Levin The Earth Through Time 10th c2013 txtbk

Fluvial Pertaining to sediments or other geologic features Glossary b G5
formed by streams.
Goniatites One of the three large groups of ammonoid
Flysch Thick sequences of rapidly deposited, poorly sorted cephalopods with sutures forming a pattern of simple
marine clastics. lobes and saddles and thus not as complex as either the
ceratites or the ammonites.
Focus (earthquake) The location at which rock rupture
occurs that generates seismic waves. Gowganda Conglomerate An apparent tillite of the
Canadian Shield. The Gowganda rests on a surface of
Foliation A textural feature especially characteristic of older rock that appears to have been polished by glacial
metamorphic rocks in which laminae develop by growth action.
or realignment of minerals in parallel orientation.
Graptolite facies A Paleozoic sedimentary facies com-
Foraminifera An order of mostly marine, unicellular pro- posed of dark shales and fine-grained clastics that contain
tozoans that secrete tests (shells) that are usually com- the abundant remains of graptolites and that are associ-
posed of calcium carbonate. ated with volcanic rocks.

Formation A mappable, lithologically distinct body of rock Graptolites Extinct colonial marine animals considered to
having recognizable contacts with adjacent rock units. be hemichordates. Graptolites range from the late Cam-
brian to the Mississippian.
Fossil The remains or indications of an organism that lived
in the geologic past. Gravity anomalies The differences between the observed
value of gravity at any point on the Earth and the
Fractional crystallization The separation of components calculated theoretic value.
of a cooling magma by sequential formation of particular
mineral crystals at progressively lower temperatures. Greenhouse effect A process in which incoming solar
radiation that is absorbed and reradiated cannot escape
Fusulinids Primarily spindle-shaped foraminifers with back into space because the Earth’s atmosphere is not
calcareous, coiled tests divided into a complex of numer- transparent to the reradiated energy, which is in the form
ous chambers. Fusulinids were particularly abundant of infrared radiation (heat).
during the Pennsylvanian and Permian periods.
Greenstones Low-grade metamorphic rocks containing
Galaxy An aggregate of stars and planets, separated from abundant chlorite, epidote, and biotite and developed by
other such aggregates by distances greater than those metamorphism of basaltic extrusive igneous rocks. Great
between member stars. linear outcrops of greenstones are termed greenstone
belts and are thought to mark the locations of former
Gamete Either of two cells (male or female) that must volcanic island arcs.
unite in sexual reproduction to initiate the development
of a new individual. Guide fossil A fossil with a wide geographic distribution
but narrow stratigraphic range and thus useful in corre-
Gamma rays Very high-frequency electromagnetic waves. lating strata and for age determination.
Garnet A family of aluminosilicates of iron and calcium
Gutenberg discontinuity The boundary separating the
that are particularly characteristic of metamorphic mantle of the Earth from the core below. The Gutenberg
rocks. discontinuity lies about 2900 kilometers below the surface.
Gene The unit of heredity transmitted in the chromosome.
Gene pool All the genes present in a species population. Gymnosperms An informal designation for flowerless
Genus The major subdivision of a taxonomic family or seed plants in which seeds are not enclosed (hence, “naked
subfamily of plants or animals, usually consisting of more seeds”). Examples are conifers and cycads.
than one species.
Geochronology The study of time as applied to Earth and Hadrosaurs The ornithischian duck-billed dinosaurs of
planetary history. the Cretaceous.
Geologic range The geologic time span between the first
and last appearance of an organism. Half-life The time in which one-half of an original amount
Geology The science of the Earth, including the materials of a radioactive species decays to daughter products.
that the planet is made of, the physical and chemical
changes that occur on and within the Earth, and the Haploid cell A cell having a single set of chromosomes, as
history of the Earth and its inhabitants. in gametes (see diploid cells).
Glacier A large mass of ice, formed by the recrystallization
of snow, that flows slowly under the influence of gravity. Hercynian orogeny The major late Paleozoic orogenic
Glauconite A green clay mineral frequently found in episode in Europe that formed the ancient Hercynian
marine sandstones and believed to have formed at the mountains. Today, only the eroded stumps of these
site of deposition. mountains are exposed in areas where the cover of
Glossopteris flora An assemblage of fossil plants found in Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata has been removed by
rocks of late Paleozoic and early Triassic age in South erosion.
Africa, India, Australia, and South America. The flora
takes its name from the seed fern Glossopteris. Heterotroph An organism that depends on an external
Gneiss A metamorphic rock having layers or lenses of light source of organic substances for its nutrition and
and dark colored minerals. energy.
Gondwana The great Permo-Carboniferous Southern
Hemisphere continent, comprising the assembled present Holocene A term sometimes used to designate the period
areas of South Africa, India, Australia, Africa-Arabia, and of time since the last major episode of glaciation. The
Antarctica. term is equivalent to Recent.

Hominins Modern humans (Homo sapiens), as well as all
other species of Homo and our immediate ancestors such
as Australopithecus, Paranthropus, and Ardipithecus.

Homologous organs Organs having structural and devel-
opmental similarities due to genetic relationship.

G6 c Glossary Laurasia A hypothetic supercontinent composed of what is
now Europe, Asia, Greenland, and North America.
Hydrosphere The water and water vapor present at the
surface of the Earth, including oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers. Limestone A sedimentary rock consisting mainly of cal-
cium carbonate.
Hylobatidae A group of persistently arboreal, small apes
that are exemplified by the gibbons and siamangs. Lithofacies map A map that shows the areal variation in
lithologic attributes of a stratigraphic unit.
Hyomandibular bone (in fishes) The modified upper
bone of the hyoid arch, which functions as a connecting Lithosphere The outer shell of the Earth, lying above the
element between the jaws and the braincase in certain asthenosphere and comprising the crust and upper mantle.
fishes.
Litopterns South American ungulates whose evolutionary
Hypercapnia A type of carbon dioxide poisoning caused history somewhat paralleled that of horses and camels.
by excessive CO2 in ocean waters.
Logan’s line A zone of thrust-faulting produced during
Iapetus Ocean The Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic the Taconic orogeny that extends from the west coast of
ocean that lay between Baltica and Laurentia. Named for Newfoundland along the trend of the St. Lawrence River
Iapetus, in Greek mythology, the father of Atlas. to near Quebec and southward along Vermont’s western
border. (Named after the pioneer Canadian geologist Sir
Ichnology The study of trace fossils (tracks, trails, bur- William Logan.)
rows, borings, castings, etc.).
Lophophore An organ located adjacent to the mouth of
Ichthyosaurs Highly specialized marine reptiles of the brachiopods and bryozoans that bears ciliated tentacles
Mesozoic, recognized by their fishlike form. and has as its primary function the capture of food
particles.
Ictidosauria A group of extinct mammal-like reptiles or
therapsids whose skeletal characteristics are considered to Low-velocity zone The interior zone of the Earth, char-
be very close to those of mammals. acterized by lower seismic wave velocities than the region
immediately above it.
Igneous rock A rock formed by the cooling and solidifi-
cation of magma or lava. Lunar maria Low-lying, dark lunar plains filled with vol-
canic rocks rich in iron and magnesium.
Infaunal organisms Organisms that live and feed within
bottom sediments. Lycopsids Leafy plants with simple, closely spaced leaves
bearing sporangia on their upper surfaces. They are
Ion An atom that, because of electron transfers, has excess represented by living club mosses and vast numbers of
positive or negative charges. extinct late Paleozoic “scale trees.”

Island arcs Chains of islands, arranged in arcuate trends Magnetic declination The horizontal angle between
on the surface of the Earth. The arcs are sites of volcanic “true” (geographic) north and magnetic north, as indi-
and earthquake activity and are usually bordered by deep cated by the compass needle. Declination is the result of
oceanic trenches on the convex side. Earth’s magnetic axis being inclined with respect to the
Earth’s rotational axis.
Isopachous map A map depicting the thickness of a sedi-
mentary unit. Magnetic inclination The angle between the magnetic
lines of force for the Earth and the Earth’s surface;
Isotopes Atoms of an element that have the same number sometimes called “dip.” Magnetic inclination can be
of protons in the nucleus, the same atomic number, and demonstrated by observing a freely suspended magnetic
the same chemical properties but different atomic masses needle. The needle will lie parallel to the Earth’s surface
because they have different numbers of neutrons in their at the equator but is increasingly inclined toward the
nuclei. vertical as the needle is moved toward the magnetic poles.

Karoo system A sequence of Permian to Lower Jurassic Mammoth The name commonly applied to extinct ele-
rocks, primarily continental formations, which outcrop in phants of the Pleistocene Epoch.
Africa and are approximately equivalent to the Gondwana
system of peninsular India. Marsupials Mammals of the Order Marsupialia. Female
marsupials bear mammary glands and carry their
Kaskaskia sequence A sequence of Devonian- immature young in a stomach pouch.
Mississippian sediments, bounded above and below by
regional unconformities and recording an episode of Mass spectrometer An instrument that separates ions of
transgression followed by full flooding of a large part different mass but equal charge and measures their rela-
of the craton and by subsequent regression. tive quantities.

Komatiite An ultramafic volcanic rock prevalent in Mastodonts The group of extinct proboscideans (ele-
Archean terranes. phantoids), early forms of which were characterized by
long jaws, tusks in both jaws, and low-crowned teeth.
Lacustrine Pertaining to lakes, as in lacustrine sediments
(lake sediments). Medusa The free-swimming, umbrella-shaped jellyfish
form of the phylum Cnidaria.
Lagomorph The order of small placental mammals that
includes rabbits, hares, and pikas. Meiosis That kind of nuclear division, usually involving
two successive cell divisions, that results in daughter cells
Laramide orogeny In general, those pulses of mountain having one-half the number of chromosomes that were in
building that were frequent in Late Cretaceous time and the original cell.
were in large part responsible for producing many of the
structures of the Rocky Mountains. Me lange A body of intricately folded, faulted, and severely
metamorphosed rocks, examples of which can be seen in
Lateral fault A fault in which the movement is largely the Franciscan rocks of California.
horizontal and in the direction of the trend of the fault
plane. Sometimes called a strike-slip fault.

Mesosphere The zone of the Earth’s mantle where pres- Glossary b G7
sures are sufficient to impart greater strength and rigidity
to the rock. Mollusk Any member of the invertebrate Phylum Mol-
lusca, including bivalves (pelecypods), cephalopods, gas-
Metamorphic rock A rock formed from a previously tropods, scaphopods, and chitons.
existing rock by subjecting the parent rock to high tem-
perature and pressure but without melting. Monoplacophorans Primitive marine molluscans with
simple cap-shaped shells.
Metamorphism The transformation of previously existing
rocks into new types by the action of heat, pressure, and Monotremes The egg-laying mammals.
chemical solutions. Metamorphism usually takes place at Morganucodonts Early mammals found in Triassic
depth in the roots of mountain chains or adjacent to large
intrusive igneous bodies. beds of Europe and Asia and characterized by their small
size and their retention of certain reptilian osteologic
Metazoa All multicellular animals whose cells become dif- traits.
ferentiated to form tissues (all animals except Protozoa). Mosasaurs Large marine lizards of the Late Cretaceous.
Multituberculates An early group (Jurassic) of Mesozoic
Meteorites Metallic or stony bodies from interplanetary mammals with tooth cusps in longitudinal rows and other
space that have passed through the Earth’s atmosphere dental characteristics that suggest they may have been the
and hit the Earth’s surface. earliest herbivorous mammals.
Mutation A stable and inheritable change in a gene.
Meteors Generally small particles of solid material from Mytiloids Bivalvia having rather triangular shells that are
interplanetary space that approach close enough to the most commonly identical but in some forms unequal.
Earth to be drawn into the Earth’s atmosphere, where The edible mussel Mytilus is a representative form.
they are heated to incandescence. Sometimes called
“shooting stars.” Most disintegrate, but a few land on Nappe A large mass of rocks that have been moved a
the surface of the Earth as meteorites. considerable distance over underlying formations by
over-thrusting, recumbent folding, or both.
Micrite Pertaining to a texture in carbonate rocks that,
when viewed microscopically, appears as murky, fine- Nektonic Pertaining to swimming organisms. (Some texts
grained calcium carbonate. Micrite is believed to develop shorten the term to nektic.)
from fine carbonate mud or ooze.
Neogene system A subdivision of the Cenozoic that
Microplate A displaced terrane that may be a continental encompasses the Miocene and Pliocene.
segment, seamount, or island arc accreted onto a conti-
nent at a convergent plate boundary. Neutron An electrically neutral (uncharged) particle
of matter existing along with protons in the atomic
Milankovitch effect The hypothetic long-term effect on nucleus of all elements except the mass 1 isotope of
world climate based on positional changes between the hydrogen.
Earth and the Sun. The changes provide a possible explan-
ation for repeated glacial to interglacial climatic swings. Nevadan orogeny In general, those pulses of mountain
building, intrusion, and metamorphism that were most
Miliolids A group of foraminifers with smooth, frequent during the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous along
imperforate test walls and chambers arranged in various the western part of the Cordilleran orogenic belt.
planes around a vertical axis. Miliolids are common in
shallow marine areas. Newark series A series of Upper Triassic, nonmarine red
beds (shales, sandstones, and conglomerates), lava flows,
Mineral A naturally occurring element or compound and intrusions located within downfaulted basins from
formed by inorganic processes that has a definite chemical Nova Scotia to South Carolina.
composition or range of compositions, as well as distinc-
tive properties and form that reflect its characteristic New World monkeys Monkeys whose habitat is today
atomic structure. confined to South America. They are thoroughly arboreal
in habit and have prehensile tails, by which they hang and
Mitosis The method of cell division in which each of swing from tree limbs.
the two daughter nuclei receives exactly the same com-
plement of chromosomes as had existed in the parent Niche The full range of physical and biologic conditions
nucleus. under which an organism can live and reproduce.

Mobile belt An elongate region of the Earth’s crust, Node The location on a cladogram where a clade splits
characterized by exceptional earthquake and volcanic into two clades.
activity, tectonic instability, and periodic mountain
building. Non-amniotic vertebrates Fishes and amphibians.
Nonconformity An unconformity developed between
Mohorovic9i c discontinuity A plane that marks the
boundary separating the crust of the Earth from the sedimentary rocks and older plutons or massive meta-
underlying mantle. The “moho,” as it is sometimes called, morphic rocks that had been exposed to erosion before
is at a depth of about 70 kilometers below the surface of the overlying sedimentary rocks were deposited.
continents and 6 to 14 kilometers below the floor of the Normal fault A fault in which the hanging wall appears to
oceans. have moved downward relative to the footwall; normally
occurring in areas of crustal tension.
Molasse Accumulations of primarily nonmarine, relatively Nothosaurs Relatively small early Mesozoic sauroptery-
light-colored, irregularly bedded conglomerates, shales, gians that were replaced during the Jurassic by the
coal seams, and cross-bedded sandstones that are depos- plesiosaurs.
ited subsequent to major orogenic events. Notochord A rod-shaped cord of cartilage cells forming
the primary axial structure of the chordate body. In
Mold An impression, or imprint, of an organism or part of vertebrates, the notochord is present in the embryo
an organism in the enclosing sediment. and is later supplanted by the vertebral column.

G8 c Glossary Ouachita orogenic belt A regional tract of rocks
deformed during the Late Paleozoic and now exposed
Notungulates A group of ungulates that diversified in in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Oklahoma.
South America and persisted until Plio-Pleistocene time.
Outcrop An area where specific rock units are exposed at
Novaculites A term applied originally to rocks suitable for the Earth’s surface or occur at the surface but are covered
whetstones and, in America, to white chert found in by superficial deposits.
Arkansas. Now applied to very tough, uniformly grained
cherts composed of microcrystalline quartz. Palatoquadrate Upper jaw element of primitive fishes and
chondrichthyes.
Nuclear fission tracks Submicroscopic “tunnels” in min-
erals produced when high-energy particles from the Paleoecology The study of the relationship of ancient
nucleus of uranium are forcibly ejected during spontane- organisms to their environment.
ous fission.
Paleogene system A subdivision of the Cenozoic that
Nucleic acid Any of a group of organic acids that control encompasses the Paleocene, Eocene, and Oligocene epochs.
hereditary processes within cells and make possible the
manufacture of proteins from the amino acids ingested by Paleogeography The geography as it existed at some time
the cells as food. in the geologic past.

Nuclides The different weight configurations of an ele- Paleolatitude The latitude that once existed across a par-
ment caused by atoms of that element having differing ticular region at a particular time in the geologic past.
numbers of neutrons. Nuclides or isotopes of an element
differ in number of neutrons but not in chemical Paleomagnetism The Earth’s magnetic field and mag-
properties. netic properties in the geologic past. Studies of paleo-
magnetism are helpful in determining positions of
Nummulites Large, coin-shaped foraminifers, especially continents and magnetic poles.
common in Tertiary limestones.
Paleontology The study of all ancient forms of life, their
Obduction The overthrusting of continental crust by oce- interactions, and their evolution.
anic crust at a convergence zone.
Pangea In Alfred Wegener’s theory of continental drift,
Offlap A sequence of sediments resulting from a marine the supercontinent that included all present major conti-
regression and characterized by an upward progression nental masses.
from offshore marine sediments (often limestones) to
shales and finally sandstones (above which will follow Panthalassa The great universal ocean that surrounded
an unconformity). the supercontinent Pangea prior to its break-up.

Oil shale A dark-colored shale rich in organic material that Paraconformity A rather obscure unconformity in which
can be heated to liberate gaseous hydrocarbons. no erosional surface is discernible and in which beds
above and below the break are parallel.
Old World monkeys Monkeys of Asia, Africa, and south-
ern Europe that include macaques, guenons, langurs, Partial melting The process by which a rock subjected to
baboons, and mandrills. high temperature and pressure is partially melted, and the
liquid fraction moved to another location. Partial melting
Onlap A sequence of sediments resulting from a marine results from the variations in melting points of different
transgression. Normally, the sequence begins with a minerals in the original rock mass.
conglomerate or sandstone deposited over an erosional
unconformity and followed upward in the vertical section Pectenoids Bivalvia exemplified by the scallops. They
by progressively more offshore sediments. have generally subcircular shells and straight hinge lines.

Oo€lites Limestones composed largely of small, round or Pelecypoda Class of Mollusca that includes clams, oysters,
ovate calcium carbonate bodies called oo€ids. and mussels. Same as Bivalvia.

Ophiolite suite An association of radiolarian cherts, Pelycosaurs Early mammal-like reptiles exemplified by
pelagic muds, basaltic pillow and flow lavas, gabbros, the sail-back animals of the Permian Period.
and ultramafic rocks such as periodotite regarded as
surviving masses of former oceanic crust largely destroyed Period A subdivision of an era.
in former subduction zones. Perissodactyl Progressive, hoofed mammals characteris-

Oreodonts North American artiodactyls of the middle tically having an odd number of toes on the hind feet and
and late Tertiary. usually on the front feet as well.
Permineralization A manner of fossilization in which
Ornithischia An order of dinosaurs characterized by voids in an organic structure (such as bone) are filled
birdlike pelvic structures and including such herbivores with mineral matter.
as the ornithopods, stegosaurs, ankylosaurs, and Petrification The process of conversion of organic struc-
ceratopsians. tures, such as bone, shell, or wood, into a stony substance,
such as calcium carbonate or silica.
Orogenic belt Great linear tracts of deformed rocks, Phanerozoic The eon of geologic time during which the
primarily developed near continental margins by com- Earth has been populated by abundant and diverse life.
pressional forces accompanying mountain building. The Phanerozoic Eon followed the Cryptozoic (or Pre-
cambrian) Eon and is divided into the Paleozoic, Meso-
Orogeny The process by which great systems of moun- zoic, and Cenozoic eras.
tains are formed. (Orogenesis means mountain building.) Phenotypic trait A trait that is the observable expression
of an organism’s genes.
Ostracoderms Extinct jawless fishes of the early Phosphorite A sediment composed largely of calcium
Paleozoic. phosphate.

Ostracodes Small, bivalved, bean-shaped crustaceans.
Ostreoids The “oyster family” of bivalves (pelecypods).

Photosynthesis The process of synthesizing carbohy- Glossary b G9
drates from carbon dioxide and water, utilizing the radiant
energy of light captured by the chlorophyll in plant cells. continuously through time, so that the total aspect of
life (as recognized by fossil evidence) for a particular
Phyletic gradualism Gradual evolutionary change of one segment of time is distinct and different from that of
species population into another. life of earlier and later times.
Principle of temporal transgression The principle that
Phytoplankton Microscopic marine planktonic plants, stipulates that sediments of advancing (transgressing) or
most of which are various forms of algae. retreating (regressing) seas are not necessarily of the same
geologic age throughout their lateral extent.
Phytosaurs Extinct aquatic, crocodile-like thecodonts of Proboscidea The elephants and their progenitors.
the Triassic. Productid An articulate brachiopod usually with a flat or
concave brachial valve and a convex pedicle valve. Pro-
Pillow lava Type of lava that is extruded under water and ductids were present from Devonian to Permian.
in which many pillow-shaped lobes break through the Prokaryotes Organisms that lack membrane-bounded
chilled surface of the flow and solidify. (Resembles a pile nuclei and other membrane-bounded organelles.
of pillows.) Prosauropod Plant-eating saurischian dinosaurs that were
smaller and more slender than the sauropods.
Pinnipeds Marine carnivores such as seals, sea lions, and Prosimii The less advanced primates, such as lemurs,
walruses. tarsiers, and tree shrews.
Proteinoids Extra-large organic molecules containing
Placer deposit An accumulation of sediment rich in a most of the 20 amino acids of proteins and produced
valuable mineral or metal that has been concentrated in laboratory conditions simulating those found in
because of its greater density. nature.
Proteins Giant molecules containing carbon, hydrogen,
Placoderms Extinct primitive jawed fishes of the Paleo- oxygen, nitrogen, and usually sulfur and phosphorus; com-
zoic Era. posed of chains of amino acids and present in all living cells.
Proton An elemental particle found in the nuclei of all
Placodonts Extinct walrus-like marine reptiles that fed atoms that has a positive electric charge and a mass similar
principally on shellfish. to that of a neutron.
Pterosaur A flying reptile of the Jurassic and Cretaceous.
Plankton Minute, free-floating aquatic organisms. Punctuate equilibrium The model of evolution propos-
Plate tectonics The theory that explains the tectonic ing that long periods of little or no evolutionary change
are punctuated by short episodes of rapid change.
behavior of the crust of the Earth in terms of several Pyroclastics Fragments of volcanic debris that have usu-
moving plates that are formed by volcanic activity at ally been found fragmented during eruptions.
oceanic ridges and destroyed along great ocean trenches. Pyroxene group A group of dark-colored iron and mag-
Platform That part of a craton covered thinly by layered nesium-rich silicate minerals.
sedimentary rocks and characterized by relatively stable
tectonic conditions. Quaternary The youngest subdivision of the Neogene,
Plesiosaurs The group of extinct Mesozoic marine rep- encompassing the Pleistocene and Holocene.
tiles (sauropterygians) characterized by large, paddle-
shaped limbs and broad bodies, with either very long Queenston delta A clastic wedge of red beds shed west-
or relatively short necks. ward from highlands elevated in the course of the Taconic
Plutoid A type of dwarf body that orbits the sun at a orogeny.
distance greater than Neptune and has sufficient mass
to allow gravity to give it a nearly spherical shape. Radioactive decay The spontaneous emission of a particle
Plutonic igneous rock Igneous rock formed at great from the atomic nucleus, thereby transforming the atom
depth. from one element to another.
Pluvial lake A lake formed in an earlier climate when
rainfall was greater than at present. Radiolaria Protozoa that secrete a delicate, often beau-
Polyp The hydra-like form of some cnidaria in which the tifully filigreed skeleton of opaline silica.
mouth and tentacles are at the top of the body.
Population (species population) A group of individuals Recumbent fold A fold in which the axial plane is essen-
of the same species occupying a given area at the same tially horizontal; a fold that has been turned over by
time. compressional forces so that it lies on its side.
Porphyry A textural term used to describe an igneous rock
in which some of the crystals, called phenocrysts, are Red beds Prevailing red, usually clastic sedimentary
distinctly larger than others. deposits.
Precambrian Pertaining to all of geologic time and its
corresponding rocks before the beginning of the Paleo- Regoliths Any solid materials, such as rock fragments or
zoic Era. soil, lying on top of bedrock.
Primary earthquake waves Seismic waves that are prop-
agated through solid rock as a train of compressions and Regression A general term signifying that a shoreline has
dilations. Direction of vibration is parallel to direction of moved toward the center of a marine basin. Regression
propagation. may be caused by tectonic emergence of the land, eustatic
Principle of cross-cutting relations The principle that lowering of sea level, or prograding of sediments, as in
states that geologic features such as faults, veins, and dikes deltaic build-outs.
must be younger than the rocks or features across which
they cut. Relative geologic age The placing of an event in a time
Principle of biologic succession The principle that states sequence without regard to the absolute age in years.
that the observed sequence of life forms has changed

G10 c Glossary largely of particles of silicate minerals such as quartz,
feldspar, and mica.
Replacement A fossilization process in which the original Silicoflagellates Unicellular, tiny, flagellate marine algae
skeletal substance is replaced after burial by inorganically that secrete an internal skeleton composed of opaline
precipitated mineral matter. silica.
Silicon tetrahedron An atomic structure in silicates con-
Respiratory turbinates Small bones in nasal passages that sisting of a centrally located silicon atom linked to four
provide increased surface area over which moist tissues oxygen atoms placed symmetrically around the silicon at
are exposed to air. the corners of a tetrahedron.
Sonoma orogeny Middle Permian orogenic movements,
Reverse fault A fault formed by compression in which the structural effects of which are most evident in western
the hanging wall appears to move up relative to the foot Nevada.
wall. Sorting A measure of the uniformity of the sizes of parti-
cles in a sediment or sedimentary rock.
Rheic Ocean The Ordovician to Mississippian ocean that Spar carbonate As viewed microscopically, the clear, crys-
existed between the supercontinent Gondwana to the talline carbonate that has been deposited in a carbonate
south and the various continental and microcontinental rock as a cement between clasts or has developed by
segments to the north. Named for Rhea, the sister of recrystallization of clasts.
Iapetus (the father of Atlas). Species A unit of taxonomic classification of organisms. In
another sense, a species is a population of individuals that
Rhynchonellids A group of brachiopods having pro- are similar in structural and functional characteristics and
nounced beaks, accordion-like plications, and triangular that in nature breed only with one another.
outlines. Sphenodon (tuatara) Large, lizard-like reptiles that have
persisted from Triassic to the present and now inhabit
Rift valley A valley formed by faulting, usually involving a islands off the coast of New Zealand.
central fault block that moves downward in relation to Sphenopsids A group of sponge-bearing plants that were
adjacent blocks. particularly common during the late Paleozoic and were
characterized by articulated stems with leaves borne in
Rudists Peculiarly specialized Mesozoic bivalvia often whorls at nodes.
having one valve in the shape of a horn coral, covered Spiracle In cartilaginous fishes, a modified gill opening
by the other valve in the form of a lid. through which water enters the pharynx.
Spontaneous fission Spontaneous fragmentation of an
Rugosa The large group of solitary and colonial Paleozoic atom into two or more lighter atoms and nuclear
horn corals. particles.
Spore A usually asexual reproductive body, such as occurs
Ruminant A herbivorous, cud-chewing ungulate. in bacteria, ferns, and mosses.
Stage The time-rock unit equivalent to an age. A stage is a
Salt dome A structural dome in sedimentary strata result- subdivision of a series.
ing from the upward flow of a large body of salt. Stapes The innermost of the small bones in the middle ear
cavity of mammals; also recognized in amphibians and
Sarcopterygii Lobe-finned bony fishes, including air- reptiles.
breathing crossopterygian fishes. Stasis A long interval of little evolutionary change.
Strain Deformation of a rock mass in response to stress.
Sauk sequence A sequence of upper Precambrian to Ordo- Stratification The layering in sedimentary rocks that
vician sediments bounded both above and below by a results from changes in texture, color, or rock type
regional unconformity and recording an episode of marine from one bed to the next.
transgression, followed by full flooding of a large part of Stratified drift Deposits of glacial clastics that have been
the craton and ending with a regression from the craton. sorted and stratified by the action of meltwater.
Stratigraphy The study of rock strata, with emphasis on
Saurischia An order of dinosaurs with triradiate pelvic their succession, age, correlation, form, distribution,
structures, including both the gigantic herbivorous sau- lithology, fossil content, and all other characteristics
ropods and the carnivorous theropods. useful in interpreting their environment of origin and
geologic history.
Scleractinid coral Coral belonging to the order Sclerac- Stratophenic phylogeny The traditional model of evolu-
tinia, which includes most modern and post-Paleozoic tion in which organisms are arranged in treelike fashion,
corals. with the most recently evolved groups on the upper
branches and the older, ancestral groups on the lower
Seafloor spreading The process by which new seafloor branches and trunk.
crust is produced along midoceanic ridges (divergence Stromatolites Distinctly laminated accumulations of cal-
zones) and slowly conveyed away from the ridges. cium carbonate having rounded, branching, or frondose
shape and believed to form as a result of the metabolic
Secondary earthquake wave A seismic wave in which the
direction of vibration of wave energy is at right angles to
the direction the wave travels.

Sedimentary rock A rock that has formed as a result of
the consolidation (lithification) of accumulations of
sediment.

Sessile Pertaining to the bottom-dwelling habit of aquatic
animals that live continuously in one place.

Series The time-rock term representing the rocks depos-
ited or emplaced during a geologic epoch. A series is a
subdivision of a system.

Shelly facies In general, sedimentary deposits consisting
primarily of carbonate rocks containing the abundant
fossil remains of marine invertebrates.

Siliclastic sedimentary rock A sedimentary rock such as a
conglomerate, sandstone, or shale that is composed

activity of marine algae. They are usually found in the Glossary b G11
high intertidal to low supratidal zones.
Stromatoporoids An extinct group of reef-building orga- Thermal plumes are thought to cause volcanism in the
nisms now believed to have affinities with the Porifera and overlying lithosphere.
noted for the large, often laminated masses constructed Thermoremanent magnetism Permanent magnetization
by the colonies. acquired by igneous rocks as they cool past the Curie
Subaerial Formed or existing at or near a sediment surface point while in the Earth’s magnetic field.
significantly above sea level. Theropods The carnivorous saurischian dinosaurs.
Subduction zone An inclined planar zone, defined by high Thrust fault A low-angle reverse fault, with inclination of
frequency of earthquakes, that is thought to locate the fault plane generally less than 45A7.
descending leading edge of a moving oceanic plate. Till Unconsolidated, unsorted, unstratified glacial debris.
Sublittoral zone The marine bottom environment that Tillite Unsorted glacial drift (till) that has been converted
extends from low tide seaward to the edge of the conti- into solid rock.
nental shelf. Time-stratigraphic unit (chronostratigraphic unit)
Surface earthquake waves Seismic or earthquake waves The rocks formed during a particular unit of geologic
that move only about the surface of the Earth. time. Also called time-rock unit.
Symmetrical ripple marks Small wave-caused symmetri- Tippecanoe sequence A sequence of Ordovician to
cal ridges formed on the surface of sediment. Lower Devonian sediments bounded above and below
Symmetrodonts A group of primitive Mesozoic mammals by regional unconformities and recording an episode of
characterized by a symmetric triangular arrangement of marine transgression, followed by full flooding of a large
cusps on cheek teeth. region of the craton and subsequent regression.
Syncline A geologic structure in which strata are bent into Titanotheres Large, extinct perissodactyls (odd-toed
a downfold. ungulates) that attained the peak of their evolutionary
System The time-rock unit representing rock deposited or development during the Early Eocene. Brontotherium is
emplaced during a geologic period. a widely known titanothere.
Trace fossils Tracks, trails, burrows, and other markings
Taconic orogeny A major episode of orogeny that made in now-lithified sediments by ancient animals.
affected the Appalachian region in Ordovician time. Transcontinental arch An elongate, uplifted region
The northern and Newfoundland Appalachians were extending from Arizona northeastward toward Lake
the most severely deformed during this orogeny. Superior. During the Cambrian, the arch was emergent,
as indicated by the observation that Cambrian marine
Taxon (pl. taxa) Any unit in the taxonomic classification, sediments are located on either side of the arch but are
such as a phylum, class, order, or family. missing above it. (Along the crest of the arch, post-
Cambrian rocks rest on Precambrian basement.)
Taxonomy The science of naming, describing, and classi- Transform fault A strike-slip fault bounded at each end by
fying organisms. an area of crustal spreading that tends to be more or less
perpendicular to the trace of the fault.
Tectonics The structural behavior of a region of the Triconodonts A group of primitive Mesozoic mammals
Earth’s crust. recognized primarily by the arrangement of three princi-
pal cheek tooth cusps in a longitudinal row.
Tectonic collage A continental region constructed Trilobites Paleozoic marine arthropods of the class
of many displaced crustal segments such as exotic Crustacea, characterized by longitudinal and transverse
terranes. division of the carapace into three parts, or lobes.
Trilobites were especially abundant during the early
Teleosts The most advanced of the bony fishes, charac- Paleozoic.
terized by thin, rounded scales, completely bony internal Tuff Volcanic ash that has become consolidated into rock.
skeleton, and symmetric tail. Teleosts range from Creta- Turbidites Sediment deposited from a turbidity current
ceous to Recent. and characterized by graded bedding and moderate to
poor sorting.
Terebratulids A group of Silurian to Recent, mostly Turbidity current A mass of moving water that is denser
smooth-shelled brachiopods having a loop-shaped than surrounding water because of its content of sus-
attachment for the lophomore. Terebratulids were pended sediment and that flows along slopes of the sea
most abundant during the Jurassic and Cenozoic. floor as a result of that higher density.
Tylopod The artiodactyl group to which camels and lla-
Terrane A three-dimensional block of crust having a dis- mas belong.
tinctive assemblage of rocks (as opposed to terrain, which
implies topography, such as rolling hills or rugged Unconformity A surface separating an overlying younger
mountains). rock formation from an underlying formation and repre-
senting an episode of erosion or nondeposition. Because
Tethys Sea A great east-west trending seaway lying unconformities represent a lack of continuity in deposi-
between Laurasia and Gondwanaland during Paleozoic tion, they are gaps in the geologic record.
and Mesozoic time and from which arose the Alpine-
Himalayan Mountain ranges. Ungulate Pertaining to four-legged mammals whose toes
bear hoofs.
Thecodonts An order of primarily Triassic reptiles con-
sidered to be the ancestral archosaurians.

Therapsids An order of advanced, mammal-like reptiles.
Thermal plume A “hot spot” in the upper mantle

believed to exist where a huge column of upwelling
magma lies in a fixed position under the lithosphere.

G12 c Glossary Volatile element A chemical element that generally
occurs as a gas at moderate to high temperatures.
Uniformitarianism A principle that suggests that the past
history of the Earth can be interpreted and deciphered in Walther’s Law Within a sequence of onlap or offlap strata,
terms of what is known about present natural laws. the same succession of strata that occur laterally will also
occur in the vertical succession of strata.
Vagile Pertaining to the bottom-dwelling habit of aquatic
animals capable of locomotion. Williston basin A large structural basin extending from
South Dakota and Montana northward into Canada; well
Varve A thin sedimentary layer or pair of layers that known for the petroliferous Devonian formations depos-
represent the depositional record of a single year. ited therein.

Vascular plants Plants, including all higher land plants, Zechstein sea An arm of the Atlantic that extended across
that have a system of vessels and ducts for distributing part of northern Europe during the late Permian and in
moisture and nutrients. which were deposited several hundred meters of evapor-
ites, including the well-known potassium salts of Germany.
Veneroids A group of bivalves exemplified by the common
clam, Mercenaria. Zircon A zirconium silicate mineral that is useful in
uranium-lead isotopic dating.
Vertebral column The series of vertebrae extending from
the base of the skull to the tip of the tail (or in humans and Zone A bed or group of beds distinguished by a particular
tailless apes, the coccyx). fossil content and frequently named after the fossil or
fossils it contains. More formally known as a biozone.
Vestigial organ An organ that is useless, small, or degen-
erate but representing a structure that was more fully Zygote The cell formed by the union of two gametes.
developed or functional in an ancestral organism. Thus, a zygote is a fertilized egg.

Vindelician arch A highland area believed to have formed
a barrier separating the Germanic and Alpine deposi-
tional areas during the Triassic and Jurassic.

INDEX

Aa lava, 59f, 210 Alligators, 515, 516f Apatosaurus, 430, 436
Abbey, M., 458f Allorisma, 354f Apennine Mountains, 488, 489f, 502
Absaroka cratonic sequence, 276, 307, 309, Allosaurus, 429, 432f Apes, 545t, 547, 549f, 551, 566
Alluvial fans, 86, 87f Apollo space mission, 200
331–332 Alluvium, 18 Appalachian Mountains, 13, 24, 26, 82, 83f,
Abyssal environment, 153 Almandine garnet, 50f
Acadia National Park, Maine, 329–330, Alpha particle, 37 113f, 258, 317f, 387, 469, 501
Alps, 205, 472, 488–489, 489f, 502 Appalachian orogenic belt, 296, 320
329f, 330f Altai Mountains, 18 Apparent polar wandering paths, 183
Acadian Mountains, 303, 306 Aluminosilicates, 54 Arachnoidiscus, 508f
Acadian orogeny, 275, 303, 306, 315, 320, Amazon River, 86f Aragonite, 57
Amber, 15f, 128–129, 128f Araucarioxylon arizonicum, 399f
330 Ambulocetus, 537 Archaea domain, 125, 132, 133f, 241
Acanthodians, 363–366 Amebelodon, 533f, 535 Archaeocyathids, 345, 345f, 381
Acasta Gneiss, 7f American plate, 185, 482, 483 Archaeopteris, 376f
Accretion, 219 Americas, humans in, 563–565, 566 Archaeopteryx, 417, 450, 454f, 464
Accretionary prism, 192 Amino acids, 239, 240f Archaeotherium, 531f
Accretionary tectonics, 385, 391–392, 413 Amitsoq Gneiss, Greenland, 235f Archean Eon, 30, 215, 216f. See also
Acetabulum, 429 Ammonites, 14f, 417–418, 509
Acquired traits, 134f, 135 Ammonoidea, 423 Proterozoic Eon
Acritarchs, 265–266, 265f Ammonoids, 351, 422–423, 455f, 424f atmosphere in, 229–232, 230f
Actinopterygians, 366 Amniotes, 372–374, 381 continents, 235
Actinoptychus, 508f Amniotic egg, 335, 364f, 372, 381 Earth’s crust in, 235, 236f
Actual geologic dating, 30, 34, 43f, 45 Amniotic membrane, 363 fossils, 245
Actualism, 19–20 Amniotic vertebrates, 362 hydrologic cycle in, 232, 232f
Adaptations, 138, 165 Amoebas, 136 islands, 235
Adaptive radiation, 138–139, 446 Amos, James L., 357f of Mars, 223
Aegyptopithecus, 550, 551f Amphibians, 364f, 369f, 370f, 380, 426–427, plate tectonics, 235–236
Aepinocodon, 531f Precambrian rocks in, 232–238
Aepycamelus, 533 505, 512 rocks, 215, 231
Aerobic organisms, 243–244 Amphiboles, 55 sediment, 238
Afar Triangle, Ethiopia, 194, 196f Anabarella, 337f Archelon, 449
Africa, 237f, 367, 386–387, 410, 470, 549, Anabarites, 337, 338f Arches, 280, 281f
Anaerobic organisms, 215, 243 Archimedes, 148, 149f, 350f
550 Andalgalornis, 517, 517f Archosaurs, 427–428, 428f
Cenozoic Era, 488 Andean crust, 470 Ardipithecus, 552
glaciers in, 418 Anderson, P. E., 408 Ardipithecus ramidus, 552
Gondwana and, 410 Andesite, 49, 60f, 62, 66, 66f, 410 Arduino, Giovanni, 13, 18
North Africa freeze, 297 Andes Mountains, 189, 193f, 410, 470 Argon-40, 41t, 42
rift valleys, 470, 490, 491f Andrews, Roy Chapman, 446 Arkose sandstone, 99, 101f, 121
tectonic plates, 200 Angiosperms, 335, 459, 507 Arsinotheres, 526
Agassiz, Louis, 13, 24, 26 Angular unconformities, 20, 110, 110f Arsinotherium, 527f
Age Anhydrite, 57, 77 Arthrodires, 366
absolute, 7 Animal Farm (Orwell), 544 Arthropoda, 511–512
biblical calculation of Earth’s age, 20, Animalia kingdom, 125, 133 Arthropods, 160, 240, 336f
Animals Artiodactyls, 505, 530, 532f, 537
34–35 Asaphia kowalewskii, 138
of earth, 45 classifying, 125 Assilina-Heterostegina concurrent range zone,
of mammals, 34 epifaunal, 152, 343
relative, 7 evolution of land, 335 150, 150f
of rocks, 7, 13, 29–30, 40f history, 159–160, 160f Assilina range zone, 150, 150f
of rock units, 146 infaunal, 152, 154f, 343 Asteroidea, 356
seafloor, 200f Paleozoic life forms, with shells, 337–338 Asteroids, 2, 460f. See also Bolides;
strata, fossils and, 144–145 Pleistocene Epoch, 537f
Age of Mammals. See Cenozoic Era Animikiea, 264f, 265 Meteorites; Shocked quartz
Age of Reptiles. See Mesozoic Era Animikie group, 257 asteroid belt, 226
Ages, 29, 45. See also specific ages Ankylosaurs, 439, 442f mass extinctions caused by, 377–380, 429,
Aglaophyton, 375, 376f Annularia, 378f
Agnathans, 363 Anomalocaris, 334f, 340f, 341 459–460, 462
Agnathids, 364–365 Antarctica, 2, 387, 470, 471f, 490–491, 500 Asterotheca, 378f
Agnostis, 357f Anteater, 519–520, 520f Asthenosphere, 8, 8f, 174–175, 187f, 189,
Alabaster, 57, 57f Anthropoidea, 543, 545–547
Albedo, 500–501 Anthropoids, 550–552 196f
Aldanella, 337, 337f Antiarchs, 366, 367f Astraeospongea, 345f, 346f
Algae, 152 Anticlines, 113, 207, 208f, 209f, 402f, 410 Astraspis, 365f
Alighieri, Dante, 482 Antler orogeny, 303, 323, 324f Asymmetrical ripple marks, 95, 97f
Alleghenian orogenic belt, 277 Athabasca Glacier, Canada, 290f, 291
Alleghenian orogeny, 277, 303, 305, 315, Atlantic Coastal Plain, 389, 472
Atlantic Coast chiton, 354f
320–321, 327 Atlantic Ocean, 178, 472

I1

I2 c Index

Atlantic rift, 387 Belcher Islands, Canada, 263f Brontotheres, 526, 529, 531f, 528
Atlas Mountains, 488, 489f Belemnites, 159, 159f, 417, 424 Brunton pocket transit, 208f
Atmosphere, 215, 229–232, 230f, 270f. Belt rocks, 261 Bryophytes, 374–375
Belt supergroup, 261f, 261 Bryozoans, 163f, 347–348, 350f, 381, 511–512
See also Oxygen Benthic marine ecosystem, 151–153, 152f Buitenkant, John, 294f
Atolls, 509, 510. See also Reefs Bentonite, 39, 293, 405, 479 Burgess shale, 287, 334f, 338–342, 339f,
Atomic mass, 36–37, 37t Bering land bridge, 543
Atomic number, 36 Beta particle, 37 340f, 381
Atoms, 36–40, 36f Biblical calculation of Earth’s age, 20, 34–35 Burgess shale fauna, 338f
Auditory ossicles, 142, 143f Biddulphia, 508f Burrowers, 152
Augite, 55 BIFs. See Banded iron formations
Austing, Ron, 546f Big Bang, 221 Cacops, 372, 372f
Australia, 160, 160f, 245, 245f, 418, 458, Biologic evolution, 8–9, 135, 144–145 Caecilians, 426, 505
Biosphere, 270f Calamites, 378f
470, 471f Biostratigraphic correlation, 108 Calamophyton, 376f
Australopithecines, 543, 552–554, 566 Biostratigraphic zones, 150 Calcareous algae, 101, 102f
Australopithecus africanus, 552–554, 552f, 554f Biotite, 68 Calcite, 48f, 51f, 56–57, 57f, 70, 74, 77
Australopithecus robustus, 553, 555f Biotite mica, 54 Calcium, 36, 37t
Autotrophs, 242 Bioturbation, 152, 343 Calcium-40, 42
Avalonia, 330 Biozone, 150 Caledonian clastic wedge, 326
Avalon terrane, 315 Birds, 144, 372–381, 427, 464, 517f, 540. See Caledonian orgeny, 305, 331
Awramic, Stanley, 262 Caledonian orogenic belt, 296–299, 300
Axial precession, 499, 500 also specific birds Caledonian orogeny, 277
Axial tilt, 499, 500f ancestors, 417 California, 470, 485–487
Aysheaia, 339f Cenozoic life forms, 505 Calliops, 360
Azurite, 50f flightless aquatic, 516 Camarasaurids, 436
flightless land, 516 Camarasurus, 436
Bacillus infernus, 242 forest, 516 Cambrian Period, 30, 32, 120, 161. See also
Bacillus subtilus, 244f Mesozoic life forms, rising, 419f, 451
Back-arc basin, 405f oceanic, 516 Precambrian Period
Bacteria domain, 125, 132, 240 skeletons, 516–517 base, 281
Badlands National Park, South Dakota, 476, songbirds, 516 explosion, 338–343, 339f, 340f
upland, 516 North America during, 279f
479, 479f Bison, 507, 534 ocean floor, 334f
Baffin Island, Canada, 489 Bitter Springs formation, 262, 262f paleogeography, 278f, 279f
Bahama Banks, 101, 102f, 473, 473f Bivalves, 354f, 421, 514f sandstone, 274f
Bakker, Robert, 444 Bivalvia, 350 strata, 285f
Baltica, 275, 277, 300, 303 Black Hills, 25 trilobites, 357f
Banded iron formations (BIFs), 231–232, Blastoidea, 356 Upper, lithofacies, 282f
Blastoids, 356, 357, 361f Cambrian System, 32
231f, 251, 257–258, 257f, 271 Blastopore, 359 Camels, 505, 518, 531f, 532, 532f, 533f
Bandicoot, 519, 521f Blastula, 359 Camenella, 337f
Banff National Park, Canada, 290–291 Blueschists, 192 Canadaspis, 340f
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa, Body fossils, 269 Canadian Shield, 233, 260–263, 271, 282,
Body waves, 170–171
237f Bolides, 459–461 492f
Barghoorn, Elso S., 264f Bones, 512. See also Earbones; Skeletons; Cannonball Sea, 474, 475f
Barium, 37t Canyon De Chelly National Monument,
Barnacles, 425 Skulls; Teeth
Barrandeoceras, 356f Cro-Magnon, 561 Arizona, 302f, 326f
Barred basin, 287, 289f dentary, 517 Canyonlands National Park, Utah, 28f
Barrier islands, 89f, 89 dinosaurs, 427, 432t, 433f, 435f, 439f, Capital Reef National Monument, Utah, 16f
Barrier reefs, 510 Carbon-12, 37t, 42–43
Basalt, 13, 49, 56, 60, 62–63, 63f, 65f, 169, 441f, 444–445 Carbon-14, 37t, 41, 41t, 42–44, 43f, 493
furcula, 516 Carbonate Compensation Depth (CCD),
210, 330f, 483, 484f horse foreleg, 529f
basaltic lava, 469, 483, 484f, 490f Neandertals jawbone, 557, 561f 155, 156f
basaltic magma, 65–66 neck, 518 Carbonates, 48, 67, 70–71, 70f, 82, 101–102,
Deccan Traps, 412, 412f of vertebrates, 146f
temperature, 189 whales, 144 102f, 306
Basal tetrapods, 337 Bovids, 534 Carbon dioxide, 43, 57, 70, 72, 101,
Basement rocks, 232–238 Bowen, Norman L., 63–64
Basilosaurus, 537, 538f Bowen’s Reaction Series, 63–64, 64f, 76 260–261, 380, 418
Basin and Range Province, 469, 478–482, Bowring, Samuel, 7f Carboniferous Period, 155, 156f, 159, 376f
Box Canyon Falls, Colorado, 118f Carboniferous System, 34
481f Brachiopods, 336f, 334, 348–349, 351f, 352f, Carboniferous tree, 378f
Basins, 193, 196f, 281, 281f, 306, 310. See Carbonization, 125, 127, 127f
353f, 379, 511–512, 515f Carcharodontosaurus saharicus, 433
also Basin and Range Province; Ocean Brachiosaurids, 436 Cardiopsis, 354f
basins; specific basins Brachiosaurus, 436, 437f Cardium, 514f
back-arc, 406f Brain, 518, 554, 558 Carmel formation, 395, 398f
barred, 287, 289f Branchiostoma, 363, 364f, 370 Carnassials, 524
depositional, 82 Breccia, 69, 69f Carnegie, Andrew, 430
marine, 507, 508f Breger, Dee, 495f Carnivora, 525
Permian, 311–312 Bright angel shale, 104, 104f, 118, 119f, 284, Carnivores, 507, 518
Bathyal environment, 153 Carnosaurs, 429
Bathyuriscus, 357f 284f, 285f Carolina Trough, 393f
Batostoma, 350f Brittle stars, 356, 424f Carpathian Mountains, 489, 502
Bats, 507, 518, 524 Brongniart, Alexander, 21 Caryocrinites ornatus, 361f
Baylis, Donna, 111f Brontops, 531f Cascade Mountains, 468f, 482, 484f, 502
Beagle, 23 Brontosaurus. See Apatosaurus Cassiar orogeny, 324
Bears, 518, 524 Cassowaries, 517
Beavers, 518, 522 Castorimorphs, 523
Becquerel, Henri, 35

Index b I3

Castorocauda, 454 Cherty limestone, 306 Coeleophysis, 429, 433f
Casts, preserving fossils, 127–128, 128f Chicxulub structure, 461, 462f Coelum, 267
Catastrophism, 13, 21, 26, 463 Chidsey, T. C., Jr., 408 Coelurosauravus, 447
Cathaymyrus, 343 Chief Mountain, 261f Coelurosaurs, 429
Cats, 518, 520, 522f Chimpanzees, 549f Coevolution, 459
Catskill clastic wedges, 303, 315, 318f, 319 China, 275, 277 Coiling, 139, 159, 159f
Caucasus Mountains, 488, 489f Chinle formation, 120, 394, 398f, 399f Collision-subduction-thrust-faulting, 469
“Cave man,” 558. See also Neandertals Chipmunks, 522 Color, 50, 50f, 54, 89, 121
CCD. See Carbonate Compensation Depth Chlorides, 49 Colorado Plateau, 469, 476, 476f, 482, 483f
Ceboidea, 546 Chlorine-35, 37t Columbia River Plateau, 61, 65, 65f, 469,
Cedar Breaks National Monument, Utah, Chlorine-37, 37t
Chlorite, 72 482, 484f
477f Chlorophytes, 374 Compaction, 49
Cell division, 136–137 Chloroplasts, 243, 456 Composition, 61–62, 61f
Cement, 91 Chondrichthyans, 366 Conception group, Newfoundland, 266f
Cementation, 49 Chondrichthyes, 366 Concurrent range zone, 150
Cenozoic Era, 26, 30, 120, 128f, 157, 160, Chondrites, 220, 220f. See also Meteorites Conglomerates, 69, 69f. See also specific
Chondrules, 220
163, 181 Chordates, 338, 342f conglomerates
Africa, 488 Chromosomes, 135, 136, 164, 519 Congo River, 86f
Antarctica, 490–491 Chronostratigraphic correlation, 81, 108–109 Conodont elements, 149f, 370–372, 371f
Basin and Range Province, 479–483 Chronostratigraphic units, 29–30, 32t, 103, Container, 239
climate, 502, 567 Contemporaneity of strata, 148
Colorado Plateau, 476, 476f, 483f 121. See also Time units Continent(s). See also Microcontinents;
Cordillera, North America, 473–478 Chunnel (English Channel), 411, 411f
deformation, 82 Cidaris, 423f Protocontinents; Supercontinents;
divisions of, 34 Cimolestes, 524
Earth surface cooling, 502 Cincinnati arch, 281f specific continents
Europe, 488–489 Clades, 140 Archean Eon, 238
geochronologic terminology, 470t Cladograms, 140–141, 142f, 538f climate and, 418–420
Gulf of Mexico, 473, 474f Cladoselache, 366, 367f, 368f dance of, 277
horses, 143 Clark, Chip, 340f, 367f Early Paleozoic, 275
major events, 506f Claron formation, 476 fit of, 180f
North America, 472–473 Class (taxonomy), 125, 132 Late Paleozoic clash of, 315–323, 321f
Pleistocene Ice Age, 491–497 Clastic, 69–70, 275 sedimentation along margins of, 254, 254f
Rocky Mountains, 474 Clastic wedges, 294, 295f separation of, 507
span of, 469 size of, 170
strata, 35, 473f, 474f, 475f Caledonian, 326 tectonics and, 82–83, 83f
tectonics, 470–472 Catskill, 303, 315, 318f, 319f Continental crust, 169, 175, 191f, 194f
West coast tectonics, 487–488, 487f Queenston, 275, 286, 294–295, 295f, 317 continental convergence, 189
Cenozoic life forms Clasts, 69–70, 91 exotic terranes, 204
amphibians, 505 Claws, 433–435, 434f, 544, 548 as felsic, 215, 235, 248
birds, 505 Clay, 56, 76, 198 oceanic crust convergence and, 189–192
fish, 505 Clay minerals, 56–57, 56f worldwide, 235, 235f
fossils, 505, 508 Cleavage, 51, 51f, 54, 55f, 57f, 74 Continental depositional environments, 84f,
grasslands, 505, 507–508 Cliffs of Moher, Ireland, 130f
invertebrates, 509–512 Climate, 501 86–87
mammals, 517–519 Cenozoic Era, 501, 539 Continental displacements, 169
marsupials, 507, 518, 519–520, 519t, 520f, continents and, 418–420 Continental drift theory, 169, 179–180
cooling, 420–421
521f Early Paleozoic, 299 fossil evidence for, 181–182
monotremes, 520 fossils indicating past, 158–159 geographic evidence for, 179
placental mammals, 518, 520–540 influences on, 418 paleoclimatology evidence for, 179–180
plankton, 505 Late Paleozoic, 304f, 327–328, 328f plate tectonics and, 177–179
vertebrates, 512–517 Mesozoic Era, 417–419, 464 of Wegener, 178, 179f
Centipedes, 426 past trends, 2 Continental shelves, 84–85, 85f
Central American land bridge, 520, 523f in Proterozoic Eon, 270–271, 270f Continental slopes, 84f, 85–86, 86f
Cephalochordata, 364f radiation and, 418 Convection cells, 194–195, 238
Cephalodiscus graptoloides, 360 tectonics and, 470–472 Convergence, 427, 428f
Cephalopods, 139, 145f, 162f, 349, 354f, Clinton iron, 299f Convergent evolution, 520
Cloud, Preston, 215, 233, 269 Convergent plate boundaries, 188, 191f
355f, 417, 423–424, 424f Cloudina, 269, 269f, 337 Cooksonia, 375, 375f
Ceratites, 351, 423 Clovis culture, 564 Cooling Rate, 35
Ceratopsia, 442–443, 446 Clypeaster, 515f Cope, Edwin D., 13, 25, 26
Ceratopsians, 442–444, 443f Cnidarians, 268, 346, 347f, 348f Coral, 98, 152, 255f, 343–345, 347f, 379,
Ceratosaurs, 429 Cnidocytes, 347
Ceratosaurus, 429, 434f Coal, 72, 104, 303, 313f, 320, 328, 328f 417, 511f, 540. See also Cnidarians;
Cercopithecoidea, 545, 548f Coast Range batholith, 396
Ceresiosaurus, 452f Cobban, W. A., 425f specific corals
Cetaceans, 518 Coccolithophorids, 154, 155f, 397f, 456, atolls and, 509, 510
Chalicotheres, 526, 529, 532f hexacorals, 347
Chalk, 34, 71, 385, 389–390, 397f 505, 508, 509f living, 512f
Channeled scablands, 496–497, 498f, 499f Coccoliths, 426, 456 rugose, 347, 349f
Charniodiscus, 266 Coccosphere, 457f scleractinids, 421
Chauff, K., 371f Cockrum, E. L., 519t tetracorals, 347
Cheirolepis, 366, 368f Coconino sandstone, 120 Coral reefs, 158, 158f, 204, 502, 509
Chemosynthesis, 240 Cocos plate, 487f Cordaites, 379f
Chemotrophs, 240 Codaster, 361f Cordillera, North America, 281f, 385, 389,
Chengjiang fauna, 338f, 342–343, 381 Coelacanths, 369, 370f
Chert, 54, 54f, 71, 71f 395, 400, 401f, 413, 501
Cenozoic Era, 473–478
crustal uplift, 477–478
Early Paleozoic events, 287–288, 292f
fossils, 474
sediment, 472, 474

I4 c Index

Cordilleran belt, 281, 323f, 391 Darwin, Charles, 8, 13, 21, 23–24, 23f, Dinotherium, 535f
Core (of Earth), 170–171, 171f, 191f 26, 35, 125, 135–138, 141, 164, Diorite, 49, 60, 62
Correlation, 108f, 121 239, 449, 509. See also Natural Dip, 176, 184f, 206
selection Diplodocids, 436
biostratigraphic, 108 Diplodocus, 436
chronostratigraphic, 109 Darwinius, 548–550 Diplograptus, 292f
defined, 107 Darwinius masillae, 550, 550f Diploid cells, 136
lithostratigraphic, 81, 108–109, 108f Daspletosaurus, 435f Diplomystis, 476f
strata, fossils and, 126 Datum, 112–113 Dipnoans, 366
types of, 107–108 Daughter element, 7, 37–38, 45 Discharge, 86
Corythosaurus, 440f Davis, L. E., 95f Discoasters, 493, 493f
Cosmic Background Explorer Satellite, 217f Dead Horse Point, Utah, 28f Disconformity, 110–111, 110f
Cosmopolitan species, 147 Deccan Plateau, India, 61 Discontinuities, 172–173, 173f, 174f, 175,
Cows, 519 Deccan Traps, 386, 412, 412f, 413, 462,
Coyote, 518f 175f, 211. See also specific discontinuities
Crabs, 240 483 Divergent plate boundaries, 8, 185
Craddock, C. J., 181f De Chelly sandstone, 302f, 327f Dixon, Don, 214f
Cranioceras, 533f D ecollement, 401f DNA. See Deoxyribonucleic acid
Crater Lake, 485, 486f Deep-sea sediment, 192, 494–495 DNA molecule, 9, 126, 135, 136f, 137, 144
Craton(s), 83, 83f, 231, 234f, 281f, 283, 399. Deep time, 7, 9 DNA sequencing, 144–145, 547
Deer, 518 Docodonts, 452
See also Cratonic sequences Deformations, 82, 321, 323, 323f Dodo, 517
Late Paleozoic, 303, 309–315 Deinonychus, 433, 436f Doelling, H. H., 408
North America, 303 Deiphon, 138, 139f Dogs, 518, 525, 530f
Pennsylvanian Period, 314f Deltas, 82, 88–89, 88f. See also specific deltas Dolomite, 56–57, 70–71, 76, 81, 263f, 289f
Cratonic sequences, 275, 282–283, 283t. See Density, 51 Dolphins, 453
Dentary, 517 Domains (taxonomy), 133–134, 133f, 241.
also specific cratonic sequences Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 135, 137,
Creodonta, 524, 525f See also specific domains
Crepidula, 514f 239 Domes, 207, 208f, 280, 280f, 300
Cretaceous Period, 159, 162f, 385–386, Depositional basins, 82 Doppler shift, 221
Depressed crust rebounds, 495, 497f Douglass, Earl, 430
387–388 Deserts, 394, 398f, 566 Dragonflies, 356, 358f. See also Mischoptera
Earth during, 420f Deuterostomes, 359 Dragons of seas, 448–449
epicontinental sea, 400–403, 426f Devonian Age, 110f, 142, 160 Drift, 87
limestone, 404f Devonian Period, 317–319 Dropstones, 259
paleogeographic map, 396f Dryomorphs, 551, 566
Cretaceous System, 34 mass extinctions, 377 Dryopithecus fontani, 551
Crinoidea, 356 paleogeography, 310f Drywall, 57
Crinoids, 306, 308f, 356–358, 362f, 417, trilobites, 357f “Duckbill dinosaurs,” 439, 459 See also
Devonian System, 34, 120f
422f Devore, Nicholas, 513f Hadrosauridae
Crocodiles, 427, 428f, 448f, 515 Diamonds, 51 Dunes, 88f, 96f, 102f
Crocodilians, 505, 515–516 Diapsids, 447f Dune sandstone, 418
Cro-Magnon, 561, 563f Diatoms, 152, 154f, 456, 458f, 505, 508, Dunkard group, 321, 323f
Cross-bedding, 95, 96f, 97, 100f, 306, 319f, Dunkleosteus, 366, 367f
509f Dymek, R. F., 25f, 274f, 326f, 408f, 479f
326f Diatryma, 517, 517f
Cross-cutting relationships, principle of, Dickinsonia, 267, 268f, 268 Earbones, 142, 142f, 372
Dicranurus, 357f Early Paleozoic, 281–282. See also Late
21–23, 22f Didelphis, 521f
Crossing over, in chromosomes, 136 Dietz, R. S., 420f Paleozoic; Paleozoic Era; Paleozoic life
Crossopterygians, 369, 369f Differentiation, 215, 228, 229f forms
Cross-sections, 81, 112–113, 113f Dimetrodon, 373, 444 Cambrian base, 281
Crurotarsans, 429 Dimjian, Gregory G., 547f climate, 299–300
Crust (of Earth), 8, 8f, 50, 58–59, 82, Dinoflagellates, 456, 456f, 508, 508f continents, 277
Dinohyus, 532f Cordillera, North America events,
169–170, 211, 216. See also Continental Dinosaur(s), 30, 34, 127f, 162f, 380, 390f, 287–288, 292f
crust; Oceanic crust cratonic sequences, 277, 282–287
in Archean Eon, 229 416f, 417, 430f, 464. See also specific dance of continents, 277
chemical elements in, 53t deposition in far North, 288–289
defined, 175 dinosaurs events of, 276f, 281–282, 289–296
Crustaceans, 152, 425 bones, 429, 431f, 432f, 436f, 440f, 443f, orogenic belts, 280–281, 296–298
Cryptoblastus, 361f rocks, 287
Crystal habit, 52 445 in Southwestern North America in,
Crystalline rocks, 18, 82 claws, 433–436, 436f, 439f 283–284
Crystallization, 49, 63–64, 66, 76 cloning, 445 stable interior during, 277, 280
Ctenodonta, 354f eggs, 445–446, 445f Earth, 1–2, 215, 217, 217f, 218f, 218t,
Curie point, 182 family tree, 429f 222–223, 247. See also Archean Eon;
Cuvier, Georges, 13 Jurassic Period, 395–396 Crust (of Earth); Inner core of Earth;
Cyanobacteria, 160, 243–245, 257, 263f, major groups of, 432t Lithosphere; Magnetic field; Mantle;
374, 374f Mesozoic life forms, 429–446 Outer core of Earth
Cycads, 421f, 457–458, 458f parenting by, 445–446 age/birth of, 45–46
Cycles, 19. See also specific cycles pelvic structures, 429, 432f atmosphere, 215
Cyclomedusa, 266f plated, 440–442, 441f biblical calculation of age, 20, 34–35
Cyclothems, 303, 308–309, 313f, rush, 25 core, 172–173, 173f, 186f
331 skeletons, 429f Cretaceous Period, 417
Cynognathus, 181, 374f teeth, 429, 432–433, 435, 435f differentiating, 228–229
Cytoplasm, 153f trackways, 130f glaciation, 260, 260f
warm-blooded/cold-blooded, 444–445 in Hadean, 233
Dacentrurus, 441f, 441 Dinosauria, 429
Dakota group, 405–406, 406f Dinosaur National Monument, 430–431,
Daphaenodon, 532f
Dart, Raymond, 552 430f
Dinotheres, 535

hydrosphere, 215 hadal, 153 Index b I5
internal layers, 215 hostile, 242
internal zones, 172–175 marine depositional, 84–86, 84f Exogyra, 421, 421f
moon, 223, 223f sea-level change and, 106–107 Exotic terranes, 202, 205f, 391–392
orbit, 470 species in new, 125
origin of, 227–230 Enzymes, 135 continental crust, 204
spin, 174 Eoastrion, 264f, 265 defined, 202
surface cooling in Cenozoic Era, 495 Eocaecilia, 427 earth history and, 204
Triassic Period, 423f Eocene Epoch, 470t, 488 microcontinents as, 203
why study, 2 insect, 128f oceanic crust, 204
Earth history, 13 mammals of late, 528f, 531f Extrusive igneous rocks, 49, 59
in America, 24–25 paleogeography, 471f Eyes, 544–545, 546f
deep time, 7, 9 reefs, 509
exotic terranes and, 212 Eoentophysalis, 263f Facies, 104f, 121, 317f. See also Lithofacies
igneous rocks and, 66–67 Eolian environment, 88 back-reef, 312
metamorphic rocks and, 76 Eomaia, 455 biofacies, 104
minerals documenting, 50 Eons, 30, 45. See also specific eons defined, 104
plate tectonics, 7–9 Eosphaera, 264f, 265 fore-reef, 312
sedimentary rocks and, 72 Epicenter, 172f Graptolite, 296
stages, 18 Epicontinental seas, 107, 275, 400–403, 418 lateral, 106, 106f
themes in, 7–9 Epifaunal animals, 152, 343 Shelly, 296
Earthquakes, 2, 9, 19, 169, 177, 200, 211. See Epigaulis, 533f through time, 104–105
Epochs, 30, 45. See also specific epochs
also Waves Eras, 30, 32, 45. See also specific eras Faculative quadrupeds, 437
East Africa fossil sites, 551, 553f Erect posture, 554, 566 Failed arm, 194, 196f
Eastern U.S. physiographic provinces, 322f Erwin, Douglas, 380 Fall line, 387
Echinodermata, 422 Esopermatopteris, 376f Family (taxonomy), 125, 132
Echinoderms, 336f, 356–359, 359, 359f, Estuaries, 89–90 Farallon plate, 487, 487f, 488f, 502
Eudimorphodon, 448f Faults, 185–186, 187f, 188f, 205, 205f, 212,
361f, 381, 511–512 Eukarya domain, 125, 132, 241
Echinoidea, 356 Eukaryotes, 243, 243t, 244f, 245f, 247, 265, 469. See also specific faults
Echinoids, 363f, 422, 423f, 515f Favosites, 347, 348f
Echo-sounding, 177 271 Fayum region, Egypt, 550, 551f
Ecology, 151. See also Paleoecology Euoplocephalus, 442f Feel, of minerals, 52
Ecosystems, 151–152 Eurasia, 193, 193f, 472 Feldspar, 42, 54, 55f, 60f, 61, 62, 68–69
Eurasian plate, 185f, 201f Felsic, 215, 235, 248
marine, 151–155, 152f Europe Fenestella, 350f
pelagic marine, 151, 153f Fermenters, 242
Ectothermic, 444 Cenozoic Era, 487–488 Fern Glen formation, 71f
Edaphosaurus, 373 during Late Paleozoic, 326–327 Ferns, 378f
Edentates, 518, 521–522 paleogeographic map, 410f Ferrassie Neandertal site, France, 560
Ediacaran Biota, 266, 266f Tethys Sea in, 406–410, 410f Ferromagnesian minerals, 55, 61
Ediacaran fauna, 337f Europolemus, 544f Ferrous iron oxide, 91
Ediacaran fossils, 269 Eurypterids, 299f, 355, 358f Fertilization, 136, 137f
Ediacaran Rawnsley Quartzite, 267f, 268f Eusthenopteron, 369–370, 369f, 370f, 372 Filter feeders, 343
Edmaier, Bernhard, 102f, 402f Evaporites, 57, 72, 77, 180, 286–287, 289f, Finger Lakes, 24
Edmontonia, 441, 442f Fining upward sequence, 284
Edrioasteroidea, 356 305f, 311, 387, 399, 413 Fish, 144, 380, 462, 515f. See also specific fish
Eiseley, Loren, 543 Evolution, 125. See also Biologic evolution;
Elasmosaurus, 448 acanthodians, 363–364
El Capitan, 317f Lamarck hypothesis; Natural selection; agnathids, 364–365
Electrons, 36, 174 Punctuated evolution Cenozoic life forms, 505
Elements, 36, 37t, 52, 53t. See also case for, 141–145 chondrichthyes, 363, 366
Daughter element; Parent element; coevolution, 459 evolution of, 365f
Periodic Table of Elements; specific continuous changes in life, 133–141 fishapods, 367–370
convergent evolution, 520 jawless, 364–365
elements of earbones, 142, 143f with jaws, 366
Elephant Rocks State Park, Missouri, 59f evidence for, 126, 141–145 lobefins, 366
Elephants, 507, 518, 534–537. See also final human stages, 557–563 osteichthyes, 366–367
of fish, 364f Paleozoic life forms, 363–368
Mastodons fossils and, 35 placoderms, 363–365
The Elephant’s Child (Kipling), 536 gene pool and, 137 with skeletons, 366–367, 512
Embryologic cleavage, 363f of geologic time scale, 32 teleosts, 505
Emiliana huxleyi, 509f gradual vs. sporadic, 139–140 Fission track method of radioactive dating,
Emus, 517 heredity and, 135
Endemic species, 148 of land animals, 335 44, 44f
Endothermic, 444 modifications of mammals, 519t Flagella, 345
Eniwetok Island, 509 mutation and, 136–137 Flatirons, Colorado, 309, 314f
Entelodonts, 531f, 532f, 540 organisms through time, 23–24 Fleming, V., 127f
Entrada sandstone, 384f paleontology and, 141–144 Flesh-eaters, 524–525, 528f
Environments, 84f, 86. See also Continental perissodactyls tree, 529f Fletcher, K., 111f
in Permian Period ammonoid Flexibility, in minerals, 52
depositional environments; cephalopods, 154f Flexicalymene, 358f
Transitional depositional environments phylogeny and, 140–141 Flint, 54
abyssal, 153 of plants, 335, 337 Floaters, 151
bathyal, 153 population and, 137 Floating depth, 176–177
Carbon-14 entering, 42–43 reproduction and, 136 Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument,
conditions, 83 species and, 137
of deposition, 83–89 theories of, 135 Colorado, 126f, 477, 512
environmental change, 464 Exobiology, 239 Focus, 172f
Eolian, 88 Folds, 16f, 170, 190, 205, 206, 207f, 395
fossils indicating past, 151–155 Foliation, 73
Fomitchella, 337f
Fool’s gold. See Pyrite

I6 c Index

Footwall, 205 Geography, 157, 179. See also Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona, 104,
Foraminifera, 150–151, 150f, 153f, 154, 158, Paleogeography 104t, 118–120, 118f, 119f, 285f

343–344, 355, 381, 425–426, 426f, 505 Geological Survey of Canada, 339 Grand Staircase—Escalante National
Foreland basin, 403–406 Geologic columns, 81, 112, 112f, 119f Monument, 407–408, 407f, 408f
Forests, 394, 398f, 516, 565 Geologic maps, 81, 113, 114f
Formations, 103–104, 103f, 109f, 116f. See Geologic range, 145 Grand Tetons, 478, 480f
Geologic structures, 205–206, 469. See also Granite, 49, 58, 61–62, 61f, 68f, 69f, 111f,
also Banded iron formations;
Deformations; specific formations Faults; Folds 330f
Fossil(s), 13, 26, 98, 164. See also East Africa Geologic time scale, 8, 13, 30–32, 31f, 32f Granitic rocks, 62, 236, 400f
fossil sites; Messil fossil site, Germany; Geology, 2–3, 9 Granodiorite, 62
Microfossils; Preservation of fossils; Grant, R. E., 139f, 353f
Trace fossils bathtub, 176 Granulites, 215, 236–237, 236f, 247
ammonites, 14f as “eclectic” science, 3 Graphite, 51
Archean Eon, 244–245 historical, 2, 18, 26 Graptolites, 287, 292f, 360–361, 364f
body, 269 of National Parks, 118–120, 118f, 210, Grasslands, 505, 507–508
Cenozoic life forms, 505, 508 Gravitational attraction, 5, 19
continental drift theory verified by, 210f, 246, 246f, 290–291, 291f, Gravity, 169, 201, 201f
181–182 329–330, 394–395, 402f–403f, Gravity anomaly, 201, 201f
Cordillera, North America, 473 426–427, 479 Graywacke sandstone, 99, 101f, 121
for correlating rock units, 146–148, 148f physical, 2, 9 Great flood, 14, 21, 178
defined, 125 Geosaurus, 451f Great Lakes, 495, 496, 498f
discoveries, 15 Gephyrocapsa oceanica, 155f “Great Oo€lyte,” 103
Ediacaran, 266–268 Giant Ground Sloth, 44 Great Salt Lake, 496
evolution and, 35 Giant’s Causeway, 489, 490f “Great unifying theory,” 8
geologic range, 145 Gibbons, 545, 549f Greenhouse effect, 328, 500
guide, 150–151 Giganotosaurus, 433 Green River formation, 475, 475, 476f, 512
gunflint chert, 264–265, 264f Ginkgo biloba, 376, 458f. See also Maidenhair Greenstone belts, 45, 237f, 238f
how formed, 14–15 tree Greenstones, 75, 215, 236–237, 236f, 247
index, 150–151 Giraffes, 526 Grenville Orogeny, 258–259, 259f, 271
Jurassic Period, 127f Glacial deposits, 84f, 86–87, 88f Groups, 104, 150. See also Supergroups;
molecular, 247, 264 Glacial erratics, 24, 247
paleogeography indicated by, 155–158 Glacial National Park, 261 specific groups
past climates indicated by, 158–159 Glacial striations, 24, 180f, 305f Gryphaea, 421, 421f
past environments indicated by, Glaciation, 259–260, 260f, 270, 271 Gschmeissner, Steve, 155f
151–155 Glacier National Park, Montana, 261f Guadalupe Mountains, 311, 315f
principle of fossil succession, 20–21 Glaciers, 2, 19, 24, 26, 290f, 291, 327, 418, Guide fossils, 150. See also Index fossils
reworked, 149 470, 491, 492f, 494f. See also Glacial Gulf Coastal Plain, 469
shells, 4f deposits Gulf of Aden, 472
small shelly, 337 Glaesser, M. F., 267f Gulf of California, 403
spider, 15f, 480f Global cooling, 377 Gulf of Mexico, 385, 387–388, 392f, 413,
strata age and, 144–145 Global ice volume, 495f
strata correlation and, 126 Global Positioning System (GPS), 198 420, 461, 473, 474f, 501
stratigraphy and, 144–151 Global warming, 107, 380, 381, 539–540, Gulf of St. Lawrence, 496
Fossil record, 126, 133, 164 566 Gulf of Suez, Egypt, 472f
Fossil succession, principle of, 20–21 Globigerinoides, 426f Gulf Stream, 472f
Foster, D., 231f Globorotalia menardii, 494, 495f Gunflint chert fossils, 264–265, 264f
Fountain formation, 314f Globorotalia truncatulinoides, 159, 159f, 495, Gutenberg discontinuity, 172, 173f
Fractional crystallization, 66, 76 496f Guyots, 185–189, 188f
Franciscan fold belt, California, 396 Globotruncana, 426f Gymnosperms, 160, 335, 458, 464
Franciscan formation, 399f Glomar Challenger, 5, 6f, 7 Gypsum, 5, 57, 57f, 68, 77, 286–287, 478
Freiberg Mining Academy, 18 Glossopleura, 112f, 113
Fringing reefs, 509, 513f Glossopteris flora, 181–182, 181f, 327, 375, Hadal environment, 153
Frogs, 426, 427f, 505 381 Hadean, 31f, 216f, 233
Frustule, 457 Glyptodonts, 521, 522f Hadrosauridae, 438–439
Fuchsel, Georg, 13 Gneiss, 74f, 75, 75f, 235f Hadrosaurs, 439, 439f, 444
Fungia, 511f Goats, 526 Haikouichthys, 364
Fungi kingdom, 125, 133 Gohier, Francois, 90f, 110f, 126f, 404f, 440f Half-life, 7, 39, 40, 41t
Furcula, 516 Gold, 477 Halimeda, 101, 102f
Fusion, 219 Gomphos elkema, 524, 524f Halite, 52, 56f, 57, 68, 77
Fusulinids, 343–344, 344f Gomphotherium, 535 Hall, James, 13, 24, 26, 82
Gondwana, 181–182, 181f, 183t, 275, 277, Halley, Edmund, 35
Gabbro, 49, 60, 60f, 62–63 303–304, 320, 332, 377, 381 Hallucigenia, 341f, 342
Gadomski, Michael P., 297f Africa and, 410 Hamilton, W. B., 180f, 305f, 327f, 344f
Gametes, 136 India and, 412 Hamlin, A. H., 408
Gamma radiation, 38 during Late Paleozoic, 327 Hands, 543, 544f, 545f, 566
Ganges River, 86f Mesozoic Era events, 410 Hanging wall, 205, 206f, 207f
Garden of the Gods, Colorado, 309 South America and, 410, 412 Hanson Creek formation, 344f
Gastropods, 343, 354f, 422, 425, 514f Goniatites, 351, 423 Haploid cells, 136
Gavials, 515 Gorillas, 546, 549f Haplophrentis, 340f
Genes, 136–137, 164 Gowganda formation, 251, 256, 271 Harding sandstone, 365f
Genetic code, 126 GPS. See Global Positioning System Hardness, 51, 51t
Genetics, 135 Graded bedding, 95, 96, 97f Hardy, David A., 460f
Genus (taxonomy), 125, 132 Grain, 92–94, 94f Hasmark formation, 112f
Geochronologic units, 29–30, 32t. See also Grammysia, 354f Hawaii, 59f, 61, 202–203, 202f, 210, 210f
Grand Canyon, 25–26, 25f, 58, 119f, 284, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, 210, 210f
Time units 284f, 285f, 482, 484f Hayden, Ferdinand, 13, 25–26, 25f
Geochronology, 29 Precambrian rocks, 260–262 Hedgehog, 518
supergroup, 118, 261, 262f Heliophyllum halii, 255f
Heliotropic, 262

Index b I7

Helium, 36f Hydrogen, 36, 37t Paleozoic, 335, 344–361
Hell Creek formation, 547 Hydrogen sulfide gas, 90 terrestrial, 426
Hematite, 91 Hydrologic cycle, 232, 232f Iridium, 460, 460f, 461f, 463, 464
Hemicyclaspis, 365f, 365 Hydrosphere, 215 Iron, 37t, 89. See also Banded iron
Herbivores, 508 Hydrothermal vents, 231, 241f, 242, 248
Hercynian orogeny, 277, 305, 327, 332 Hylobatidae, 547 formations
Heredity, 135. See also Genetics Hylonomus, 373 Clinton, 299f
Hermit shale, 120 Hyomandibular, 142 meteorites, 220, 220f
Herodotus, 14 Hypercapnia, 380 ore, 251
Herrerasaurus, 429, 433f Hyperthermophiles, 240 oxide, 90
Hesperornis, 409f Hypertragulus, 533, 534f in Paleoproterozoic Era, 253–257
Hesperosuchus, 427, 428f Hypertrophy, 536 stony-iron meteorites, 220
Hess, Harry H., 185–186, 195 Hypothesis, 3, 6, 8–9 Ischium, 429, 435f, 451
Heterodontosauridae, 438–439 Islands. See also specific islands
Heterodontosaurus, 438 “Ice Age hypothesis,” 24 Archean Eon, 236
Hexacorals, 347 Lamarck, 125, 133 barrier, 84f, 89, 89f
Hexagonaria, 349f natural selection, 24 as volcanoes, 65, 169, 509
Himalayan Mountains, 16f, 189, 193f, 469, nebular, 219–221 Isolation, 157
Hypsilophodon, 438, 438f Isopach maps, 113–114, 116f, 289f, 296f
489f, 501 Hypsilophodontidae, 438–439 Isotelus, 357f
Hintze, Lehi, 399f, 403f Hyrachus, 528f Isotopes, 37, 41t, 159. See also Half-life;
Hippopotamus, 530, 531f
Historical geology, 2, 9, 18, 30 Iapetus Ocean, 259, 275, 277, 291, 296, 300 Radioactive dating; Radioactive decay;
Hoffman, Paul F., 254f Icarosaurus, 447 specific isotopes
Hogbacks, 405, 406f Ice ages, 24, 106, 233, 251, 558. See also Isthmus of Panama, 470, 500
Holden, J. C., 420f Iverson, Carlyn, 550f
Holdener, E., 424f Pleistocene Ice Age
Holocene Epoch, 470t, 561 “Ice Age hypothesis,” 24 J€ager, E., 41t
Holocene Series, 34 little ice age, 493 Jasper National Park, Canada, 290–291,
Hominids, 545–546, 556 mammoths, 128
Hominins, 546–547, 551–553 Ordovician Period, 297 290f, 291f
Hominoidea, 545 Paleoproterzoic Era, 256 Jegou, Christian, 542f, 563
Hominoids, 545–546 Iceland, 197f Jellyfish, 160, 160f, 268
Homo erectus, 543, 556–557, 557f, 559f, 560f, Ice sheets, 304 JOIDES Resolution research center, 200f
Ichthyosaurs, 417, 418, 447, 451f Joly, John, 35
566 Ichthyostega, 369f, 372f Juan de Fuca plate, 484–485, 485f, 487f,
Homo genus, 555–556 Ichthyostegids, 372, 381
Homologous structures, 144 Idaho batholith, 396 502
Homo rudolfensis, 556, 556f Igneous rocks, 38, 39f, 49, 52, 58, 76. See also Jupiter, 215, 217, 217f, 218f, 218t, 226, 227,
Homo sapiens, 1, 132, 147, 507, 543–544,
specific igneous rocks 227f, 228, 247
557, 561 composition of, 61–62, 62f Jura Mountains, 34
Homo sapiens neandertalensis, 558 crystallization, 63–64 Jurassic Park, 445
Honeycreepers, 139, 139f Earth history and, 66–67 Jurassic Period, 28f, 376, 386, 391f
Hooker, Joseph, 24 properties of, 62f
Hooves, 529 representative, 62–63 dinosaurs, 399–400
Hoplitoides sandovalensis, 425f texture of, 58–61, 60f, 62f, 77 fossils, 130f
Hornblende, 54, 55f, 61 Iguanodon, 439, 439f Laramide orogeny, 386, 395–396
Horner, John R. (“Jack”), 445 Iguanodontidae, 438 marine reptiles, 399–400
Hornfels, 75 Ilium, 429, 432f Nevadan orogeny, 386, 395–396, 419f
Horses, 143, 505, 507, 516, 522f, 528f, 529f, Impact craters, 463 paleogeographic map, 388f
Impact melt, 463 sandstone, 90f, 99f
530f Inclusions, 23, 23f Sevier orogeny, 386, 397
Cenozoic Era, 143 Incus, 142, 143f, 518 strata, 16f
family tree, 526–530 Index fossils, 150–151. See also Guide fossils Western North America, 405f
foreleg bone, 529f India, 19f, 61, 193, 193f, 412–413, 418, 470 Jurassic System, 34
phylogenetic tree of, 141f Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, 496,
teeth, 143Hotspots, 202–203, 203f, 210f Kaibab formation, 120
Hsu, Kenneth J., 5–6 498f Kaibab limestone, 120, 326
Hudsonian orogeny, 257 Indian Ocean, 470, 472 Kakabekia, 264f, 265
Hudson River Palisades, 387, 390f Indus River, 86f Kangaroo, 518, 522
Huff, W. D., 292 Infaunal animals, 152, 154f, 343 Kant, Immanuel, 219
Humans. See also Homo sapiens Inheritance. See Heredity Kaolinitec, 56f
in Americas, 563–564, 566 Inner core of Earth, 173 Karaurus, 427
erect posture, 554, 566 Inner ear, human, 142, 143f Karkoschka, E., 227f
final evolution stages, 557–563 Inner planets, 215, 217, 218f, 222–224, 247. Karoo basin, 411, 412f, 413
hands, 544f Karoo System, 412, 412f
hunters, 505, 539 See also Earth; Mars; Mercury; Venus Kaskaskia cratonic sequence, 275, 283, 303,
inner ear, 142, 143f Insectivores, 518
overpopulation, 543, 564–565 Intermontane, 469 306–307, 331
skeletons, 562f International Commission on Stratigraphy, Kaskaskia sea, 306
skulls, 563f Katmai volcano, Alaska, 210
taxonomy, 545t 31f Kayenta formation, 394, 395, 427f
vertebral column, 558 Intertidal zone, 245f Kazakhstania, 275, 277
Hurley, Patrick M., 29 Intraplate volcanoes, 210 Kelvin, William Thomson, 35
Hutton, James, 12f, 13, 18–21, 19f, 26, 110 Intrusive igneous rocks, 49, 59–60 Kentrosaurus, 441f, 441
Huxley, Thomas, 444, 450, 452f Invertebrates, 151. See also specific Keokuk formation, 362f
Hyaenodon, 531f Kettles, 496
Hydnoceras, 346f invertebrates Keweenawan rocks, 258, 271
Hydra, 346 Cenozoic life forms, 509–512 Kilauea volcano, Hawaii, 59f, 210, 211f
geologic ranges of, 161f Kilbourne Hole Maar, New Mexico, 174f
marine, 421–422, 509–510, 540 Kimberella, 267, 269f
Mesozoic life forms, 421–427 King, Clarence, 13

I8 c Index

Kingdoms (taxonomy), 125, 132–133. Leanchoila, 339f Magnetic polarity, 169, 197–198, 198f
Lehmann, Johann, 13 Magnetism, 50, 52, 213. See alsos
See also specific kingdoms Lemur, 546f
Kipling, Rudyard, 536 Lepidodendron, 375, 376f Paleomagnetism
Klamath Mountains, California, 325f Lepidosaurs, 427 Magnetite, 52f, 184f
Knight, C. R., 537f Lewis thrust fault, 261 Magnetometer, 177
Koalas, 519 Lexovisaurus, 441f Maiasaura, 445f, 446
Kolata, D. R., 292 Life forms. See also Cenozoic life forms; Maidenhair tree, 458f
Komatiites, 229, 229t Malachite, 50f
Kona dolomite, 263f Mesozoic life forms; Paleozoic life Malleus, 142, 143f, 518
Koobi Fora, 553, 556f forms Malthus, Thomas, 24
Krakatoa, 65 animal history, 161–162, 161f Mammals, 30, 132, 144, 372–374, 418, 427,
Kraseman, Stephen F., 504f earliest traces, 159–160
Kresan, Peter L., 16f feeding, 242–243 464. See also Placental mammals; specific
Kring, David, 462f first, 215
Kronosaurus, 448 in hostile environments, 242 mammals
mass extinctions, 163 age of, 34
Labradorite, 55f origin of, 238–247 Cenozoic life forms, 518–519
Labrador Trough, 256f, 257 on other planets, 163–164 characteristics, 517–518
Labyrinthodonts, 372, 381 plant history, 160, 161f earliest, 518
Lacustrine deposits, 86 Proterozoic Eon, 263–271 early, in Miocene Epoch, 530f
Lagomorphs, 524 in solar system, 163 early, in Pliocene Epoch, 533f
Lagoons, 84f, 89–90, 89f in Universe, 164 evolutionary modifications, 519t
Lake(s), 492–493, 496. See also specific lakes Limacina, 155f groups/features, 518–519
Lake deposits. See Lacustrine deposits Limestone, 14f, 69f, 70, 71, 71f, 82, 99–102, of late Eocene Epoch, 528f, 529f
Lake Malawi, 491f 303, 399. See also specific limestones lower jaw, 517
Lake Michigan, 496 cherty, 71, 71f, 303 Mesozoic life forms, 139, 419f, 451–455,
Lake Missoula, 497 Cretaceous Period, 404f
Lake of the Woods, Canada, 236f Ordovician Period, 39f 454f
Lake Superior, 24, 257–258, 257f, 271, 274f Paleozoic Era, 103 responding to grasslands, 507–508
Lake Tanganyika, 490f strata, 70f teeth, 450–451, 452f, 517
Lamarck, Jean Baptiste, 125, 133 texture of, 71f types, 455–456
Lamarck hypothesis, 125, 133, 134f Lindow Man, 128, 129f Mammoth Geyser, 203f
Lambeosaurines, 439 Lingula, 351f, 512f Mammoths, 128, 129f, 507, 518, 535, 536f,
Lambeosaurus, 440f Linnaean system, 132
Land bridges, 157, 158f, 507, 520, 522f, 543, Linnaeus, Carolus, 125 539
Linn e, Carl von. See Linnaeus, Carolus Mancos shale, 421f, 425f
563. See also specific land bridges Lithic sandstone, 99, 100f, 101f, 121 Mantle, 8, 8f, 169, 172, 196–197, 211
Land plants, 374–375, 380, 457–459 Lithification, 67 Marble, 74, 75f, 76f
Lanting, Frans, 546f Lithofacies, 104, 104f, 105f, 115, 117f Marginifera ornata, 138, 139f, 353f
Lapworthella, 337, 337f Lithography, 71 Marginocephalia, 442–444
Laramide orogeny, 386, 395–396, 406 Lithology, 108–109 Marine depositional environments, 84–86,
Large braincase, 518 Lithosphere, 8–9, 8f, 81, 169, 174–175, 184,
Lassen Peak, 485 187f, 211, 270f 84f, 85f
Late Paleozoic. See also Early Paleozoic; Lithostratigraphic correlation, 81, 108–109, Marmots, 522
108f Marrella, 334f, 341, 341f
Paleozoic Era; Paleozoic life forms Lithostrotionella, 349f Mars, 215, 217, 217f, 218f, 218t, 223–226,
clash of continents, 315–323, 321f Lithotrophs, 242
climate, 303f, 327–328, 328f Little people of South Pacific, 560, 562 224f, 225f, 247
cratonic sequences, 303 Littoral zone, 152 Marsh, Othniel C., 13, 25, 26
cratons, 303, 309–315 Lizards, 505, 512 Marshall Islands, 509
Europe during, 326–327 Lobe-fins, 366–367, 371f Marsupials, 507, 518, 519–520, 519t, 520f,
Gondwana during, 327 Lockport dolomite, 288f
mineral products, 328, 331 Loess, 497, 499f 521f. See also specific marsupials
paleogeography, 304f Lophophore, 351f Marsupium, 519
seas in, 306–309 Love waves, 171 Martinez, Angrew J., 57f
Southwestern North America in, Lower jaw and teeth, 517 Mass extinctions, 163, 334, 337, 377, 501,
Low velocity zone, 175
311–315, 315f, 316f “Lucy” (Australopithecus afarensis), 553, 555f 505, 509
Western sedimentation, 323–326 Lunar highlands, 223 from asteroids, 379–380, 429, 460–461,
Latimeria, 370f Lungfish, 366, 368f
Laurasia, 178, 180f, 251, 305, 412 Luster, in minerals, 51–52 464
Laurentia, 253, 259, 275, 277, 299, 303–304, Lycopsids, 375 Cenozoic life forms, 535–536
Lyell, Charles, 13, 21–24, 21f, 26, 35, 72, Devonian Period, 378
320 303, 493 from environmental change, 464
Lava, 58–61, 64–65, 66f. See also Magma; Lystrosaurus, 181 global warming and, 539
from human hunters, 539
Volcanic ash; Volcanic eruption; Maar, 174f Mesozoic life forms, 418, 424–425,
Volcanoes Machaeroides, 528f
aa, 59f, 210 Mafic, 215, 234, 248 455–459, 464
basaltic, 169, 469, 483, 484f, 490f Magma, 58–66, 251, 482. See also Lava; Ordovician Period, 378
flows, 386 of Paleozoic life forms, 378–380, 379f
pahoehoe, 59f, 210 Volcanic ash; Volcanic eruption; Permian Period, 380
pillow, 175f Volcanoes Pleistocene Epoch, 539
plateaus, 65 ocean, 229–230, 231f sporadic occurrence, 464
Lawson, A. F., 251 Magnesium, 37t, 71 volcanic eruption and, 380, 462, 464
Lead, 331 Magnetic field, 182, 183–184, 183f, 184f, Mass spectrometer, 38
Lead-206, 37t, 38f, 40f, 41, 41t 199f, 222f Mastodons, 507, 518, 526, 533f, 534, 535f,
Lead-207, 40–41
Lead-208, 37t, 41t 536f, 539
Leakey, Louis, 551 Matrix, 91
Leakey, Mary, 551, 555f Matternes, J. H., 528f
Matthews, Drummond, 196
Maturity (sandstone forming sediments), 98
Mauna Loa volcano, Hawaii, 210
Mawsonites, 160f
McCauley, W. J., 519t
McHugh, T., 520f, 548f, 549f

Index b I9

McMenamin, Mark, 269 Meteorites, 2, 3f, 19, 45, 173, 174f, 214, 418 Mohs scale of mineral hardness, 51, 51t,
Meagher limestone, 112f carbonaceous chondrites, 220, 220f 216f
Mecistotrachelus, 447 defined, 220
Mediterranean region, 6f as early Solar System, 219–220 Molasse, 489
Medusa, 347, 347f iron, 220, 220f Molds, preserving fossils, 127–128, 128f
Megaloceros, 534, 534f ordinary chondrites, 220 Molecular fossils, 247, 264, 265
Megatherium, 521, 523f stony-iron, 220 Molecules, 238. See also DNA molecule
Megatylopus, 533f Mollusks, 152, 338, 349–350, 354f, 381, 415,
Megazostrodon, 452 Meteors, 220
Meiosis, 136, 137f Mica, 51–52, 54, 62. See also specific micas 510
M elange, 192, 396, 399f Mice, 524 Monkeys, 547f, 551f
Melonechinus, 363f Michigan basin, 281f Monoclines, 176, 178f
Melville, Herman, 537 Micrite, 71 Monongahela group, 321
Members, 104 Microcontinents, 203 Monoplacophorans, 349, 354f
Mendel, J. Gregor, 24, 135 Microfossils, 264–265 Monotremes, 452, 518–519, 520f
Mercury, 215, 217, 217f, 218f, 218t, 219, Microplates, 204 Monson Gneiss, New Hampshire, 75f
Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 177f, 185, 196 Montastrea cavernosa, 512f
222f, 247 Midocean ridges, 179f, 185–188, 186f, 197f, Moon (of Earth), 223, 223f, 227f
Merychippus, 528, 530f Mooney Falls member, 104, 104f
Merycodus, 533f 199f, 240, 241f Moon rocks, 45, 224f
Merycoidodon, 531f Migration, 157, 157f Moraines, 24, 87f, 493
Meso (middle), 30 Milankovitch, Milutin, 497, 499
Mesohippus, 527, 530f, 531f Milankovitch cycles, 470, 497, 499–502 glacial, 24
Mesonyx, 528f Milky Way, 216, 217f, 222 ground, 494, 494f
Mesoproterozoic Era, 251 Miller, Hugh, 327 lateral, 87f
Miller, Larry, 409f terminal, 88f, 493, 494f
copper in, 257–258 Miller, Stanley, 239 Morganucodon, 452, 454f
Grenville Orogeny, 258–259, 259f Millipedes, 426 Moropus, 532f
Proterozoic Eon, 251, 253–257 Mineralogy, 13, 18, 26 Morrison formation, 385, 400, 404f, 430
Rodina, 252f Minerals, 50f, 63, 121. See also Mohs scale of Mosasaurs, 418, 449, 451f
Mesosaurus, 181, 182f Mother-of-pearl, 57
Mesozoic Era, 26, 30, 34, 120, 159, 162, mineral hardness; specific minerals Mountain(s). See also specific mountain ranges;
clay, 56
189, 233, 412 color in, 50 specific mountains
climate, 418–421, 464 crystal habit in,52 classifying, 18, 26
commencement, 386 defined, 49, 50, 77 mountain building, 13, 309–315, 331
deformation, 83f density of, 51 primary, 18, 27
in Eastern North America, 387–390 documenting Earth history, 50 secondary, 18, 27
events, 419f feel of, 52 tertiary, 18, 26
Gondwana events, 410–411 ferromagnesian, 55, 61 Mount Fuji, Japan, 210
Pangea breakup and, 386–387, 386f, 418, as finite, 566 Mount Kenya, 490
flexibility in, 52 Mount Kilimanjaro, 490
420f Late Paleozoic products, 328, 331 Mount Mazama, 485, 486f
Sierra Nevadas/California, 485–487 luster in, 50–51 Mount Rainier, 485
Tethys Sea in Europe, 406–410, 410f mafic, 55 Mount St. Helens, 4f, 65, 210, 484, 485f
in Western North America, 390–406, magnetic, 50 Muav limestone, 104, 118, 284, 284f
magnetism in, 52 Mud cracks, 94, 95f, 97, 291
399f nonsilicate, 49, 56–57 Mudstones, 131
Mesozoic life forms in oceans, 50 Mullins, William H., 285f
properties, 50–52 Multiuberculates, 452, 455f, 455
birds rising, 419f, 449 radioactive, 50 Munising formation, 274f
dinosaurs, 429–443 silicates, 49, 52–56, 53t Murchison, Roderick Impley, 34
diversity of, 415 taste in, 52 Muscovite mica, 54, 55f
dragons of seas, 448–449 wealth, in Cordillera, North America, 474 Mutation, 136–137
flying reptiles, 446–447 Miocene Epoch, 470t, 483, 532f Mya, 514f
invertebrates, 421–426 Miocene Series, 34 Myllokunmingia, 343f, 364
mammals, 139, 419f, 451–455, 455f Mischoptera, 358f Myomorphs, 524
mass extinctions, 419, 427–428, 459–460, Mississippian Period, 115f, 120, 148, 154f,
National Museum of Natural History, U.S.,
464 277, 303 339
plants, 418, 455–457 lime bank, 306
sea plants/phytoplankton, 455–457, 455f paleogeography, 310f Natural laws, 18–19
vertebrates, 426–429 Mississippian System, 34, 115f Natural selection, 8, 13, 23–24, 125, 135,
Metal ores, 72 Mississippi Delta, 88
Metamorphic index minerals, 72 Mississippi Valley, 70 164. See also Darwin, Charles
Metamorphic rocks, 39, 45, 49–50, 59, 77. Missouri River, 495–496 Lamarck hypothesis vs., 134f
Mitochondria, 243 Nautiloid, 351, 355f, 356f, 424f, 424
See also specific metamorphic rocks Mitosis, 136–137, 137f Nautiloidea, 423
Earth history and, 76 Mjølnir Crater, 461–462 Nautilus, 350, 355f
foliated, 74–75 Moas, 516 Navajo formation, 385
kinds of, 73 Moby Dick (Melville), 537 Navajo sandstone, 395f, 403f, 408f
metamorphism in, 72–73 Modicia, 357f Nazca plate, 193f, 201
nonfoliated, 74 Moenave formation, 394f Neandertals, 14, 126, 542f, 557, 559, 561f
zones, 76 Moenkopi formation, 385, 394, 398f brain, 558
Metamorphism, 76 Moeritherium, 534, 535f cannibalism, 558
contact, 72, 77 Moho. See MohorovicicS discontinuity family group, 562f
defined, 72 MohorovicicS , Andrija, 172 Ferrassie Neandertal site, France, 560
in metamorphic rocks, 72–74 MohorovicicS discontinuity (Moho), 172, jawbone, 558, 561f
regional, 73, 77 rituals, 560
in shale, 73f 173f, 175, 175f shelters, 560
shock, 463 Mohs, Frederik, 51 skeletons, 560–561, 562f
Metazoans, 160, 264, 266–267, 266f, 267f, skulls, 561f, 563f

271
Meteor Crater, Arizona, 461, 463, 463f

I10 c Index

Nebular hypothesis, 219 Octopods, 425 Alleghenian, 277
Nekton, 151. See also Swimmers Offlap sequence, 105, 105f Appalachian, 297, 390
Nemcolopterus crypticus, 447 Ogygopsis klotzi, 357f Caledonian, 296–299, 300
Neoceratopsia, 442 Ohio River, 496–497 Early Paleozoic, 281–282, 299
Neogene Period, 34, 469, 470t, 510f Oil shale, 476, 476f, 477f, 501 Ouachita, 277, 321, 387
Neohipparion, 533f Oklahoma Mountains, 309 Orogeny(ies), 258, 259–260
Neopilina, 350 Old Red Continent, 319, 327, 332 Acadian, 277, 303, 305, 315, 320, 331
Neoproterozoic Doushantuo formation, 266 Old Red sandstone, 319, 319f Alleghenian, 277, 303, 305, 315, 320–321,
Neoproterozoic Era, 251, 259–260
The Old Red Sandstone and Footprints of the 331
glaciation in, 259–260, 270 Creator (Miller, Hugh), 327 Antler, 303, 323, 325f
landmasses, 277f Caledonian, 277, 305, 331
Proterozoic Eon, 251, 259–260 Olduvai gorge, 552, 557f Cassiar, 324
Neptune, 215, 217, 217f, 218f, 218t, Oligocene Brule formation, 504f Grenville, 258–259, 259f, 271
Oligocene Epoch, 470t, 489 Hercynian, 277, 305, 327, 331
226–227, 227f, 247 Oligocene Lake Florissant, 512 Hudsonian, 257
Neptunists, 18, 21Neritic zone, 151 Olivine, 56, 56f, 63 Laramide, 386, 397–399, 402f
Neutrons, 36, 37t Omo digs, 553 Nevadan, 386, 395–399, 400f
Nevadan orogeny, 395–396, 485 Onlap sequence, 105, 105f Ouachita, 303
Newark clastics, 387 On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 21, 24, 135– Sevier, 386, 395
Newark supergroup, 390f Sonoma, 304, 324, 386, 393
Newts, 426, 505 136 Taconic, 275, 277, 291–293, 293f, 294f,
Niagara Falls, 288f, 289f, 496 Onycophoran, 339f
Niger Delta, 88 Oo€ids, 71, 102 295, 330
Nile River Delta, 88 Oo€lites, 71, 102f Trans-Hudson Orogen, 255, 256f, 271
Niobrara formation, 406, 409f Oo€litic limestone, 102f, 108, 309f, 310 Wopmay Orogen, 251, 253–254,
Nitrogen-14, 41t Oozes, 198
Nocturnal, 546 253f, 257
Node, 140 calcareous, 154, 456 Orohippus, 526
Nodosaurines, 441 siliceous, 154–155 Orophocrinus, 361f
Non-amniotic vertebrates, 363 Opabinia, 340f, 341, 341f Orrorin tugenensis, 552
Nonconformities, 110, 111, 111f Ophiolite suite, 192, 194f Orthids, 348
Nonsilicate minerals, 49, 56–57 Ophiuroidea, 356 Orthocera potens, 356f
Norell, Mark A., 446 Opossum, 147, 519, 521f Orthoclase, 54f, 62
North America, 299. See also Cordillera, Opportunity (Mars rover), 3f, 225 Orwell, George, 544
Oquirrh basin, 325f Osteichthyans, 366
North America; Southwestern North Orangutans, 549f Osteichthyes, 366–367
America; Western North America Orbital eccentricity, 499, 500f, 497 Osteoborus, 533f
during Cambrian, 276f Order (taxonomy), 125, 132 Ostracoderms, 364, 365f
camels in, 530 Ordovician Period, 34, 160, 162f, 343 Ostracods, 355–356, 355f, 426
Cenozoic Era, 472–473 ash fall, 292 Ostrea, 514f
craton, 303 formations, 116f Ostrich, 516
cratonic sequences, 283t ice age, 297 Ouachita deformation, 321, 323f
Mesozoic Era, in Eastern, 390–393 limestone, 39f Ouachita-Marathon trough, 296
orogenies, 392 mass extinctions, 377 Ouachita Mountains, Oklahoma, 17f
paleogeographic map, 475f paleogeography, 278f, 295f Ouachita orogenic belt, 277, 320, 387
North American craton, 234f poles, 201 Ouachita orogeny, 303
North American plate, 399f, 482, 488f rocks, 296f Outer core of Earth, 169, 211
North Atlantic rift, 470 sediment, 291f Outer planets, 215, 217, 217f, 226–227, 247.
Northern Hemisphere, 507 shale, 292f
Northwest Territories, Canada, 253, 253f taconic orgeny, 275 See also Jupiter; Neptune; Saturn;
Notharctus, 548–549, 550f, 550 trilobites, 139f, 357f Uranus
Nothosaurs, 449–450, 452f Ordovician System, 34 Outgassing, 226, 230
Nothosaurus, 452f Oreodonts, 504f, 531f, 540 Ovid, 133
Notochord, 342, 370 Organelles, 215, 239, 243 Oviraptor, 446–447, 446f
Novaculites, 323 Organisms Owen, Richard, 429
Nucleic acids, 239 aerobic, 243–244 Owens Valley, 474
Nu ee ardente, 485 anaerobic, 215, 243 Oxides, 54
Nummulites, 539 evolution of through time, 23–24 Oxydactylus, 532, 532f, 533f
naming, 132 Oxygen, 37t, 52, 215, 229–230
Obduction, 392 preserving, 125 Oxygen-16, 159, 494
Obsidian, 61–62, 61f prokaryotic, 215 Oxygen-18, 159, 494
Ocean(s), 2, 18. See also Ecosystems; Original horizontality, principle of, 13, 15, in Paleoproterozoic Era, 256–257
sinks, 270
Midocean ridges; specific oceans 26, 67, 113 Oysters, 421f
Cambrian Period ocean floor, 334f Original lateral continuity, principle of, 13,
magma, 229–230, 241f Pachycephalosaurs, 442, 443f
minerals in, 50 15–16, 17f, 26Origins. See also On the Pachyrhinosaurus, 443, 443f
salinity, 35 Origin of Species (Darwin) Pacific Ocean, 474, 509, 510f
“world ocean,” 35 of Earth, 227–230 Pacific plate, 171f, 187, 190f, 210, 210f, 287,
Ocean basins of life forms, 238–247
closing, 254 of Precambrian rocks, 232–238 292, 390–391, 410, 468, 470f, 488, 488f
opening, 254, 254f of rocks, 18 Pahoehoe lava, 59f, 210
Oceanic crust, 169, 175, 177, 191f, 192, 194f of species, 139 Painted Desert, Arizona, 395, 398f
continental crust convergence and, 189 of universe, 221 Pakicetus, 144, 537, 537f
exotic terranes, 204 Oriskany sandstone, 308f Palaeomastodon, 535
as mafic, 215, 235, 248 Ornithischia, 415, 429, 432f, 433f Palaeosyops, 528f
oceanic convergence, 89 Ornithischians, 438–439 Paleobathymetric indicators, 508
Oceanic sediment, 197–198, 198f Ornithomimus, 444 Paleocene Epoch, 470t, 490
Oceanic zone, 151, 154 Ornithopods, 438–439 Paleoclimatology, 158, 179–180
Orogenic belts, 82, 83f, 281f, 296, 305. See Paleoecology, 151, 164

also specific orogenic belts

Paleoequator, 418 Parvicingula hsui, 426f Index b I11
Paleogene Period, 469, 470t, 475f, 485 Parvicingula santabarbarensis, 426f
Paleogeographic maps, 113, 115f, 155, 199f Passive continental margin, 185 flesh-eaters, 524–525, 528f
Patriofelis, 525f, 528f ungulates, 518, 526–530, 527f, 540
Cretaceous Period, 396f Peabody Museum of Natural History, 26 Placoderms, 363–364
of Europe, 410f Peccary, 530, 533f Placodonts, 448, 452f
Jurassic Period, 391f Pecten, 514f Placodus, 452f
of North America, 475f Pelecypoda, 350 Placophorans, 349, 353f
Paleogene Period, 475f Pelycosaurs, 373 Plagioclase, 54, 55f, 61, 62
Triassic Period, 388f Penicillus, 101, 102f Planets. See also specific planets
of Western North America, 403f Pennsylvanian Period, 89, 131, 276f, 304f, inner, 215, 217, 217f, 222–224, 247
Paleogeography life forms on, 162–163
Cambrian Period, 278f, 279f 311f, 312f, 314f outer, 215, 217, 217f, 226–229, 247
Devonian Period, 307f Colorado/New Mexico, 314f properties of, 218f
Eocene Epoch, 471f cratons, 313f sizes of, 218f
fossils indicating, 155–158 paleogeography, 310f Plankton, 151, 426, 455, 459, 508. See also
Late Paleozoic, 304f rocks, 323f
Mississippian Period, 310f Pennsylvanian System, 34, 104f Phytoplankton; Swimmers;
Ordovician Period, 278f, 295f Pentacrinus, 422, 422f Zooplankton
Pennsylvanian Period, 311f Pentamerids, 348 Planktonic foraminifera, 153f
Permian Period, 316f Pentremites, 362f Plantae kingdom, 125, 133
Silurian System, 278f, 298f Peridotite, 56, 65, 66f, 174, 174f Plants, 30
Paleogne System, 34 Periodic Table of Elements, 52 angiosperm, 417
Paleoindians, 565 Periods, 30, 45, 148. See also specific periods classifying, 125
Paleomagnetism, 169, 182–184, 196–197 Perissodactyls, 526, 529, 529f, 530, 531, 539 evolution, 335, 337
Paleontology, 24–26, 141–144 Perissodactyls, 526, 530, 531 geologic ranges of, 161f
The Paleontology of New York (Hall), 24 Permia, 34 history, 159, 161f
Paleoproterozoic Era Permian Age, 28f, 120, 181f, 321, 344 land, 335, 374–377, 380, 457–459
BIFs in, 256–257, 257f Permian basin, 311–312, 331 Mesozoic life forms, 418, 419f, 457–459
end of, 257 Permian Capitan Reef, Texas, 312 Paleozoic life forms, 374–375
first ice age, 256 Permian Period, 148, 154f, 180f photosynthetic, 44
iron in, 256–257 ammonoid cephalopods, 145f sea, 455–456, 455f
oxygen in, 256–257 divisions, 315f vascular, 161f, 333, 381
plate tectonics, 253–257 mass extinctions, 380 Plaster of Paris, 57
Proterozoic Eon, 251, 253–257 paleogeography, 316f Plastron, 513
Paleosols, 398f–399f Permian System, 34 Plate margins, 202
Paleothyris, 372 Permineralization, 126, 127f continental-continental crust
Paleozoic Era, 34, 103, 162. See also Early Peteinosaurus, 448f convergence, 189
Petoskey stone, 349f continental-oceanic crust convergence,
Paleozoic; Late Paleozoic; Paleozoic Petrification, 126, 126f 189–192
life forms Petrified Forest National Park, 394, 395, oceanic-oceanic crust convergence, 189
deformation, 83f plate tectonics and, 184–189
end of, 386 398f Wilson cycles, 192–194, 251, 253f,
limestone, 103 Petrolacosaurus, 373 254–255, 281
rocks, 113f Petroleum, 327–331, 347, 426, 473, 476 Plateosaurus, 437f
rock units, 104f Phacops, 360, 360f Plate tectonics, 236f, 491f. See also Tectonic
sedimentary rocks, 111f Phalangers, 519 plates; Tectonics; Thin-skinned
strata in Great Britain, 33f Phanerozoic Eon, 30, 275, 335, 499 tectonics
Paleozoic life forms, 336f Phenacodus, 526, 528f in Appalachian Mountains, 317f
animals with shells, 337–338 Philippine plate, 199f Archean Eon, 235–236
conodont elements, 370, 370f Phoenix (Mars lander), 3f, 163, 225 continental drift theory and, 179–182
fish, 363–370 Phosphates, 331 convergent plate boundaries and, 188, 191f
invertebrates, 335, 344–361 Phosphatherium, 534 defined, 177
mass extinctions, 377–380, 379f Phosphoria formation, 331 driving force, 194–195
plants, 374–376 Phosphorite, 327f in Earth history, 7–9
proliferation of, 335–337 Photoautotrophs, 242 evidence for, 169
protistans, 343–344 Photochemical dissociation, 230, 240 gravity evidence for, 201
tetrapods, 370–374 Photosynthesis, 101, 153f, 230, 239, 421 guyots and, 185, 188f
vertebrates, 337, 361–363 Phyla, 335 Hawaii and, 202
Pallas, Peter Simon, 13, 18 Phyletic gradualism, 139, 140f oceanic sediment evidence for, 197–198
Panamanian land bridge, 470, 507 Phyllite, 74 paleomagnetic evidence for, 195–197
Pander, Christian, 370 Phylogenetic tree, 140–141, 141f, 164 Paleoproterozoic Era, 253–257
Pangea, 178, 179, 180f, 181 Phylogeny, 126, 140–141, 164 plate margins and, 189–194
breakup of, 385–387, 386f, 412, 418, 419f Phylum (taxonomy), 125, 132 in Proterozoic Eon, 251
composition of, 291, 303 Physical geology, 2, 9 rates of plate movement, 201
Panthalassa, 178, 179f, 259, 291 Phytoplankton, 151, 455–457, 456f satellite evidence for, 198
Paraceratherium, 529, 531f Phytosaurs, 427, 428f seafloor spreading and, 185, 188f
Paraconformity, 111 Pierre Shale, 479 seismic evidence for, 200, 200f
Paradox basin, 309–311, 314f, Pigs, 518 theory, 8, 169, 202–205
Parahippus, 532f Pika, 524 today’s, 185–189
Paramys, 523f Pikaia, 342–343, 343f transform plate boundaries and, 187
Paranthropus boisei, 553, 554f Pilina, 350, 354f Platforms, 82, 83f, 233, 234f
Parasaurolophus, 440f Pinnularia, 508f Platypus, 518, 519–520, 520f
Parent element, 37 Pishogue conglomerate, 104 Plaut, J., 59f
Paris basin, 489, 491f Pittsburgh coal, 104 Playfair, John, 19, 20
Park, B. C., 399f Placental mammals Pleistocene Epoch, 157, 470t
Partial melting, 65–66, 66f, 228 animals, 538f
Parvancorina, 267f Cenozoic life forms, 518, 522–538 hominids, 557f
elephants, 518, 534–538 mass extinctions, 539

I12 c Index characteristics, 549–551 sphericity, 94f
hominins emerging, 552–554 Quartzite, 75, 76f
Pleistocene Ice Age, 13, 24, 35, 44, 235f Homo erectus development stage, 556–557 Quartz sandstone, 98–99, 99f, 100f, 121, 287
in Cenozoic Era, 487–488 modern, 546–547 Quaternary System, 31f, 34
chronology, 493–494 recognizing, 548 Queenston clastic wedges, 275, 286,
deep-sea sediments, 494–495 taxonomy, 545–546
depressed crust rebounds and, 495, 497f Principles of Geology (Lyell), 21–23, 26 294–295, 295f, 317
lakes formed by, 496 Proboscideans, 518, 526, 534, 535f Quetzalcoathus, 447, 449f
loess and, 497 Procamelus, 533f
river redirection and, 495–496 Proconsul, 552f Rabbits, 507, 518, 520, 522f, 524
shifting sea levels and, 495 Proconsul africanus, 551 Raccoons, 525
stages of, 494, 494t Productids, 348 Radinskya, 143, 144, 526
stratigraphy, 493–494 Pro€ebrotherium, 531f Radioactive dating, 44, 108, 109, 129, 233
Prognathous, 557
Pleistocene Series, 34 Prokaryotes, 243, 243t, 244f, 248, 263, 264f, carbon-14 method, 42–44
Plesiadapis, 548, 549f fission track method, 44, 45f
Plesiosaurs, 448, 451f 271 isotopes for, 41t
Pliocene Epoch, 470t, 485, 535f, 554f Prokaryotic organisms, 215 potassium-argon method, 42, 42f
Pliocene Series, 34 Promissum, 370 rubidium-strontium method, 42, 42f
Pliohippus, 528 Prosalirus, 427f uranium-lead method, 41, 41f
Pluto, 215, 228 Prosauropods, 434, 437f Radioactive decay
Plutoid, 228 Prosimii, 543, 546 of atoms, 37–40
Plutonic igneous rocks, 59 Prosthennops, 533f discovery of, 37
Plutonists, 18, 21, 26 Protactinium, 37f of lead-206, 40f
Plutons, 59, 59f Proteins, 135, 144, 238 stability of, 38
Pluvial lakes, 496, 502 Proterozoic Eon, 30, 97f, 216, 230, 231, 271 of uranium-235, 7, 41
Pocono group, 320, 321f of uranium-238, 37, 38f, 40f, 41
Poinar, G. O., Jr., 129 climate in, 270–271, 270f Radioactive isotopes. See Isotopes
Pollock, G. L., 408 18.2 hour day, 255, 255f Radioactivity, 7, 36–38
Polonium, 36 eras of, 251 Radiolaria, 71, 155f, 288, 336, 344f, 355,
Polymorphs, 57 events of, 252f
Polyp, 347, 347f life forms, 263–271 425, 426, 505, 508, 510f, 590
Polyplacophorans, 349 Mesoproterozoic Era, 251, 257–259 Radium, 38f
Pongidae, 545 Neoproterozoic Era, 251, 259–260 Radon, 38f
Pongola sedimentary rocks, 247 Paleoproterozoic Era, 251, 253–257 Ramamorphs, 552, 566
Popocatepetl volcano, Mexico, 210 plate tectonics in, 251 Ramapithecus, 552
Population rocks, 259–260 Ramskold, Lars, 341f
Protista kingdom, 125, 133 Ranalli, George, 302f
evolution and, 137 Protistans, 343–344, 425–426 Rancho La Brea tar pits, 128
genetic, 137 Protistids, 160 Range zone, 150, 150f
world growth, 565f Protoceras, 531f Rats, 518, 549
Porcupines, 520 Protoceratops, 442, 446 Rayleigh waves, 171
Porifera, 336f, 345 Protocontinents, 235 Reader, John, 555f
Porphyritic texture, 60 Protolepidodendron, 376f Recorded history, 561–562
Porphyry, 60f Protons, 36, 36f Recrystallization, 39, 72
Potassium-40, 41, 41t, 42 Protoplanets, 219 Red beds, 90f, 91, 271, 418
Potassium-argon method of radioactive Protorogomorphs, 523 Red Rocks Amphitheatre, Colorado, 309
Protorohippus, 526 Red Sea, 410, 472, 491f
dating, 42 Protospongea, 345f Redwall formation, 104, 104f
Potter, N., Jr., 284f Protostomes, 359 Redwall limestone, 120, 120f
Powell, J. D., 408 Prototherians, 455 Reefs, 314, 315, 540. See also Atolls
Powell, John, 13, 25, 26 Protozoans, 152, 154, 155, 163, 265
Precambrian Period, 30, 160, 160f Pseudohizostomites, 267f back-reef facies, 312
Psittacosauridae, 442–443 barrier, 509
Grand Canyon rocks, 262–263 Psittacosaurus, 442, 454 Capital Reef National Monument, Utah,
granite, 111f Pterandon, 406, 409f, 447, 448f
sandstone, 109 Pteraspis, 365f 16f
Precambrian provinces, 233, 234f, 248, 253 Pterichthyodes, 367f coral, 154f, 158, 158f, 180, 204, 297421,
Precambrian rocks, 111f, 233f. See also Pterobranchs, 360
Pterodactyloids, 447, 448f 505
Granulites; Greenstone belts; Pterodaustroa, 447, 450f core, 312
Greenstones Pteropods, 154, 155f fore-reef facies, 312
as basement rocks, 231 Pterosaurs, 427, 447–448, 448f, 459, 464 fringing, 509, 513f
origin of, 231–238 Pubis, 429, 435f, 451 Permian Capitan Reef, Texas, 312, 315f
where to see, 233 Pumice, 61 Regression, 473
Precession, 499, 500f, 502 Punctuated equilibrium, 139, 140f Relative age, 8
Prehensile, 546 Punctuated evolution, 125, 139 Relative geologic dating, 29–30, 34, 45
Present as key to past, 18–19 Purgatorius, 547–548 Repenomamus, 454, 455f
Preservation of fossils, 128f. See also Amber; Pu’uO’o vent, Hawaii, 59f Replacement, 125–127, 127f
Petrification P-waves. See Primary earthquake waves Reproduction, 135–136. See also Cell
carbonization, 125, 127, 127f Pygmy, 561
in casts, 127–128, 128f Pyramids of Gizeh, 508 division
fossil record, 130 Pyrenees Mountains, 488, 502 Reptiles, 140, 142, 162, 327, 372–374, 373f,
in molds, 127–128, 128f Pyrite, 51, 51f, 127f
permineralization, 125–127, 127f 374f, 380, 408, 409f, 417, 427, 444, 446,
replacement, 125, 127, 127f Quartz, 50, 52–53, 54f, 61f, 62f, 64, 67–68, 448–450, 452f, 453f, 459, 512, 512–514,
soft tissue, 128–129, 129f 68f, 71, 72 516f, 582. See also specific reptiles
trace fossils, 130, 130f, 131f flying, 409, 446–447, 512
Primary earthquake waves (P-waves), shocked, 460–461, 461f Jurassic Period, 395–396
170–171, 170f, 171f, 172–173, 172f limbless, 513
Primates, 507, 545, 566. See also Homo marine, 399–400, 409f, 427f, 448, 451f,
sapiens; Humans 452, 453
anthropoids, 546–548 Respiratory turbinates, 444, 591
Retherford, Gary, 357f

Index b I13

Reworked fossils, 149 Rubidium-strontium method of radioactive Sea urchins, 152, 162, 336, 341f, 356, 359,
Rhea, 517 dating, 42, 42f 361f, 417, 422, 505
Rheic Ocean, 277
Rhinoceroses, 526, 527f, 529 Rudistids, 390, 393f, 418, 422f, 509 Seawater temperature, 159
Rhynchocephalians, 427, 512 Rue, Len, Jr., 548f Secondary earthquake waves (S-waves),
Rhynchonellids, 348, 352f Rugose coral, 347, 349f, 379, 380
Rhynia, 375, 376f Rumen, 532, 533 170–173, 163f, 211
Rhyolite, 49, 61, 61f Ruminants, 518, 530, 531f, 532–534 Secondary mountains, 18, 26
Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 239 Runnegar, B. N., 160f, 268f Secondary palate, 518
Ridge-push/slab-pull model, 195, 196fRift Rutiodon, 428f Sedgwick, Adam, 23, 32–33, 34
Ryan, William B. F., 5–6 Sediment
zones, 166f, 192, 195, 210, 251, 258,
271, 385, 387, 410, 489 Saber-toothed cat, 522f, 525, 526f Archean Eon, 232–233
Ripple marks, 94, 95, 97f, 98f, 99, 238, 247, Sahelanthropus tchadensis, 552, 554 Cordillera, North America, 473–474
406f Salamanders, 377, 426, 427, 444, 505, 512 deep-sea, 493–494
Rivers, 472, 492f, 495–497. See also specific Salt, 286–287, 478 deposition, 35, 82–90
Salt domes, 385, 388f, 473 feeders, 343
rivers Samoa, 61 maturity and, 98
RNA. See Ribonucleic acid Sandstone, 67, 67f, 68, 70, 72, 74, 75, 76f, oceanic, 200–202, 202f
Roberts Mountains, 323, 324f Ordovician Period, 292f
Rock(s). See also Igneous rocks; Metamorphic 82, 86, 90f, 91, 92, 98, 99f, 305, 308, Pleistocene Ice Ace, 491–492
312, 314, 319f, 387, 388, 390f. See also tectonic settings in deposition, 82–91
rocks; Minerals; Precambrian rocks; specific sandstones Sedimentary rocks, 38, 49, 58, 67–69, 82,
Sedimentary rocks; specific rocks Cambrian, 278f
Acasta Gneiss, 7f categories, 98–99, 99f 90, 121
age of, 7, 13, 29–30, 39f cross-bedding in, 309f black shades, 90
Archean Eon, 215, 226, 232 De Chelly, 302f, 326, 326f carbonate, 70–71, 69f
basement, 232–238 maturity, 98 classifying, 69–72
belt rocks, 261 Permian Age, 120 clastic, 69–70
crystalline, 18 Precambrian Period, 111f color of, 90, 121
defined, 49, 57, 82 sorting, 92f Earth history and, 72
Early Paleozoic, 287 strata, 17f flat-lying, 28f
families of, 49, 57–58 tectonic settings and, 82–83 grain orientation, 94, 94f
Grand Canyon Precambrian, 262–263 Triassic-Jurassic Navajo, 90f, 96f grain shape, 93–94, 94f
granitic, 62, 66, 101, 189, 173f, 236, Sanfilippo, A., 510f grain size, 91–92
260 San Francisco volcanic field, Arizona, 484f Paleozoic Era, 119f, 276f
Keweenawan, 252, 258, 271 San Juan Mountains, 476 Pongola, 247
Martian, 163, 220, 225 Sarcodina, 336f red shades, 90
moon, 45, 222f Sarcopterygians, 366–367, 369 sorting, 91–92, 95, 92t, 93f
Ordovician Period, 281f, 320, 348 Sassafras leaf, 459f structures, 94–98
origin of, 18 Satellites, 198, 217f, 227f, 498f tectonic settings, 82
Paleozoic Era, 118, 120f Satin spar, 57f texture of, 69, 91–94, 121
Pennsylvanian Period, 323f Saturn, 215, 217, 217f, 218, 219, 226, 227f, which way is up, 95–98, 98f
Phanerozoic Eon, 275 228 Sedimentation, 253, 254, 252f, 293f, 305,
Pongola sedimentary, 247 Sauk cratonic sequence, 275, 282–287, 283f
primitive, 18 Saunders, W. Bruce, 15f, 128f, 355f 306, 315f, 323–326
Proterozoic Eon, 260–263 Saurischia, 417, 429, 432f, 433f, 435f Seeley Harry G., 429
radioactivity for dating, 36–39 Sauropodomorpha, 429 Seilacher, Adolf, 268–269
silicate, 174 Sauropods, 34,417, 430, 434, 436, 437f, Seismic waves, 170–171, 170f, 171f, 173f,
Silurian System, 117f 438f, 459
strata, 12f Saurpodomorphs, 429, 432, 434 175, 203, 203f, 211. See also Primary
transition, 18 Sauvanet, Jany, 547f earthquake waves (P-waves); Secondary
Triassic Period, 385, 288 Schist, 74, 74f earthquake waves (S-waves); Surface
volcanic eruption producing, 64–65 Schneider, Mark A., 56f, 350f, 362f, 446 earthquake waves
Rock bodies, 107–109 Schopf, J. M., 181f Seismogram, 170, 172f, 173, 175
Rock cycle, 58, 58f Schopf, J. William, 245f, 262f, 263f Seismographs, 170, 173, 177
Rocknest formation, 254f Scientific method, 3, 4f, 5–7, 9 Seismosaurus, 438f
Rock salt. See Halite Sciuromorph, 523 Selenite, 57
Rock sequences, 182 Scleractinids, 347, 421, 507, 509, 510 Septae, 348, 351
Rock units. See also Formations; Time-rock Scorpions, 338, 355, 356, 377, 426 Septal fluting, 417, 423
units Scour marks, 97, 269, 327 Septum, 423–424
age of, 146 Scytalocrinus, 362f Series, 32, 34, 38, 64. See also specific series
correlating, 112f Sea biscuit, 511f Serpent star, 423f
correlating with fossils, 146–148, 147f Seafloor, 107, 108, 126, 138, 148, 151, 162, Sevier orogeny, 396, 397
defined, 103 177, 179, 185, 187, 188f, 192, 195f, Sevier-type formations, 402f
naming, 104 197–199, 253, 256, 291, 340f, 346f, Sevon, W. D., 95f, 317f, 318f
for organizing strata, 103–106 362f. See also Benthic Seychelles Bank, 202, 204f
Paleozoic Era, 104f Seafloor spreading, 169, 185, 188f, 192, 195, Shadow zone, 172, 173
Rocky Mountains, 65, 80f, 83f, 131, 155, 197, 200, 202, 203, 212, 253, 283, 296, Shale, 16f, 17f, 18, 22f, 23f, 39, 39f, 56, 67,
204, 287, 290, 291, 331, 339, 397, 405, 329, 343, 390, 392, 401f 67f, 68–70, 73f, 73–77, 82, 84, 89, 99,
406, 413, 469, 474, 475, 477 calculating rates for, 197–198, 200f, 201f 103, 104, 106, 108, 118, 120, 128f, 131,
Canadian, 2f, 80, 288–289, 291f plate tectonics and, 194–197 236, 247, 254, 261, 263, 266, 285f, 287,
Cenozoic Era, 470 Sea level, 103f, 105f, 106–107, 107f, 121 288, 290f, 292f, 293f, 294f, 303, 306,
Rodents, 507, 518, 519t, 521f, 522f, 523, Seals, 518, 519, 526, 537 311, 312, 318f, 319f, 320, 322f, 331,
524, 533f. See also specific rodents Sea pastures, 85, 85f 340f, 342, 370, 387, 390, 395f, 398f,
Rodinia, 253, 259, 259f, 277, 287, 289, 291, Sea pens, 266, 267f 421f, 475, 476, 477, 512
293f Sea plants, 455–457, 457f bright angel, 104, 118, 104f, 118, 119f,
Rounding, 93 Sea turtles, 448, 449 284, 284f, 285f
Rubidium-87, 41, 41t Burgess, 266, 287, 337–339, 337, 338,
338f, 339f, 377
Chattanoga, 306, 380
Hermit, 104f, 120f, 408

I14 c Index

Shale (Continued) Australopithecus robustus, 554f Squirrels, 518, 522
Mancos, 421f, 425f coyote, 518f St. Peter sandstone, 285–286, 287f
metamorphism, 72, 73f Cro-Magnon, 563f Stable tectonic settings, 81, 82
oil shale, 476, 476f, 477f, 501, 589 Dinotherium, 535f Stages, 32. See also specific stages
Ordovician Period, 281, 292f, 320, 348, of Geosaurus, 451f Stammers, Sinclair, 139f
377 hadrosaurs, 439f Stapes, 142, 143f
Pierre, 479 Homo erectus, 557f, 559f, 560f Starfish, 356, 359, 359f, 361f, 423f
strata, 17f humans, 560f Stegosaurs, 439–441, 441f,
Moeritherium, 535f Stegosaurus, 440–441, 441f
Shanidar Neandertal site, Iraq, 560 Neandertals, 557f, 561f Steiger, R. H., 41t
Oreodont, 504f Steinkern, 128, 128f
Shark Bay, Australia, 244, 245f ornithischia, 432f, 433f Stelleroidea, 423f
Sharks, 363, 365f, 366 Parasaurolophus, 440f Steno, Nicholas, 13, 15, 17, 26, 67, 113
Sharovipteryx, 447, 447f proboscidean, 535f Stenomylus, 532f
Shawangunk conglomerate, 295, 297f saurischia, 432f Stensen, Niels. See Steno, Nicholas
Shear zone, 205, 261f Slate, 74 Stishovite, 461
Sheep, 518, 526 “Slaty cleavage,” 74 Strachey, John, 13, 17–18
Sheep Mountain anticline, 402f Sloth, 522f Strata, 13–15, 20, 26, 67, 67f
Shields, 82, 83, 83f, 210, 234f, 246 Small shelly fossils, 337
Shield volcanoes, 210 Smilodon, 520, 525, 526f age, fossils and, 145–146
Shinarump conglomerate, 391, 394f, 395 Smith, M. S., 235f Cambrian Period, 284f
Shinarump formation, 385 Smith, William (“Strata”), 15–16, 20–21, Cenozoic Era, 34, 470f, 473f, 474f, 476f
Shocked quartz, 460–462, 461f contemporaneity of, 148
Shoom shale, 370 20f, 26, 103, 146 correlation, fossils and, 126
Smithsonian Institution, 338 Devonian Age, 110f
Shrimp, 511, 515f Snails, 129f, 421 formation of, 67
Sibbick, John, 342f, 343f, 367f, 373f, 433f, Snake River Plateau, 61, 65 Jurassic Period, 16f
Snakes, 427, 459, 505, 512, 513, 516f limestone, 71f
435f, 436f, 437f, 438f, 439f, 441f, 442f, Snider, A., 178 Paleozoic Era, 33f
443f, 445f, 447f, 448f, 449f, 450f, 452f, Solar nebula, 214f, 214–217, 219f rock, 12f
453f, 454f, 455f, 517f, 523f, 526f, 530f, Solar System, 216, 217. See also Universe rock units for organizing, 103–107
531f, 551f shale/sandstone, 17f
Siberia, 129f, 277, 304, 337, 380, 463, 495, meteorites as sample of early, 220–221 stilted, folded, 16f
537, 564 nebular hypothesis, 219, 219f succession of, 17–18
Siccar Point, 12f, 20, 110 tour of, 221–228 Triassic, 16f
Sidelong Hill, Maryland, 209f, 320, 389 Solar wind, 219 undisturbed, horizontal, 16f
Sierra Nevada batholiths, 396, 400f, 487f Sole marks, 95, 97f Strata Identified by Organized Fossils (Smith,
Sierra Nevada Mountains, 63, 287, 344, 396, Solnhofen limestone, 426, 454f
400f, 474, 478, 485–487 Sonett, Charles, 255 William), 20, 26
Sonoma orgeny, 304, 324, 386, 393, 393f Stratified drift, 494, 591
Silicates, 49, 52–56, 53t, 76 Sonoma terrane, 393 Stratigraphy, 17, 121
Silicoflagellates, 456–458 Sordes pilsous, 447
Silicon, 36f, 52 Sorting, 91–92, 92f, 92t, 93f defined, 107
Sillimanite, 72–73 South America, 157, 173, 178, 181, 193, fossils and, 145–150
Siltstones, 69, 70, 80f, 82 global view, 18
Silurian Lockport, 496 204, 277, 320, 367, 386, 387, 401, Pleistocene Ice Age, 491–492
406–408, 410, 470 rock bodies and, 107–109
Silurian System, 33–34, 291–292 South American plate, 194f Streak, 50, 51f
American, 289f Southern Hemisphere, 507 Streak plate, 50
paleogeography, 278f, 295f Southwestern North America Stream deposits, 86
rocks, 117f in Early Paleozoic, 281–282, 282f Streams, 2
trilobites, 139f in Late Paleozoic, 311f, 312–315, 312f Strike, 43, 208f, 463, 488f
Speciation, 138, 140 Stromatolites, 160, 215, 242, 244, 245f, 247,
Silver Hill formation, 112f Species
Similar body parts, 126 adaptive radiation and, 138–139 252f, 261f, 262, 263f, 264, 271, 291,
cosmopolitan, 147 345, 374, 381, 591
Sivapithecus, 552 defined, 132–133 Stromatoporoid, 345f, 346, 379, 592
Skeletons. See also Bones; Skulls diversity, 157, 158f Strontium-87, 41–42, 41t
endemic, 148 Strophomenids, 348
Arsinotherium, 527f evolution and, 137 Struthiomimus, 433, 435f
birds, 515–517 in new environments, 125 Styracosaurus, 443f
brachiosaurus, 437f origin, 139 Subduction zones, 169, 188, 189, 192, 194,
Dinohyus, 532f in taxonomy, 125, 132 195, 196, 198, 201, 235, 253, 281, 297,
dinosaurs, 431f Sphenadon, 512 327, 392, 582, 589
fish with, 363–367, 512 Sphenopsid, 378f Sublittoral zone, 152, 154f
frogs, 427f Sphericity, 93, 94f Submarine fans, 86, 86f
of hadrosaurs, 439f Sphinx, 508 “Succession of worlds,” 20
humans, 557f Spider fossil, 15f, 480f Suess, Eduard, 178
Hypertragulus, 534f Spider Rock, 302f Sulfates, 49
Mastodons, 539f Spiders, 426 Sulfides, 49
Megaloceros, 534f Sponges, 152, 154, 297, 312, 317f, 334f, Sulfur, 90
Mesohippus, 530f 335, 336f, 340f, 342f, 343, 344, Sun, 1, 216, 221–222, 255, 262
mosasaur, 451f 345, 381. 422. See also Porifera; Sundance formation, 385, 400
Neandertals, 557, 559, 560, 559f Sundance Sea, 399, 400, 403f
ornithischia, 432f specific sponges Supai group, 120
Oxydactylus, 532f Spores, 158, 160, 267 Supercontinents, 259, 303, 304f. See also
Parasaurolophus, 440f Spreading center, 185, 189, 190f Pangea
saurischia, 432f Spriggina, 267 Supercrustal, 235
Struthiomimus, 435f Squamates, 513 Supergroups, 261, 261f, 262, 263, 287, 390f.
Turkana, 557 Squids, 424, 425 See also Groups
Skulls
Aegyptopithecus, 551f
Allosaurus, 432f
Andalgalornis, 517f
Australopithecus africanus, 552f

Index b I15

Superposition, principle of, 13, 15, 16f, 22f, dinosaurs, 427, 429–431, 431f Tragulids, 533
24, 28f, 45, 95, 144, 145, 233 horses, 143, 143f Trailing edge, 185, 188f
lower jaw and, 517 Transform plate boundaries, 187, 205
Supersaurus, 436, 438f mammals, 452–454, 454f, 517 Transgression, 105f, 282–285, 299, 390,
Supratidal zone, 151, 151f mammoths, 536f
Surface earthquake waves, 170–171, 211 marsupials, 520 401, 405, 409, 464, 472, 473, 489
Sutures, 423–424, 424f mastodons, 536f Trans-Hudson Orogen, 255, 256
Suture zone, 189, 387 monkeys, 551f Transitional depositional environments, 88
S-waves. See Secondary earthquake waves rodents, 522–524
Swimmers, 151 Sivapithecus, 552 barrier islands, 89, 89f
Symmetrical ripple marks, 95, 96, 98f Tehys Sea, 488 deltas, 82, 88–89, 88f, 96f
Symmetrodonts, 452, 452f Tektites, 461 estuaries, 84f, 89
Synapsids, 373, 374f Teleosts, 426, 505, 512, 515 lagoons, 84f, 89, 89f
Synclines, 113, 206, 207, 208f, 209f, 211f, Temnospondyls, 426 tidal flats, 84f, 89
Temple Butte formation, 104f Transition rocks, 18
280, 410 Temple Butte limestone, 120 Tree shrew, 520, 523f, 545, 546
Syndyoceras, 532f Temporal transgression, 285 Tree sloth, 521
Synthetoceras, 532, 533f Tennyson, Alfred, 469 Triadobatrachus, 426, 427f
Systems, 32. See also specific systems Tenontosaurus, 436f Triassic Age, 204, 303
Terebratulina septemtrionalis, 515f Triassic Period, 388, 392–393,406, 410–411
Tabulates, 345 Terranes, 315, 393. See also Exotic terranes Earth during, 420f
Taconic orogeny, 277, 281f, 291–293, 293f, Tethys Sea, 189, 205, 387, 406, 409, history stages, 389f
paleogeographic map, 388f
294f, 320, 330 420–422, 469, 472, 488, 489, 508, 551 rocks, 389
Taeniolabis, 455f Cenozoic Era, 488 sedimentary record, 385
Tahiti, 61 Europe, 406–408, 410f Triassic System, 34
Talc, 51, 52 Teton County, Montana, 209f Tribrachidium, 266, 267f
Tamarkin, Robert, 1 Tetracorals, 347 Triceratops, 439, 443f, 444
Tapeats sandstone, 104, 118, 284, 284f Tetrapods, 337, 362, 366–374, 426, 429, Triceratum, 508f
Tapirs, 505, 520, 526, 529 Trichophycus, 281, 282f
Tarbosaurus, 435f 513, 518 Triconodonts, 452, 455
Tarsier, 545, 546, 546f, 550 Texture Trigonias, 531f
Taste, 52 Trilete spores, 375
Taum Sauk Mountain, 111f characteristics of, 58 Trilobites, 128f, 138, 139f, 140, 162, 281, 285,
Taxocrinus, 362f clastic, 69
Taxonomy, 132, 545, 545t of igneous rocks, 59–61, 60f, 62f 289, 339, 340f, 351–354, 357f, 360, 377
of limestone, 71f Cambrian Period, 357f
apes, 545t porphyritic, 61 Devonian Period, 357f
class, 125, 132 of sedimentary rocks, 69, 91–94 eyes, 360, 360f
defined, 132 Thalium, 37f Ordovician Period, 139f, 357f
domains, 132–133, 133f Thamnoptyphia, 350f Silurian System, 139f
family, 125, 132 Thelodus, 365f Triple junction, 194
genus, 125, 133 Theory of the Earth (Hutton), 19–20 Tripocyclia blakei, 425f
humans, 545t Therapsids, 337, 374, 427, 429 Trogosus, 528f
kingdoms, 125, 132–133 Therians, 455 Troosticrinus, 361f
order, 125, 132 Thermal plumes, 169, 194, 202, 236 Tsunami, 65, 462
phylum, 132 Theropoda, 417, 429 Tuatara, 427, 459, 512, 516f
primates, 545–546 Theropods, 34, 417, 429–434, 433f, 434f, Tubeworms, 240–242
species in, 125, 132 Tucciarone, Joe, 434f, 448f
Tectonic collage, 392, 412 442f, 443f, 446, 451, 516 Tuff, 61, 480
Tectonic plates, 8, 184, 186f, 187, 188f, 189, Thin-skinned tectonics, 321 Tugen Hill, Kenya, 552
Thompson, G. R., 89f, 102f, 498f Tunguska Valley, Siberia, 463
191t, 192, 195, 198, 200, 235, 236, 253. Thorium, 36, 37, 41, 41t Tuojiagosaurus, 441, 441f
See also Plate tectonics; specific plates Turbidites, 86
African, 204f Thorium-230, 41t Turbidity currents, 85, 95
American, 201 Thorium-232, 41t Turk, J., 89f, , 102
Antarctic, 199f “Thumbs-up dinosaur,” 439. See also Turkana skeleton, 557
Arabian, 199f Turquoise, 50f
Australian Indian, 199f Iguanodon Turritella, 514f
East-Pacific, 199f Thunder Springs member, 104 Turtles, 140, 151, 416, 427, 449, 451, 459,
Eurasian, 199f, 201 Thylacosmilus, 520, 520
features/events, 191t Thyreophorans, 439–440 464, 501, 512, 514f. See also Sea turtles
Mid-Atlantic, 199f Tidal bulges, 255 Tusks, 438, 528, 534, 535, 535f, 536
Nazca, 199f, 201 Tidal flats, 88, 89 Two Medicine formation, 445, 445f
North American, 199f Tidal rhythmites, 255 Tyrannosaurus rex, 429, 445
Pacific, 199f, 201 Tiktaalik, 367–369, 369f
Philippine, 199f Till, 494, 494f Uinta basin, 476, 478f
rates of movement, 201f Tillites, 180–182, 256, 260, 277, 305, 305f Uintacrinus, 422
South American, 199f Time-rock units, 30, 32, 108, 113, 115f, Uinta formation, 287
Tectonics, 82 Uintatherium, 309, 526, 528f
Cenozoic Era, 469–470 117f, 145–146, 148f, 150, 151, 293f, Ultramafic, 236, 237
climate and, 470–472 422 Ultrasaurs. See Supersaurus
continents and, 82–83, 84f Time units, 30, 32 Uncompahgre Mountains, Colorado, 309,
defined, 82 “Time zero,” 38
depositional basins and, 82 Tippecanoe cratonic sequence, 275 314f, 325f
West coast, 487–488, 487f Tonto group, 104, 118 Unconformities, 20, 81, 109, 110f, 262
Tectonic settings, 81–83, 98–99, 121. See Tools, 559f
also Plate tectonics Toroweap formation, 104, 120, 408 angular, 110, 110f
Teeth, 507. See also Lower jaw and teeth; Tusks Torrowangee group, Australia, 160 defined, 109–110
Aegyptopithecus, 550 Trace fossils, 125, 130, 130f, 131f, 269, 268f, disconformity, 110–111, 110f
carnassial, 524 281, 282f, 343 nonconformities, 110f, 111, 111f
Tracheophytes, 374–375 paraconformity, 111–112
Tragodesmoceras socoroense, 425f

I16 c Index

Ungulates, 526, 527f, 530 Volcanic eruption, 3, 19, 64, 418, 552 Werner, Abraham G., 18
Uniformitarianism, 18–19, 21 mass extinctions and, 380, 462 Western North America
Universe, 216 in rock production, 64–65
back-arc basin, 405f
Big Bang, 221 Volcanism, 380, 462–463, 478, 482–485, Jurassic Period, 391f
Doppler shift, 221 484, 487, 489 Mesozoic Era, 390–406, 397f
expanding, 221 paleogeographic map, 403f
life in, 126 Volcanoes, 2, 19, 58f, 59, 185, 387, 401, 405, tectonic features, 405f
origin of, 221 411, 462, 477, 480f. See also Guyots; Whales, 144, 147f, 526, 537, 538f, 539
oscillating, 221 Volcanism White Cliffs of Dover, 34
Unstable tectonic settings, 95, 99 White River formation, 476
Upfaulted blocks, 469 Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, 210, Whitmore Wash member, 104
Uplifts, 309, 472, 474, 487 210f Whittington, Harry B., 339
Uralian Sea, 327 Wiersma, Dirk, 102
Ural Mountains, 18, 304, 327 intraplate, 210 Williston basin, 293, 306
Uranium-234, 41t islands as, 23, 65, 66, 189, 191f, 202, 205, Wilson, J. Tuzo, 195, 251
Uranium-235, 7, 36, 40, 41, 41t Wilson, Jon, 319f
Uranium-238, 36–38, 38f, 40–41, 40f, 41t 323, 509, 510, 513 Wilson, Woodrow, 430
Uranium-lead method of radioactive dating, Katmai, 210 Wilson cycles, 192–194, 253f, 254f, 255,
Kilauea, 59f, 65f, 210, 211
41, 41f Lo’ihi, 211 258, 281
Uranus, 215, 217, 218t, 220, 226, 227–228, Mauna Loa, 210 Wind deposits, 88
Mount Fuji, 210 Wingate sandstone, 395, 395f
227f Mount St. Helens, 65, 210, 484, 485f Woese, Carl R., 133
U.S. Geologic Survey, 25 Popocatepetl, 210 Wolfe, Art, 489f, 520f, 547f
Ussher, James, 35 San Francisco volcanic field, 484f Wollemi National Park, Australia, 458
shield, 210 Wombats, 519
Varangian glaciation, 265, 270 Voyager I, 226f Wopmay Orogen, 251, 253–254, 253f,
Varves, 256, 475 Voyageurs National Park, Canada, 246, 246f
Vascular plants, 299, 337, 375f 257
Vendoza, 268, 269 Wadati-Benioff seismic zones, 169, 200f, Worms, 154, 160, 267, 268, 268f, 338,
Vendoza controversy, 268–269 201
Venus, 2, 217, 219, 222–223, 223f, 226, 564, 339f
Wadi Kareim, Egypt, 257f
566 Walcott, Charles D., 338, 339f, 341f Xenacanthus, 366, 368f
“Venus of Willendorf,” 564f Wallaby, 147, 520
Vertebral column, 132, 140, 361 Wallace, Alfred R., 8, 13, 24, 135 Yellowstone National Park, 203f, 476,
Vertebrates, 21, 130, 132, 140, 142f, 144, Wallowa Mountains, Oregon, 204 478f
Walruses, 526
181, 337, 342, 386, 438, 565. See also Walters, L., 102f Yosemite National Park, 486f
specific vertebrates Walther, Johannes, 106 Yunnanozoon, 343
amniotic, 362, 363 Walther’s Law, 106, 106f
bones, 146f, 337 Waterton Lakes, 261 Zaphrenthis, 349f
Cenozoic life forms, 512–517 Water vascular system, 356–357 Zinsmeister, William, 462
embryos, 147f Waves, 170, 211 Zion National Park, 96f, 394–395, 394f,
first four-legged, 370–372
Mesozoic life forms, 426–429 body, 170–171 398f, 403f
non-amniotic, 363 earthquake, 170 Zircon, 39, 45, 216, 216f, 229
Paleozoic life forms, 337, 362–363 Love, 171 Zones. See also specific zones
Vesicles, 61 P-waves, 170–173, 171f–173f
Vestigial organs/structures, 126, 144, 147f Rayleigh, 171 assemblage, 150, 151
Viking mission to Mars, 163, 224f seismic, 170, 171f, 172, 173f, 175, 203 biostratigraphic, 150
Vine, F. J., 197 surface earthquake waves, 170–171 Earth’s internal, 172–175
Vishnu Schist, 118, 262, 262f, 263f S-waves, 170–173, 170f, 171f, 173f subduction, 65, 66, 169, 188, 192–196,
Volcanic ash, 14, 39f, 44, 72,86, 99, 109, Waynesburg sandstone, 323f
118, 126, 288, 330, 405, 434,457, 462, Weasels, 525 201, 203, 204, 235, 287–289, 293,
463, 476–480, 512, 553f, 555f Wegener, Alfred, 178, 179, 181, 182, 202, 204f 297, 331, 391, 395, 399, 410, 485,
Wells, John, 255 487
Wentworth, C. K., 91 Zooid, 347, 360, 364
Zooplankton, 151, 343, 508