
period, the brahmanical system developed one facet of it depending on the socio-
its own terminology for the ‘outsider’; political setting in which the source
however this was not always motivated by originated. While the literary sources had
a religious attitude. their own unending rhetoric, the more
inclusive sources like coins and inscriptions
The inscriptions taken into consideration have subtle yet powerful references to the
do not even remotely hint at the rulers’ power dynamics at stake. The historian has
religious affiliation, but are all praise for to look through each and every source,
their political feats. On the other hand, we contextualize it and then form a view on
have coins which have both the imposing the subject.
titles high on religious fervour in the
language of the rulers, and the bare Bibliography
minimum of nomenclature and laudatory
titles in the language of the subjects. The Chattopadhyay, B.D. Representing the
question of how much of the perception of Other? Sanskrit Sources and the Muslims:
the Sultans was regulated by their religious 8th to 14th century. New Delhi: Manohar
and social identity may remain Publishers, 1998.
unanswered, but we can now clearly know

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Eaton, Richard M. "Temple desecration and Talbot, Cynthia. “Inscribing the Other,
Indo-Muslim States" in Beyond Turk and Inscribing the Self: Hindu-Muslim
Hindu: Rethinking Religious identities in Identities in Pre-Colonial
Islamicate South Asia. Edited by David Gil India.” Comparative Studies in Society and
Martin and Bruce B Lawrence. New Delhi: History 37, no. 4 (1995): 692–722.
Indian Research Press, 2002.
------Precolonial India in practice: Society,
Goel, Sita Ram. Hindu Temples: What Religion and Identity in medieval Andhra.
Happened to Them? Vol. 1. A Preliminary Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Survey. New Delhi: Voice of India, 1990.
Thapar, Romila .Somnatha: The many
Habib, Mohammed. “Sultan Mahmud of voices of history. Verso, 2005.
Ghazni” in Politics and Society during the
medieval period: Collected works of
Professor Mohammed Habib. Edited by K.
A. Nizami. New Delhi: People's Publishing
House, 1981 reprint.

Kumar, Sunil. The Emergence of Delhi

Sultanate: 1192-1286. Ranikhet:

Permanent Black, 1972.

------ "Qutub and Modern Memory" in
The Partitions of Memory. Edited by Suvir
Kaul. Delhi: Permanent Black, 2001.

Mill, James. History of British India). Vol.
2. New Delhi: Associated Publishing
House, 1972 reprint.

Munshi, K M. “The Struggle for Empire” in
The History and Culture of Indian People.
Edited by R C Majumdar. Vol. 5. Bombay:
Bharitya Vidya Bhavan, 1957.

Prasad, Pushpa. Sanskrit inscriptions of
Delhi Sultanate 1191-1526. Delhi: Oxford
University Press, 1990.

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INDEX

A I

Andaman Islands- 4, 6, 8, 9, 11 Inscriptions- 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53

C Identity consultations (अनमिता नविि)ग - 1, 2, 3

Class Struggle (वर्ग- सघं र्ग)- 1 J
Colonial (औपनिवने िक) - 1
Jantar Mantar- 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35
D
N
Dalit (दनित)- 1, 2
Nepal- 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44
Delhi Sultanate- 45, 46, 47, 49, 53 Numismatics- 45
Democracy- 22, 26, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42,
51 P
Dissent- 29, 30, 31, 32, 33
Persian literary sources- 46, 47
E Protest zone- 30
Public space- 29, 33, 34, 35
Epigraphy- 45
Ethnography- 40 R

Religious tolerance- 12, 16, 18, 19, 20

F S

Foucault- 4, 5, 6, 11 Shamanism- 18
Freedom of speech- 30 Sikh massacre- 25, 27, 28

G Subaltern (सबाल्टि)ग - 1

Genghis Khan- 21 U
Gorkhas- 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 44
Universal empire- 16

Y

Yasa- 12, 13, 16, 17, 21

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