English for Diplomatic Purposes

Activity 3

Conciliation = overcoming distrust; cooperation = working together
demilitarization = absence of military forces or installations; negotiation = action
for resolving differences between two persons/countries . Additional nouns in -
ation: classification (of documents, materials), pacification, translation,
interpretation, relation

Activity 4

(1) reiterate; (2) articulate; (3) negotiate; (4) tolerated; (5) mitigated

Activity 5

Additional verbs: improve, better, optimize, dignify, elevate, maximize

Activity 6

Item (f) strongly violates communicative dignity by referring to the poor as low
in (economic) condition. This reflects rankism.

Activity 7

(1) AGREE. Diplomatically, empathy means putting oneself in the place of one’s
negotiating partner
(2) DISAGREE. Rather than vehemently, cordially, mutually respectfully
(3) AGREE. You should lead your interlocutor to accept your proposal amicably

Activity 8

(1) aid; (2) alliance; (3) compromise; (4) conflict resolution; (5) negotiation

Activity 9

1a; 2c; 3b; 4d; 5e; 6f

Activity 10

POSITIVIZERS: advantages (benefits), encourage (inspire), harder (more
intensively), create (generate), momentum (impetus), challenging (creative)

Activity 11

AAA - appeasement
BBB - relationships
CCC - cordially
DDD - dialogue
MMM - mindset
NNN - nations
PPP - peacefully
RRR - relations
SSS - support, serenity
TTT - tactfully
UUU - union, understanding

Activity 12

(1) empathy, dignity (2) humility (3) dignify (4) creative, professional

Activity 13

Hate= don’t like; old fashioned = not current; waste of time= time not well; used
ban = not allow

Activity 14

(6) proposing (7) consulting (8) investigating (9) inspiring (10) conciliating

Activity 17

(1) negotiating styles
(2) accurate reports
(3) gestures sparingly
(4) deductive or inductive

(5) facts factors abstract principles

Activity 18

(1a) VP; (1b) P; (1c) VN; (1d) N
2a - P; (2b) VN; (2c) VP; (2d) VP

Activity 19

(1) 1-defense (2) demand (3) democracy (4) development (5) détente
(6) dialogue (7) dignity (8) dignitary (9) diversity (10) duty

9 Conclusion

Patricia Friedrich

As I hope this volume has made clear, many are the opportunities and ideas to be
explored in English for Diplomatic Purposes. The recognition that diplomacy is
a unique realm of use, which nonetheless relies on well-known and important
elements of linguistic dynamics, opens the door to many innovative practices
and creative pedagogical activities (of which we clearly are only starting to
scratch the surface). It is the goal of the contributors to this volume that
instructors, students and diplomatic education centers join us in devising plans
that allow the full range of possibilities in diplomacy to be realized. In the same
spirit, we hope other researchers will invest time in further unveiling elements of
communication that foster greater communicative peace.

In these concluding remarks, I would like to offer ideas for reflection and
prompts to generate dialogue among instructors, among students, and between
these two groups. I invite you to add to these ideas and create opportunities,
through workshops, meetings and retreats, for your peers to ponder and
contemplate these items. Some possible self-reflective questions are as follows:

Ideas for teachers to explore

(1) Given World Englishes knowledge and contribution and a framework of
peace, what activities or tasks can students engage with in the classroom so that
English for Diplomacy better fulfills these students’ needs for communicative
competence?

(2) Utilizing the vocabulary that students already bring to class, what steps can
be taken to ensure a positive addition to their linguistic vocabulary so that it can
be peace fostering and consensus seeking?

(3) What activities can you envision to teach empathy to your students of

diplomatic English?

(4) What linguistic elements can you teach your students so that they can
balance force and grace when using diplomatic English(es)?

(5) We often acknowledge that the strategic level of linguistic competence helps
learners make up for ‘imperfect’ linguistic knowledge. In a way, all knowledge
of language is imperfect (nobody knows ‘the whole’ language), so it is more
positive to focus on strategies to fill in these linguistic gaps than to consider the
‘imperfections’ themselves. How can we help our students productively engage
with the strategic level to supplement linguistic knowledge? What are good ways
to teach circumlocution, repetition, clarification questions, etc.? How do students
feel about using the strategic level? Do they see it positively or as a sign of their
shortcomings?

(6) Language can at times be quite unpredictable, even in situations of
communication, such as diplomatic interaction where a certain protocol is in
place. When we practice language for negotiation, phrases and expressions can
become seemingly fixed. When learners of English use language in real life, they
may become disoriented by the more fluid way in which linguistic expression
happens. How do we avoid this gap between teaching and language use in the
real world?

(7) One of our chapters has presented a view of English in the more specific
context of ASEAN countries. Are there specific characteristics of the region
where you come from (e.g. South America, Western Europe, Northern Africa)
that should be taken into consideration when applying English to diplomatic
communication?

(8) Since Englishes have multiplied and many areas of knowledge have invested
in describing variation and diversity, how does a classroom teacher address such
concepts as ‘error,’ ‘mistake,’ and ‘standard language,’ without on the one hand
limiting individual expression and on the other conveying the message that there
are no contextual rules to be followed? How can balance be achieved in this
case?

(9) How can politeness be manifested in different Englishes and what linguistic
forms are essential to negotiating politeness in context?

(10) How can you make your classroom into a laboratory of ideas, a place where

students feel safe to experiment with linguistic expression so as to be prepared
for real-word interactions?
(11) Are there competing understandings of diplomacy that need to be addressed
in the English language classroom? If there are, how do they manifest in a world
that often uses English for international communication?

An important consideration here is that the English classroom can work not only
as a place of linguistic awareness, but perhaps more importantly of
sociolinguistic knowledge. Because words are never detached from some form
of cultural meaning, exploring these elements – the linguistic and the social
together – can create important opportunities for improvement in
communication. The classroom in this sense is a microcosm of the dynamics that
occur outside of it.

Activity suggested by Francisco Gomes de Matos (personal communication)
Choose a piece of diplomatic communication (a speech or address for example)
Listen carefully and identify the following items.

(1) Positivizers used (these can be nouns, verbs, or adjectives): e.g. peace,
protect, dialogue, community.
(2) Key-concepts or common diplomatic terms: e.g. negotiation, peace, joint-
effort, mediated.
(3) Positive phrases: e.g. ‘we have come to an agreement regarding…’
(4) Negative ‘isms:’ e.g. cynicism, despotism, radicalism (note: not all ‘isms’ are
negative, so students can discuss what makes an ‘ism’ negative).
(5) Mentions of diplomacy, diplomatic, diplomat and derived terms.

(6) Mentions of problems: e.g. the issue of…., the problem of…
(7) Uses of modals to indicate opinion or advice: ‘We should do better…,’ It
would be advisable…’

After collecting such an inventory, discuss with students which of these uses
make the speech/address more effective and which detract from those goals.
Reuse the most relevant vocabulary in other classroom practices.

Ideas for students to explore
(1) How do I see my role as a communicator in diplomatic circles?
(2) What are some of the elements of communication that challenge me the
most?
(3) What are some attitudes or utterances by other parties that could trigger a
negative verbal response in me? How can I address those in a more positive
manner?
(4) What new kinds of linguistic interaction can I try?

Activity

Keeping a journal
As you embark on this learning process of not only using English for Diplomatic
Purposes but also of choosing language and expressions that will generate
goodwill and cooperation, try to keep a written journal describing the practices

that you feel the most comfortable with and the ones that seem to work the best.
Refer back to your journal entries when you need inspiration.

Ideas for teachers and students
If dialogue among teachers is very important, communication between teachers
and students is essential. Here are a few questions that can be addressed
collectively in the spirit of dialogue.

(1) What knowledge do I bring to the classroom that can benefit my instructor in
their role as class lead? What knowledge do I bring to the classroom that can
benefit my students in their role as (future) diplomatic workers?
(2) How can I provide my instructor with hints to the kinds of language and
skills I need?
(3) How can the idea of compassionate communication already work in the
classroom?
(4) How can I conduct diagnostic analyses of the linguistic needs of my
students?
(5) What can my students teach me about diplomacy?
(6) What can my instructor teach me about the role of Englishes in different
environments?
(7) What activities can we, teachers and students, devise together to better
practice?

Keeping a Glossary of Terms

Because certain words and expressions will occur often within the realm of
diplomacy, it is a good idea to keep a list of terms. However, writing them down
only once will likely not be enough to make them available to you when you
need them. Instead, actively look for opportunities to use them. One way to get
started is to employ them in written communications. Since when you write you
(often) have a chance to stop and look for the best vocabulary items, using your
glossary to compose written messages helps take words from your passive
vocabulary (those words you can recognize if you see them but would not
ordinarily use) to your active vocabulary (the pool of words you actually use
more spontaneously in communication). Following this practice, you can try and
incorporate the items to your oral communications as well.

Because diplomacy is a highly interactive realm of language use, the more
opportunities a learner has to interact with others the better.

If you are using this book to learn about aspects of diplomatic English that could
potentially apply to your profession and practice, these are a few reflections
worth carrying out:

(1) What aspects of my professional practice resemble those of diplomatic
communications and what elements differ significantly?

(2) What aspect of my professional communications do I want to improve? What
do I value in a communication counterpart?

(3) What are some of my challenges when communicating with others?

(4) What aspects of communication present the least challenge to me?

(5) What are some of the ways of communicating compassionately in my
practice?

(6) What are some of the ways of communicating peacefully in my practice?

How do compassion and peace interact in communication?

It is our hope that this volume has contributed to the important mission of
teaching English to those who engage in the delicate job of communicating
diplomatically in a second or foreign language. May we use language to
negotiate, to uplift, to understand and to be understood.

Index

academic language 29
accommodation 38
ACE (Asian Corpus of English) 75, 76, 77
acknowledgement 149, 154, 155, 165–166
actions versus states 62–63, 157–158
active listening 45
ad hominem attacks 156
adverbs
–of frequency (always, never) 55
–positivizers 175
agenda setting 116–120
agentless verbs 158–159
aggrandizement 149, 155–156, 165, 169
aggravating strategies 27, 32
agreements, reaching see also disagreement 33, 139–140
ambiguity 57–58, 127, 131, 155
American English 34, 99
apologizing 4, 30, 31, 32, 156

Applied Peace Linguistics 15–16
Arabic 2
Arafat, Y. 156
Archibald, A. 78, 81, 89
argumentation 151–153
ASEAN 75, 82–92
Asian Corpus of English (ACE) 75, 76, 77
Asian way 84–85, 87, 89
assertive communication 149–153, 155–156, 160, 163, 167–169
assumptions, uncovering 56
attentiveness 149, 154–159, 160, 165–166
Austin, P.K. 6
Australian English 96, 97, 98, 99
authentic data see also corpora 36–38, 77, 162
authority of speaker 152
auxiliary verbs, negation of 124–125
avoidance strategies 35, 100, 135

Baguley, P. 127
Baldauf Jr, R.B. 12
Baranyai, T. 112

Bardovi-Harlig, K. 34–35, 37
Beebe, L. 34, 35
Berlusconi, S. 154–155
Bhagwad Gita xv
bilingualism see multilingualism
Bjørge, A.K. 32, 34, 36
blame, apportioning 47, 56, 136
bluntness 29, 35, 111
body language 56, 104, 150, 157
bold on record 27
Bolinger, D. 14
Borg, J. 71
Box, C. 28
Brazilian English 98, 99
Bremner, S. 21
British National Corpus (BNC) 37
British West African English 22–23
Brown, P. 21, 23, 27
Buddha xv
Burr, W. 112

Canagarajah, A.S. 76
Carini, P. 56
categorization 150–152, 158, 160–161, 162–163, 168–169
change, language 12, 95, 97
Cheng, W. 33
China 2, 76, 77, 81–82, 111
choices, linguistic 11–12
clarification requests 32, 104, 121
Clayton, T. 83
Clinton, H.R. 109–110, 156
closing a negotiation 139–140
co-construction
–of alignment 33
–of identity 29
–of meaning 23
cognitive empathy 45
Cohen, A.D. 35
co-leadership 29
collaborative relationships, building 27, 33, 84
collectivism versus individualism 100
collegiality 31, 76, 84, 85, 86, 88

colonialism 16 n.3, 96, 97
commands 67
common goals, emphasizing 30–31, 32
common ground, getting back to 138–139
communicative competence 11, 191
Communicative Peace 173, 175
communities of practice 34, 36
comparatives and superlatives 55
Compassionate English Communication (CEC) 42–74
concessions, making 129–132, 145
conditional agreement 32, 33, 127, 129–132
conditional forms 165, 166
confidentiality 36, 146
conflict resolution 20, 52, 82, 90, 98, 135–138
confrontational strategies 80–81
connectives 160
conscientization 3, 15
consensus-oriented approaches 34, 82–83, 87, 88
context
–and aggrandizement 155–156
–and disagreement 36–38

–high-context versus low-context orientations 100, 111–112, 120–121, 158
–interconnectedness of language and context 21
–and World Englishes 89, 90
continuum of disagreement 33
conversation analysis 33
Cook, V. 174
cooperativity
–co-constructed alignment 33
–in diplomacy 99
–in ELF communication 78, 79, 80, 89
corpora 37–38, 75, 76–77, 92–93, 175
cost-minimizers 27
counterfactuals 149, 158
courtesy see also politeness 154–155
courtroom data 87
criticism 28, 35, 136
cross-cultural communication
–compassionate English communication 60
–and diplomacy xvii, 111–112, 113–115
–face-space 159
–grace 154–159

–mitigated (softened) language 20, 23, 33–34
–and nonkilling linguistics 16
–and peace 98
–using English as a lingua franca 79, 81, 82, 90
–World Englishes 99–100
Crystal, D. 10, 13, 14
Crystal, H, 14
Curley, M. 82

Davies, M. 175
death, language 6, 12, 95
deductive versus inductive presentation of information 100
defensive strategies 47, 137
deference 22, 155, 156, 169
deficit approaches 6
definitions, agreeing on 151, 160, 162
defusing volatile situations 136–138
dehumanization see also humanization 8, 14–15, 16
delay devices 26, 27, 32, 34
delayed versus immediate responses 26
DelPrete, D.L. 28

demands versus requests 47–48, 50, 52, 66–70, 71, 81
description versus evaluation (activity) 52, 55–60
description versus prescription of language variation 96, 99
desensitization 2
details stage (of negotiations) 110
development questioning strategies 121–122
dialectal variation 5–6, 96
dialogue-based approaches 82, 83–84
dignity, human 3, 8–9, 16, 21, 174, 178, 185
Dillard, J.P. 70
Dippold, D. 34
direct versus indirect language
–compassionate English communication 68
–in courtrooms 87
–in diplomatic negotiation 111, 118, 120–121
–English as a lingua franca 81, 88
–finger pointing 136
–and force/ grace 149, 157, 158
–mitigated (softened) language 23–25, 27, 28–29, 32, 34, 35, 37
–World Englishes 100, 104
disabilities 13

disagreement
–in diplomatic negotiation 120–121, 127–128
–English as a lingua franca 88–89
–mitigated (softened) language 20, 25–33
–World Englishes 106
disclaimers 156
discourse connectives 160
discourse markers 32
dispreferred responses 26, 29, 32
distance (of interactional participants) 23–24, 28, 100, 104
diversity, language 5–7, 83, 94, 97
Dobbs, L. 2
domination 12, 79–80, 167
downtoners 32
Dumitriu, P. 70

ecosystem of languages 6–7, 11, 12, 98
education
–peace-promoting 8–11
–respect for 13
Ehrenreich, S. 36

Ekman, P. 45, 61
ELT (English Language Teaching) 109
emails 30–32, 37
emotions
–Compassionate English Communication (CEC) 42–74
–cultural differences 111
–in diplomatic exchanges 42
–emotional intelligence 90
–and foreign language usage xvi
–and persuasion 152
–translating emotion words 60–61
–universal 60–61
empathy
–compassionate English communication 44–46, 49–52, 60–66, 71–72
–to defuse volatility 137–138
–in diplomacy 71
–empathic analysis 45, 60–66
–and Peace Linguistics 16
empowerment 13
endangered languages 6, 12
English see also World Englishes

–disagreement 25–35
–as a lingua franca xvi, 33, 43, 60, 75–93, 95, 101–108, 109
–‘native’ varieties 82, 91, 96–97, 105
–as a negotiating language xvi
–politeness 22–23
English for Diplomatic Purposes 109–110
environment 6
ESP (English for Specific Purposes) 109
ethnographic research 36–38
evaluation versus description (activity) 52, 55–60
evaluations versus judgments 56, 135–136
evaluations versus observations 135–136
Expanding Circle Englishes 96–97, 103
Experiential Learning Cycle 49, 51–52
explicit versus implicit language 36, 81, 100, 111

face
–face-space 149, 157–159, 165–166, 168, 169
–making requests 81–82
–mitigated (softened) language 21–33, 34, 36
–using English as a lingua franca 80, 88–89, 90

facial expressions 104, 150
facilitation 146
false choices 152
Farage, N. 156
fear tactics 14
finger pointing 136
first person usage 49, 56, 62–63, 155, 165, 166
Firth, A. 78, 87
force 149, 150–154, 159–172
Ford, D. 159
formal versus informal language 22–25, 27, 31, 67, 145, 155
forms of address 22, 113–114, 145, 155
formula stage (of negotiations) 110
Fought, C. 5
France 103, 111, 157
Freeman Jr., C.W. 173, 183
Freire, P. 3, 13
Friedrich, P. 8, 11, 20, 77, 107
frustration 28, 42, 46, 65
Fujii, S. 32
Fujimori, J. 28

function over form 96, 99

Galtung, J. 7, 8
Gardner, D. 175
gaze 32
Gibb, J.R. 137
Gilbran, K. 10
Gill, R. 61
Glazier, S. 3
globalization 6
Goetz, J.L. 46
Goffman, E. 21, 22
Gomes de Matos, F. 1, 8, 11, 14, 20, 77, 97–98, 107, 173, 185, 193
good faith 146
good/ right speech xv
Gottlieb, N. 5
grace 149, 154–172
Graddol, D. xvi
Greek culture 22
Greenstock, J. 162–172
greetings 31, 115, 149, 154

Hall, E.T. 100, 111
hedging 26, 32, 38, 149, 158, 165, 169
Hennig, J. 127
hesitation markers 23, 26
high-context versus low-context orientations 100, 111–112, 120–121, 158
high-stakes tasks 80, 87
Hofstede, G. 100
Holtgraves, T. 32, 38
Hong Kong 29, 76, 77, 80, 81
Houck, N. 28, 32
House, J. 78
Howard, M. 158
human needs 46, 50, 61, 62
humanization 9, 10, 11, 14–15, 16, 98, 173
Hymes, D. 11

‘I’ messages 56, 62–63, 166
idioms of negotiation 147–148
immediate versus delayed responses 26
impasses 146

imperatives 67
imperialism, linguistic 11, 82
impersonal passives 158–159
implicit versus explicit language 36, 81, 100, 111
impoliteness 21–25, 80, 154–155, 157
inclusive approaches 5, 13, 94
indirect versus direct language
–compassionate English communication 68
–in courtrooms 87
–in diplomatic negotiation 111, 118, 120–121
–English as a lingua franca 81, 88
–finger pointing 136
–and force/grace 149, 157, 158
–mitigated (softened) language 23–25, 27, 28–29, 32, 34, 35, 37
–World Englishes 100
individualism versus collectivism 100
inductive versus deductive presentation of information 100
informal terms of address 22, 27
informal versus formal language 22–25, 27, 31, 67, 145, 155
Inner Circle speakers 80, 96–97, 103
intensifiers 33

inter-cultural communication see cross-cultural communication
interdisciplinary approaches xvii, 15
International English 101–108
interpreters and translators 77, 112–113
interruptions 132–134, 154–155
introductions protocols 113–115
Iraq/Chilcot Inquiry 162–164
Ishihara, N. 35, 149, 155, 159

Jamaican English 99
Japan 5, 35, 77, 111
Jay, T. 15
Jenks, C. 80
Johnson, F. 22, 33
joking 29, 32
judgments versus evaluations 56, 135–136

Kachru, B. 95–96, 103
Kaplan, R. 12, 15
Keysar, B. xvi
‘killer languages’ 12, 14

killing vocabulary 2, 9–10, 107, 151
Kim, P. 158
Kirkpatrick, A. 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 90
Korea 77, 111, 114
Kumar, 83

Latin 12, 95
Lave, J. 34, 36
learner-as-researcher/ethnographer approaches 21, 36–38
legislation, linguistic 12
‘let it pass’ principle 78, 87
Levinson, S. 21, 23, 27
lingua francas see also English
–ASEAN 75–93
–and diplomacy 76–78
–International English 101
–World Englishes 101–108
listening 45, 149
literal language 20
loaded terms 151, 160–161
Locher, M.A. 21, 23

logical presentation of ideas 100, 112, 120, 152

Macek, M. 157
Maffi, L. 6
Malamed, L.H. 25, 38
Mandela, N. xvi, 72
Maslow, A.H. 46
Mauranen, A. 76
meaning
–co-construction of 23
–message-oriented approaches 34
–negotiation of meaning 76, 78, 89
–over form 89–90
mediation 146
Meierkord, C. 78
Merkel, A. 154–155
message-oriented approaches 34
meta-cognitive strategies 21, 35–38
metaphor 2, 12, 32, 47
Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English (MICASE) 37
military communications 155

mindfulness 45, 46, 47, 49–50, 160
mispronunciations 89
misunderstandings
–Compassionate English Communication (CEC) 42–74
–ELF 84
–and politeness 23
–questioning strategies 121–123
–and translating emotion words 60–61
–World Englishes 99, 111
mitigated (softened) language 21, 22, 23, 25–33, 34–35, 158
modal verbs 32, 34–35, 118, 149, 158, 165, 166, 169, 193
Moore, C. 111
moralistic judgments 56
Mori, J. 33
Mubarak, H. 156
multilateral diplomacy 77–78, 130, 145
multilingualism
–lingua franca exchanges 78–80, 82, 84
–respect for 7, 11–12
mutual intelligibility 95
mutual understanding 47, 50

Nagoya Protocol 131
necessary conditions 130–132
needs, expressing (in diplomatic negotiation) 120–121, 137–138
needs, human 46, 50, 61, 62
Neff, K. 46
negative peace 7–8
negative politeness 22
negative verb forms 124–125
negotiation, in English 109–148
negotiation simulations 140–143
Nelson, C. 96
New Zealand 25–26, 96, 97, 103
Nickerson, C. 80
non- prefix 2, 19
nonkilling linguistics 1–19, 182–183
non-verbal communication
–body language 56, 104, 150, 157
–compassionate English communication 49
–in diplomatic negotiation 111, 112
–and disagreement 37

–facial expressions 104, 150
–tone of voice 28–29, 56, 150
nonviolence 2
Nonviolent Communication (NVC) 50, 52, 70–71

Obama, B. 156
objectives setting 116–120
observations versus evaluations 135–136
off record disagreement 27, 32
open- versus close-ended questions 122
opening negotiations 113–115
openness 20, 29
oppositional talk 20–41
outcomes 120–121
Outer Circle Englishes 96–97, 103

Paige, G. 1, 2, 9, 16
Pakir, A. 14
paraphrasing 79, 80, 180
partial agreement 27, 29, 32, 33, 34
participant paraphrase 80

passive verbs 30, 158–159
past tense 149, 158
Pavlenko, A. 60
Paxman, J. 158
peace
–communicative peace 11
–definition of 98
–and language 3, 43, 98, 107
–and linguistics 3–4
–negative peace 7–8
–positive peace 8–11
–vocabulary of 2, 14
Peace Education 11
Peace Linguistics 3–4, 11, 15–16, 94–108, 182–183
Peace Sociolinguistics 11
Peace Studies 4
Pearson, E. 34
Pedagogy of Positiveness 173–190
‘periphery’ countries 11
personal space 157
persuasion 20, 70–71, 151, 152

phatic expressions 149, 156
Phillipson, R. 7, 11, 82
pleasantries 115
politeness 20–41, 67, 100, 154–159
political correctness 14
Pomerantz, A. 32, 33
pomposity 98
Portuguese 2
position stating 120–121, 123–124
positive communication 173–190
positive peace 8–11
positive politeness 22, 149, 156
positivizers 174–185, 193
postponement of disagreement 33, 35
power distance 100, 104
pragmatics see also non-verbal communication
–cultural transfer 81, 90
–politeness 20–41, 67, 100, 154–159
praise 156
preferred versus dispreferred responses 26, 29, 32
pre-negotiations 110

prescription versus description of language variation 96, 99
present tense 55, 158
preservation, language 7, 16
presuppositions 124–125, 151
proficiency levels 5, 6, 79–80
prompts 155
pronouns
–in disagreement 128
–inclusive 22, 118, 155, 165
–politeness 149, 157
–‘you’ 55–56, 63, 67, 137, 155, 165
pronunciation 99
proposals 126–132
public peace dialogue 3
purism, language 12

qualifiers 165–166
questioning strategies 22, 121–126, 155, 156

Rana, Kishan S. xv
Randall, M. 48, 56

rapport management strategies 33–34, 38, 89, 113
Rath, D. 157
Rector, M. 11
Redmond, L. 113–114
reflective practice 43, 44, 50–52, 68
reframing devices 137–138
register 149
repair strategies 37
requests versus demands 47–48, 50, 52, 66–70, 71, 81
respect
–cultural differences 100
–for a healthy ecosystem of languages 6–7
–for human dignity 16
–for individual linguistic choices 11–12
–for language change 12
–for language users 3, 5–6
–mutual respect 27
–for teachers and learners 13
rhetoric 16, 71, 81–82, 99–100, 104
rhoticity 99
right speech xv

rights, linguistic 11
Roberts, C. 21, 36
Rodgers, C. 51, 52, 56, 57
Rogers, C.R. 45
Romance languages 12, 95
Rosenberg, M.B. 46, 50, 52, 56, 70, 71
rudeness 154–155, 157, 168
Runion, M. 113
Russell, W.E. 42

Salsbury, T. 34–35, 37
salutations 31
Saudi Arabia 113–114
Saunders, H.H 3
Scanlon, C. 6
second language usage see also lingua francas xvi, 43, 52, 81, 101, 105
Seidlhofer, B. 76–77, 82, 109
self-compassion 46–47
self-deprecation 29, 156
self-empathy 46–47
self-reference 56, 62–63, 145

separatism, linguistic 5
Severino, R. 77
shock tactics 156
Siddique, 83
Siegel, D.J. 47, 62
signaling 153, 155, 160
silence see also delay devices 79
Simpson, A. 6
Singapore English 82
Singh, M. 6
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. 12, 14
small talk 29, 100, 115, 155
SMART-Choice requests 44–48, 50, 52, 66–70, 71
Smith, R.K.M 7
social status 23, 26
social transformation 12, 14
socio-cultural variation
–politeness 21, 22–23
–translating emotion words 60–61
–using English as a lingua franca 81
solidarity 22

Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) 75–93
Spanish culture 22
special needs, learners with 13
speech act theory 33, 158
stakeholder needs 71
stakes involved 23, 24, 30, 85, 87
stance markers 22
states versus actions 62–63, 157–158
stereotypes 5, 23, 35, 83, 90
stigmatization 5
strokes 155
subjunctives 149
Sussex, R. 90

tag questions 22, 155, 156
Takahashi, T. 34, 35
Tannen, D. 100
Tarone, E. 21, 36
teachers
–language of compassion 43–44, 50–52
–professional standards 82

–respect for 13
Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) xvii
tense 55, 149, 158
thanking 157
T.H.I.N.K (true, helpful, inspiring, necessary, kind) xv
Thomas, N. 82
Thornton, B. 48, 56
titles and forms of address 113–114, 155
tone of voice 28–29, 56, 150
topic 25, 29, 37
translation 112–113
trust 20, 29
Tsui, A.B.M 33

understaters 32
unsolicited advice 28
upgraders 33
US
–disagreement case studies 28–30
–face-space 159
–high-context versus low-context orientations 111

–imperialism, linguistic 11
–regional dialects 5

van Rompuy, H. 156
variation
–dialectal variation 5–6
–and language change 12
–and World Englishes 95–96
verbs
–agentless verbs 158–159
–conditional forms 165, 166
–impersonal passives 158–159
–modal verbs 32, 34–35, 118, 149, 158, 165, 166, 169, 193
–negation of auxiliaries 124–125
–negative verb forms 124–125
–positivizers 175
–tense 55, 149, 158
Vienna Oxford International Corpus of English (VOICE) 76–77, 92–93
violence
–and ignorance 13
–increasing in the world 15

–vocabulary of 2–3, 14, 107
virtual communication 95
vocabulary
–agreeing on definitions 151
–idioms of negotiation 147–148
–keeping a glossary 194
–loaded terms 151, 160–161
–of negotiation 145–148
–positivizers 174–185, 193
–of violence 2–3, 14, 107
volatile situations 135, 136–138

Walkinshaw, I. 80
war vocabulary 2, 14
Watts, R.J. 23
weapon, language as 14
Wenger, E. 34, 36
Whitehead, D. 82
Wierzbicka, A. 60
Williams, M. 29, 36
Windingland, D. 113

Woodrow, P. 111
World Englishes
–described 95–97
–disagreement 33–38
–as lingua franca 82, 101–108
–and Peace Linguistics 94–108
–and positive communication 185
written media 31
Wu, D. 83

‘you,’ use of 55–56, 63, 67, 137, 155, 165
Yule, G. 21, 36, 79