Malaysia History eBook by GROUP PBSM

MALAYSIA SOCIAL HISTORY WRITTEN BY GROUP PBSM

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION II TOPIC 1 : HISTORY AND SOCIAL HISTORY 01 TOPIC 2: THE USES OF HISTORY 02 TOPIC 3: OFFICIAL VS MISSING HISTORY OF 03-04 MALAYSIA TOPIC 4: PREHISTORY OF THE INDO- 05 MALAYSIA ARCHIPELAGO TOPIC 5: ANCIENT HISTORY OF "'MALAYSIA" 06 THE INFLUENE TOPIC 6: ECONOMY HISTORY : TRADE AND ITS 07 CONSEQUENCES TOPIC 7: THE CREATIONS OF MODERN 08 SOUTHEAST ASIA,1819-1900 S TOPIC 8: POPULATIONS,IMMIGRATIONS AND 09-10 ETHNIC IDENTITY TOPIC 9: INDEGIOUS PEOPLE 11 TOPIC 10: WOMEN MOVEMENT 12 TOPIC 11: POLITICS OF THE LEFT LABOUR 13-14 MOVEMENT TOPIC 12: SECRET SOCIETY 15-16 TOPIC 13: HISTORY OF THE MALAYSIA 17 STUDENT MOVEMENT REFERENCES 18 GROUP PBSM Malaysia Social History

INTRODUCTION about the Malaysia Social History The study of social history focuses on the experiences, interactions, and activities of common people throughout history as it explores diverse facets of human society and culture. It aims to comprehend how social institutions, norms, and structures influence society and how people influence one another. Daily life, family, employment, religion, gender roles, social classes, race, ethnicity, and leisure pursuits are just a few of the subjects covered by social history. The field developed in response to traditional history's focus on political events and famous personalities, with the intention of fostering a more inclusive understanding of history by investigating the experiences and views of underrepresented people and groups. Our understanding of numerous facets of society has increased thanks to social history, which has also brought attention to topics that were previously ignored, such as the history of women, the working class, and minorities. It also contributes to discussions of historical complexity, power, inequality, social transformation, and social change. Malaysia Social History II GROUP PBSM

Malaysia Social History 01 What Is Social History TOPIC 1: HISTORY AND SOCIAL HISTORY History and Evidence IHistory and Meaning According to John Vincent, history is about evidence, whether it is alive or fallible, and it needs written evidence especially. Oral evidence, with marginal exceptions, is also an important part of it. Studying the past is impossible because it no longer exists, but by examining the evidence that remains, we can gain a better understanding of it. This interpretation of evidence is done by fallible people, so Well, it is important to understand that history and evidence are closely related. Evidence that is available in the present is just a small fraction of that which existed in the past. Also, the survival of evidence is mostly due to accidental reasons. Historians do not create evidence for future convenience, and if they did, it would be highly suspect. The Four Gospels are a good example of this because they are full of discrepancies that do not represent an attempt to impose a coherent historical record. Moreover, history is mostly about literate societies and biased towards literate people in literate societies. It is not the study of humankind;, it is mainly the study of a few men in some societies at some times. Also, history is limited to stable, hierarchical, agricultural, aristocratic, and religious societies that create and preserve written evidence. In conclusion, history is not a simple study of humankind, but it deals with the study of some men in some societies, using some but not all methods, to understand the past.there is no question of ultimate authority in history. evidence alone is not enough, and historians need to bring their own interpretations and understandings to the evidence in order to create a meaningful historical narrative. An example given is two people watching a cricket match - although they both witness the same event, one understands the meaning behind what is happening while the other does not. To truly understand history, one has to go beyond the facts and find the meaning behind them. GROUP PBSM

HISTORY : the study of change over time TOPIC 2 :THE USES OF HISTORY Malaysia Social History 02 As useful knowledge where past experiences and examples can help improve humankind Explore the meaning of life and death – a means of understanding humanity’s place on earth and what is their destiny Wang Gungwu (1968) ü* Desire to remember and the awareness that memory confers power on those who remember Provides lessons from the past – achievements and failures of past civilisations and people Promotes awareness of our ancestral heritage – appreciate our rich cultural heritage, customs and practices, basis for personal identity Yong Mun Cheong (2000) * Helps us better understand the present – current beliefs, practices, knowledge, way of life are rooted in the past Role of History (A): To tell the past as it really was; to be a ‘neutral’ arbiter of the ‘facts’– Ranke School Role of History (B): To tell the everyday story of ordinary people, events and things, economic history, history of human attitudes, and history that went beyond national boundaries – Annales School Hence, rise of social history – history from below History of the poor, the oppressed, the uneducated, the marginalised, children & women Hence, instead of just being a neutral arbiter of the facts, now historians became those who sought to understand the language and practices of the past - to understand the dominant and resisting beliefs and structures that surrounded historical events Hence, shift in history perspective From focus on the facts – elite history – to histories from below – multiple histories, fragmented but inter-connected pasts. ü History is NOT neutral. It cannot be. i.Every individual, event, situation is embedded in class, race and gender. ii.Every historian is embedded in their class, race and gender. The importance of Perspective Evidence & Perspective = Interpretation Bias in History * History – true/distorted/false History as bias/one-sided i.Male dominated ii.Old focus vs. young iii.Powerful vs. weak iv.Winners vs. ‘Losers’ v.Articulate vs. silent vi.Hate vs. love/War vs. Peace vii.Terrorist or Freedom Fighter Doing History * Glass of water example i.Evidence = facts = description (insufficient by itself) ii.Perspective = interpretation/meaning using logic/common sense (also insufficient by itself) ü History as fact & interpretation (i.e.: interpretation of facts) History is connected * Glass of water example i.Evidence = facts = description (insufficient by itself) ii.Perspective = interpretation/meaning using logic/common sense (also insufficient by itself) * History as fact & interpretation (i.e.: interpretation of facts) GROUP PBSM

TOPIC 3: : OFFICIAL VS MISSING HISTORY OF MALAYSIA Malaysia Social History 03 GROUP PBSM OFFICIAL HISTORY History interpreted as any event, person or artifact that provides evidence of Malay or Malaysian achievement and progress. Pre-independence history = individuals or movements that resisted British intrusion into Malaya · .-Provides framework of understanding for Malaysians · Message: Malaysia a developed, progressive, peaceful multi-ethnic and multi-religious country · - Physical description of Malaysia = existing territory & states (with Singapore pre-1965) OFFICIAL HISTORY - PRE-HISTORY MESSAGES - Natural geological formations = Malaysia very old · - Human bones in caves (Niah) & stone tools (Perak & Sabah) (Palaeolithic period) = evidence of ancient human occupation (@ 40,000 BCE) · - Evidence of major settlements like Bujang Valley (Hindu, Buddhist) & Santubong (Hindu, Buddhist & Muslim) = diverse beliefs and active trade relations between “Malaysia” and other parts of the world - Megalithic (giant carved stones) artifacts in Peninsular, Sabah and Sarawak = existence of diversity of lifestyles and cultures during Srivijaya period OFFICIAL HISTORY – COLONIAL STORY Portuguese Control of Malacca 1511-1642 English/British Era, 1786-1941 Foreign powers in Sabah (ceded in perpetuity to Baron Von Overbeck and Albert Dent - British North Borneo Company) · .-· Colonial Beginnings ü Dutch Control of Malacca, 1642-mid 1700s ü Foreign powers in Sarawak (ceded to Brooke Rajahs, 1841 - 1941) · Missing: Role of the Sultans under Colonialism

Malaysia Social History 04 TOPIC 3: : OFFICIAL VS MISSING HISTORY OF MALAYSIA THE NEED FOR AN OFFICIAL HISTORY (OH) · .· Ethnic Riots of May 1969 = Efforts to devise a national ideology of unity · Malaysian history based on colonial foundations – colonial boundaries, colonial administration, colonial ethnic communities = to justify current independence of a postcolonial sovereign Malaysia OFFICIAL HISTORY - CRITIQUE · Sees the country through the eyes of the BN government based on pluralist-communal, Islamic-dominant model · It is selective (includes and excludes) people, events, decisions · It distorts for its own purpose · It does not talk about dynamic grassroots led social change and how social change occurs MISSING HISTORY Life as the River Flows (Agnes Khoo & Richard Crisp) - Women in the Malayan anti-colonial struggle Where Monsoons Meet (A People’s History of Malaya) - Ordinary peoples’ view of how Malaya became independent and not just the UMNO view. · · Was struggle for Independence only an UMNO/Malay struggle? · Was it a struggle or was it given free by the British to conservative political forces called, the Alliance? · Leaves out a lot about the Orang Asli (Malaya), Orang Asal (Sabah & Sarawak) and other minorities · Reality is that the struggle for a new country - Malaya/Malaysia - was more inclusive and saw the involvement of Chinese, Indians, Rich, Poor, left-wing and conservative elements · And what about Sabah & Sarawak? Did they willingly want to form Malaysia? Or were they forced into forming a new country? Cobbold Commission Report (1/3, 1/3, 1/3)? EXAMPLES : GROUP PBSM

TOPIC 4: PREHISTORY OF THE INDO-MALAYSIAN ARCHIPELAGO Malaysia Social History 05 What is archeology and prehistory Archaeology = a systematic study of the material remains of human behaviour in the past (Fagan, 1983) Prehistory = the portion of human history that extends back before the time of written documents and archive (Fagan, 1983) Prehistory of Malaysia During the Neolithic era, which spanned from roughly 8,000 BCE to 1,000 BCE, agriculture was developed in the area, and polished stone tools were used. Around 3,000 BCE, some of the world's earliest rice cultivation artefacts were discovered in this area. During the Bronze Age, which spanned from roughly 1,500 BCE to 500 BCE, more advanced tools were created and bronze was used for both tools and weapons. Following, during the Iron Age, which lasted roughly from 500 BCE to 500 CE, iron was widely used for both tools and weapons. The Malay Peninsula served as a vital commercial route for merchants from India, China, and the Middle East, and over time, several strong dynasties, like the Srivijaya Empire, the Majapahit Empire, and the Melaka Sultanate, grew there. Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam—all of which arrived in the area in the seventh century CE—as well as other religions had an impact on the region. Today, Malaysia is a multicultural country with a diverse populace that reflects its extensive prehistory and history. Archeology and Nationalism In Malaysia, the concept of a united national history has been supported by archaeological research, which links the diverse ethnic and cultural groupings of the nation to a shared past. The promotion of "Malaysian-ness" as opposed to the distinct identities of the numerous ethnic groups that make up the nation has benefited greatly from this. Archaeology has also been employed to advance certain political agendas, such as staking claims to contested territory or advancing particular cultural or religious traditions. For instance, there have been disagreements about who owns and how to interpret archaeological sites in Malaysia, with various parties advocating conflicting historical accounts and interpretations. The Bukit Bunuh evidence Skeletal remains from the Mesolithic era, or roughly 10,000 years ago, were found in the Bukit Bunuh archaeological site in Malaysia. The site was found in 2004 and is situated in Malaysia's Perak province's Lenggong Valley. Four people, two adults and two children, are represented by the skeletal remains, all of whom were interred in a squatting position. The remains have undergone significant research and analysis and are thought to be some of the oldest human remains ever discovered in Malaysia. Indo-Malaysian Archipelago Most of the people (“indigenous”) in the region are Austronesian-speaking (same ethno-linguistic group of mankind). Majority are Mongoloid physical stock of mankind. Austronesian migration A significant development in the histories of Malaysia and the larger Southeast Asian region is the Austronesian migration. The movement of speakers of Austronesian languages, which are a subset of the greater Austronesian language family, from Taiwan southward into the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia is mentioned. The Negritos and Austro-Asiatics were gradually driven out of the area and assimilated by the Austronesian-speaking peoples as they moved south. Additionally, they created novel cultural practises like rice farming, ironworking, and boat building that had a significant influence on Southeast Asian societies and cultures. The Austronesian migration is thought to have had a big impact on Malaysia's establishment of the Malay language and culture. The Malay language, which belongs to the Austronesian family of languages, is believed to have developed through a synthesis of regional dialects and the languages of Austronesian migrants. Stephen Oppenheimer About half of the Malays are from Southeast Asia's islands, and the other half are from the continent. We are currently conducting research on further origins. In the end, they came from Africa, and their ancestors got here around 60,000 years ago or more." GROUP PBSM

TOPIC 5 :ANCIENT HISTORY OF “MALAYSIA” : THE INFLUENCE OF INDIA :THE INFLUENCE OF INDIA Malaysia Social History 06 Malay Peninsula : From pre- to proto-history -By the 4th century AD, coastal states in what is now Peninsular Malaysia regularly conducted intra- and extra-regional trade (forest goods and luxury items). -Several kingdoms and entrepôts appeared on the Malay Peninsula and other parts of Southeast Asia. -The majority of these were situated on the coast (e.g. Kuala Selinsing, Bujang Valley, Santubong), Kuala Selinsing -human burials and artefacts, including pottery, beads, shells and glassware - 3rd century BC to 11th century AD. -Carnelian seal inscribed in South Indian Grantha script – c.5th cent. AD Cherok Tok Kun -Early Indian presence/influence is also suggested by a site called Cherok Tok Kun in Bukit Mertajam, Penang -Sanskrit script – South Indian Pallava Grantha – c.4th-6th cent. AD Santubong -Maritime trade: gold objects, glass beads, Chinese ceramics, gold, local iron production, Hindu-Buddhist objects, “Tantric” shrine – 10th13th century AD Bujang Valley -Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that flourished from the fourth to the seventh century in the Bujang Valley also Important trade centre. Investigations in the past thirty years indicate that rather than a process of cultural colonization, "Indian influences were selectively assimilated into a pre-existing, well-developed cultural base” (Stargardt 1990 cited in Smith 1999) Indianization -The founding of Indian kingdoms on mainland or insular Southeast Asia: -The expansion of an organized culture that was founded upon the Indian concept of royalty, characterized by Hinduist or Buddhist cults, and expressed in Sanskrit language (Coedes 1968) -“…preserved the essentials of their individual cultures [indigenous] and developed them, each according to its own genius.” Historical Interpretations -Originated as a secular festivity to enable young men and women to meet – to look for future life partners might have been the result of Malay-Tamil interaction in the past. GROUP PBSM

TOPIC 6 :ECONOMIC HISTORY: TRADE AND ITS CONSEQUENCES § KINGDOMS AND COUNTRIES SURVIVE, RISE AND FALL ON TRADE. § FOR TRADE TO FLOURISH, CONTRACTS AND ALLIANCES BUILT ON MUTUAL ECONOMIC INTERESTS (EITHER LONG OR SHORT-TERM) REQUIRED § THUS, FROM THE 15TH CENTURY ONWARDS, DIPLOMACY WAS THE ART OF STRIKING ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL DEALS TO MAINTAIN STRATEGIC INTERESTS OF EACH KINGDOM (AND LATER COUNTRIES) § CAPITALISM = BROUGHT ABOUT DIVERGENCE IN UNDERSTANDING OVER RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS OVER HOW BUSINESS IS CONDUCTED Ø WESTERN POWERS = BELIEF IN THE VALUE OF SIGNED CONTRACTS Ø LOCAL MALAY/BUGIS = BELIEF IN THE VALUE OF SOLEMN OATHS (JUST LIKE THE AGREEMENT OF THE SULTAN AND HIS SUBJECTS IN THE MALAY ANNALS) § OFTEN, DIVERGENCE IN UNDERSTANDING BROUGHT ABOUT CONFLICT. § KEY POINTS: Ø HISTORY IS MADE AND CHANGES WITH TRADE Ø ENTRY OF CAPITALISM IN SE ASIA BROUGHT ABOUT MAJOR POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CHANGES Ø HOW? VIA: ·CONTRACTS ·SHIFTING ALLIANCES ·CONFLICT § HENCE, COLONIALISM & CAPITALISM (TWO SIDES OF THE SAME COIN!) Ø FALL OF MALACCA = RISE OF PORTUGESE POWER IN SE ASIA Ø BUT PORTUGESE ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL POWER IN THE REGION NOT COMPLETE AND CONSTANTLY CHALLENGED BY OTHERS Ø ACEH CONDUCTS DIRECT TRADE WITH THE RED SEA & INDIA WHICH BY-PASSES MALACCA AND OTHER PORTUGUESE PORTS IN INDIA Ø PORTUGUESE WEALTH AND TRADE THREATENED BY ACEHNESE TRADE Ø ACEH’S CONTROL OF TRADE ALSO THREATENED TRADING NETWORKS OF EXMALACCA ELITE IN JOHOR § IN RESPONSE TO HIGH DEMAND FOR TIN AND PEPPER, ACEH ATTACKS KEDAH, PERAK AND PAHANG 1613 Ø ACEH DESTROYS JOHOR AND SULTAN ISKANDAR MUDA (ACEH) FORCES JOHOR PRINCE INTO MARRIAGE ALLIANCE WITH HIS DAUGHTER Ø THEY ENSLAVED THOUSANDS TO OVERCOME LABOR SHORTAGES AND DEVELOPED A HIGH ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION THROUGH CONQUESTS AND SLAVERY Ø THESE WERE GOOD FOR THE RULERS AND ARISTOCRATS OF ACEH BUT TERRIBLE FOR THE ORDINARY PEOPLE OF ACEH AND THE CONQUERED REGIONS WHO BECOMES SLAVES AND ALSO SUGGEST SIGNIFICANT POPULATION MOVEMENTS IN THE REGION 1580S – 1630S Ø RESURGENCE IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE BETWEEN EUROPE, INDIA, CHINA & JAPAN 1629 Ø ACEH CHALLENGE DEFEATED BY THE PORTUGUESE. END OF ACEH AS A REGIONAL TRADING AND POLITICAL POWER. 1640 Ø DUTCH-PORTUGUESE RIVALRY ERUPTS INTO WAR. JOHOR ASSISTS DUTCH IN EXCHANGE FOR DEVELOPMENT SUPPORT – BUILD AND ARM FORTS 1641 Ø MALACCA FALLS TO THE DUTCH. MALACCA NOW USED AS A TIN COLLECTING CENTRE BY DUTCH WHO PREFERRED TO KEEP BATAVIA AS THE KEY REGIONAL PORT. (I.E. BEGINNING OF DECLINE OF MALACCA) LATE 16TH CENTURY Ø SPANISH IN THE PHILIPPINES Ø BROUGHT ABOUT INCREASE IN TRADE AND NETWORK LINKS FOR BRUNEI – THE SPANISH GALLEON TRADE BY END 18TH CENTURY Ø BRITISH IN THE NORTH/BAY OF BENGAL AND DUTCH IN THE SOUTH/INDONESIAN ISLANDS AND INDIAN OCEAN Malaysia Social History 07 GROUP PBSM KEY POINTS Ø DESIRE FOR WEALTH AND RESOURCES VIA TRADE BROUGHT ABOUT CONTRACTS AND ALLIANCES AND POLITICAL-ECONOMIC CONTROL OF TRADE ROUTES Ø PORTUGUESE/DUTCH/BRITISH/ US/FRENCH ENTRY INTO THE REGION BUILT ON STRUGGLE AND CONQUESTS ROOTED IN CONSTANTLY SHIFTING ALLIANCES WITH LOCAL CHIEFS Ø TRADE LED TO HUGE MOVEMENTS/MIGRATION OF PEOPLES – WHETHER FOR TRADE OR DUE TO SLAVERY (E.G. THE BUGIS, THE ACEHNESE, THE PORTUGUESE, DUTCH, BRITISH, TAUSUG, SPANISH, ILLANUNS) Ø THE ENTRY OF EUROPEANS AND CAPITALISM FORMED AND REFORMED THE REGION INTO WHAT IT IS TODAY – POLITICALLY; ECONOMICALLY; CULTURALLY.

Topic 7:The Creation Of Modern Southeast Asia, 1819-1900s GROUP PBSM Malaysia Social History 08 Intro: -European presence led to destruction of Old Malay World and the creation of the new one. -But not simply due to European Imperialism but also due to local politics and global changes. -Usually did not involve war but treaties. -Context 1 - Europeans wanted to trade and local chiefs had access to resources. -Context 2 – Local control over resources fluid and ever changing; often conflict and local Malays looked to stronger powers for assistance in local conflicts, e.g. China, Siam, Europeans. -Context 3 - A fast changing world fueled by the industrial revolution, like new markets, resources and scientific discoveries. Siam and Northern Malay States -Siamese Overlordship over Northern Malay States (NMS) during post 1782. -East India Company (EIC) trading interests required that they recognise Siamese control over NMS -But EIC were not keen to see Thai power extend further down south. -But Malay rulers frequently warring among themselves -During 1822, Rama III ascends throne and has expansionist policies. -NMS especially Kelantan and Perak look to EIC to provide assistance against Siamese power. -During 1825, Perak threatened and possibility of Selangor coming under Siam. -The threat to Selangor was serious as it affected the possibility of EIC investment in tin mines. Treaty of 1824 and the Partition of the Malay World - In the meantime, there was trade rivalry between EIC and Dutch East Indies Company (VOC). - Trading interests and competition pressures led EIC to develop idea of ‘spheres of Influence’ concept in British diplomacy. - In 1824, Anglo-Dutch Treaty was dividing up SE Asia between British sphere and Dutch sphere. - This is the extremely important document that ultimately shaped modern Malaysia and Indonesia. - Malay peninsula, including Singapore reserved for British interests while islands at South of Singapore reserved for Dutch interests. - Malacca exchanged for Bengkulen (Sumatra) - Signalled to other European powers not to interfere in these areas of trade, especially France. - In 1826, EIC concludes an agreement with Siam that they agreed not to attack Perak or Selangor. - Kedah acknowledged as ‘territory subject to Siam’ while status of Kelantan-Terengganu was ambiguous. - EIC negotiated rights to trade in Kelantan & Terengganu since Singapore business interests had commercial links there. - In, 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty divided up SE Asia between British sphere and Dutch sphere thus Malaysia and Indonesia take shape. - During 1826, EIC and Siam Treaty divided up NMS between British sphere and Siamese sphere thus Thailand and Malaya take shape. - No discussion with local Malay rulers. - Close links between Sumatra-Malay Peninsula and Johor-Riau cut into two. - Easy movement of people now made difficult. - In 1826, EIC-Siam Treaty led to 1909 Anglo-Siam Treaty: Formal division of sovereignty and land - Division of Northern Malay States between Siam and Britain o Pattani, Narathiwat, Songkhla, Satun, Yala: To Siam o Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis, Terengganu: To Britain - Modern Malaya & Thailand take shape. Treaty of 1824, 1826, 1909 and the Partition of the Malay World -Political division now affects everything as resource exploitation, control of trade, Riau-Johor Temenggung family becomes Sultan of Johor; movements of peoples, academic study, even identity and nationalism (until today) -In 1826, Penang, Province Wellesley, Malacca & Singapore formed into Straits Settlements (SS) (Note: all gained via treaty or via annual payments – no war involved)

TTOOPPIICC88::PPOOPPUULLAATTIIOONN,,IIMMMMIIGGRRAANNTTSSAANNDDEETTHHNNIICC IIDDEENNTTIITTYY FFoorreeiiggnn BBoorrnn PPooppuullaattiioonn ((TTiimmee SSeerriieess//’’000000)) –– MMAALLAAYYSSIIAA 11999911:: OOffffiicciiaall FFoorreeiiggnn--BBoorrnn PPooppuullaattiioonn:: @@ 11 mmiilllliioonn ((4433%% IInnddoonneessiiaann)) 22000055:: OOffffiicciiaall FFoorreeiiggnn--BBoorrnn PPooppuullaattiioonn:: @@ 11..6644 mmiilllliioonn ((66..44%% ooff ttoottaall ppooppuullaattiioonn)) RREEAALLIITTYY:: 22000055:: IImmmmiiggrraannttss && IIlllleeggaallss:: @@ 33 mmiilllliioonn ((FFoorreeiiggnn--bboorrnn @@ 1100--1122%% ooff ttoottaall ppooppuullaattiioonn)) TTHHEE CCOOMMEERRSS :: · MMaallaayyss CChhiinneessee IInnddiiaann EEuurrooppeeaannss AArrmmeenniiaannss BBaagghhddaaddiiss SSiiaammeessee BBuurrmmeessee BBaannggllaaddeesshh VViieettnnaammeessee TTiimmoorreessee AArraabbss JJaappaanneessee FFiilliippiinnooss PPaarrsseeeessSSrrii LLaannkkaannss The Creation of ‘Malay’ Ethnicity • Peoples of Southeast Asia – spoke mother tongue languages • Great diversity in SE Asia • Malay – language of regional trade • Ethnic categories driven by ideological imperatives • British colonial practices = high level of migration = created Malaya’s/Malaysia’s diverse/plural society. • 1850-1920: Large scale in-migration esp. Chinese, Indian, Java & Sumatra • Need for census data for trade/investment purposes • Census: Straits Settlements (1871, 1881, 1891, 1901 and 1911) Federated Malay States (1901, 1911) British Malaya (1921, 1931, 1947, 1957) • Category: ‘Race’ first appeared (1891 Straits Settlement census appendix) • But 1891 census utilized the term ‘Nationality’ when describing the various sections of the population and ‘tribe’ when discussing the various Chinese dialect groups (Merewether 1892): 11) • Malayan census superintendent (Vlieland, 1932). Malaysia Social History 09 GROUP PBSM

TTOOPPIICC88::PPOOPPUULLAATTIIOONN,,IIMMMMIIGGRRAANNTTSSAANNDDEETTHHNNIICC IIDDEENNTTIITTYY Malaysia Social History 10 “ … It is, in fact, impossible to define the sense in which the term ‘Race’ is used for census purposes; it is in reality, a judicious blend, for practical ends, of the ideas of geographic and ethnographic origin, political allegiance, and racial and social affinities and sympathies. The difficulties of achieving anything like a scientific or logically consistent classification is enhanced by the fact that most Oriental peoples have themselves no clear conception of race, and commonly regard religion as the most important, if not the determinant element” • Racial classification used in the census included a fluid mixture of ethnicities, languages, nationalities and religions, changing over time but always ranked in order of political importance • Strait Settlements Census (1871) reflects the ethnic diversityØ 27 Categories with Europeans and Americans, Armenians, Jews listed at the top, followed by Eurasians, and an alphabetically listing of twenty-three (23) other populations, which included Chinese, Malays, Manilamen, Hindoos, and etc. (Hirschman 1987: 562). · 1891 census - major structural changes in the classification of the population Ø Six major headings, which were ‘Europeans and Americans’, ‘Eurasians’, ‘Chinese’, ‘Malays and other Natives of the archipelago’, ‘Tamils and other Natives of India’ and ‘Other Races’. Ø Forty-eight (48) different ethnicities were sorted under these six major headings (Merewether 1892, Hirschman 1987:571). · Indigenous Peoples Ø 1911 Federated Malay States census: ‘Sakai’ recognized as a category. Ø Colonial attitude towards the non-Christian population, phrases such as ‘semicivilized’, ‘wild’ and ‘highly civilized’ were used to describe the indigenous population Ø Jakun was recognized in the 1921 census Ø 1931 census recognized additional ethnicities – Semang, Jakun and Orang Mantra, but enumerated them together as “Nomadic Aboriginals” Ø Linguistic differences were used to determine differences between the groups. Ø 1947 census had a longer listing of ethnic categories of Aborigines, which were Negrito, Jakun, Semai (aka Semak, Senoi), Sisek (Besisi), Semelai and Temiar. in British Malaya Conclusion • Ethnicity An ‘imagined community’; identity changes over time Often manipulated for official and political policy purposes Census classifications made us what we are today Malaysia a country of immigrants Need to appreciate our diverse origins Necessary to build upon and give expression to this diversity – Colours of Malaysia GROUP PBSM

Malaysia Social History 11 The Orang Asli A heterogeneous group, they are widely dispersed in all states in Peninsular Malaysia. The term “Orang Asli” is a collective term for the 19 sub-ethnic groups officially classified for administrative purposes under three main categories the Orang Asli lived in West Malaysia long before the arrival of other groups - Malays, the Chinese, and the Indians. Before WW2 Many Proto-Malays have been assimilated into the Malay communities – many have converted into Islam There is ample evidence to show that particularly the Senoi obtained commodities such as salt, jungle knives (parang) and metal axe heads by selling or exchanging jungle produce young men also worked from time to time as labourers on estates, timber sites or other enterprises. The Orang Asli played an important role in trade and governance in the region, and alliances Before WW2: Orang Asli as slave Divide to two classes of slave: • ordinary slaves (abdi) • debtor slaves (orang berhutang). Before WW3: Contact with Chinese The Chinese community in the Malay States had much less contact with the Orang Asli than did the Malays. Some Chinese traders, cultivators and timber workers did, however, have dealings with the jungle people The friendly connections of many Chinese, and their reputation for fair dealing, created an atmosphere of good will towards them among the Orang Asli Colonial view on Orang Asli The attitude of the colonial authorities towards the Orang Asli can be summarized as being generally one of indifference. The jungle peoples also became targets for Communist propaganda The emergency (1948-1960): Department of Aborigines The Government, which formerly ignored and neglected them, now took an active and extensive interest in Orang Asli welfare and development. Post-Emergency period Jabatan Hal Ehwal Orang Asli was formed In 1961, the newly independent government, through the Ministry of Interior, published a "Statement of policy regarding the administration of aborigine people of the federation of Malaya". Post-Emergency period: Today But despite these, until today, the Orang Asli continue to be one of the most marginalised groups in Malaysia. Orang Asli - 50% of households live below the poverty line - 19% considered hardcore poor Health Orang Asli has 5.5 times the incidence of tuberculosis as the national average 80% of Orang Asli children are undernourished and stunted, many have intestinal worms, protozoa, anaemia, dental caries and vitamin A deficiency Health problems made worse by poverty Education Overall enrolment has increased significantly GROUP PBSM

TOPIC 10: WOMEN’S MOVEMENT Malaysia Social History 12 Malaysian Women’s Movement (MWM) – Unknown Story Ø A question of social prejudice and age-old discrimination; patriarchy in society. Ø Women viewed as housewives, mothers, daughters, homemakers, emotionally fragile, gentle, caring, sweet, pretty, etc.etc. (serotype). Ø There’s a lot Women making history (herstory) but much undocumented. MWM – Early Emancipation/Colonial period Ø Early 1900s: Educational Reform to meet needs of modernising colonial economy Ø Formal schooling for girls – important because girls from upper classes made good wives for local elites. Ø Early 20th Century Arab reform movements also influenced local education (promoted women’s education, legal reforms, rights of women to work and end to veiling of women) to not undermine women’s traditional role. Impact of Education in Early Malaya/Malaysia Ø Ø Malay women became teachers and many got involved in women’s organisations. Ø Chinese women – got involved in political movements reflecting situation in China. Example: joined journalist. Ø Indian women – joined Indian Independence Movement led by Chandra Subha Bose, MWM-Nationalist & Labour Awakenings Ø 1950s: Khatijah Sidek (Kaum Ibu leader) – pushed for gender equality and greater women’s representation in UMNO. Got expelled from UMNO for ‘indiscipline’. Ø 1973: Aishah Ghani (Wanita UMNO Leader) – proposed legal reforms to Muslim Marriage and Divorce Laws but opposed by conservative Religious Council and UMNO Youth. Ø 1976: Wanita UMNO asked for women to be appointed Ketua Kampong but overruled as being “un-Islamic”. Ø 1947-drafted Peoples’ Constitution – a.o. Promised “equal rights and opportunities for all regardless of race, creed or sex”. Ø AWAS (PUTERA) & Women’s Federation (AMCJA) – pushed for women’s representation and suffrage for women but banned by British Colonial Government in 1948. Ø Women active in labour strikes throughout Malaya before and after WWII · Labour movement struggles – 1939 strike in Klang Estate – protest against sexual harassment of women workers · Women active in post-independence struggles for women’s rights: 1962- 1965, Labour Party celebrated International Women’s Day (IWD) on March 8. Ø Divided into two streams – Mainstream (women in ruling political parties) and non-Mainstream (left-wing, labour and feminist groups). Post-Independence MS Women Movements (Mainstream) Ø 1Ø Nation-building led to expansion of education for women, industrial employment alongside rural work. Ø 1960: Set up National Council of Women’s Organisations (NCWO) - Initially multi-racial and urban-based women professionals. Lobbying especially: Equal pay issue; full rights for working women. Ø NCWO did not extend campaigns to rural women and those working in informal sector also approach is non-confrontational. olitical parties) and non-Mainstream (left-wing, labour and feminist groups). MWM – Women’s Agenda for Change and Reformasi (Non-MS) Ø 1995 – Success of VAW & DVA led various Women’s groups to push ahead and broaden struggle. Ø Held public forum on International Women’s Day. Ø Reformasi brought about the idea that women should enter politics and campaign solely on social reforms to advance the cause of women. Reformasi brought about the idea that women should enter politics and campaign MWM: Conclusion ØHave come a long way since early 20th Century. Ø Many issues addressed but many remain. Ø More importantly, women play a key role in nationbuilding and in fashioning society. Ø More recognition necessary for many un-recognised women. Ø Need to re-write social history. Woman Movement icon Irene Fernandez, 1946-2014 GROUP PBSM

Malaysia Social History 13 What is politics of the left The left's political philosophy emphasises the value of social and economic equality and works to bring it about through intervention from the government and community effort. The left generally opposes capitalism and supports measures to redistribute wealth and power in order to lessen inequality and advance social fairness. Political movements including socialism, communism, social democracy, and progressive liberalism are frequently linked to the left. Although the specific beliefs and tactics of these movements differ, they all share a dedication to advancing the interests of the working class, marginalised groups, and the general public. Labour rights, social welfare programmes, healthcare, education, the environment, and civil liberties are important themes related to left-leaning politics. Progressive taxation, minimum wage laws, and restrictions on companies and the financial sector are among the measures that left-leaning politicians and activists frequently call for in order to advance more economic equality. The Traditional Malay Malay politics before the coming of Western Colonialism was based on a system of ‘absolute monarchy’. Only the Sultan/Raja’s family and the pembesar (aristocrats) had political power/ Ordinary people had to obey the rulers’ orders. No opposition against the Sultan/Pembesar. Based on the concept of ‘Daulat’ - people (rakyat) should show their loyalty and support to the Sultan. But Sultan/Raja could be defied and overthrown if he humiliated the people ‘Raja adil, raja disembah, raja zalim, raja disanggah’. The Left During the Japanese Occupation l Japanese Invasion 1942 l Released all KMM’s leaders but only after the Japanese had dissolved KMM. l The Japanese also did not have any intention to give independence to Malaya. l On other hand, the idea of independence never faded away from ex-KMM leader’s goal. l Owing to this, Ibrahim Yaacob and his other friends ostensibly cooperated with the Japanese and in same time support the MCP movements against the Japanese. ance more economic equality. Beginning of the left in Malaysia Early in the 20th century, when numerous socialist and communist organisations started to appear in Malaysia, is when the left in that nation first emerged. These organisations were mainly composed of Chinese and Indian workers who were fighting for improved pay, working conditions, and political rights. The left in Malaysia actively participated in labour organising and anti-colonial movements throughout the colonial era. The Malayan Communist Party (MCP) and the Socialist Party of Malaya (SPM) are two examples of socialist and communist parties that were founded in the 1920s and 1930s. In addition to promoting the rights of workers and peasants, these parties were crucial in coordinating strikes and protests. The MCP was instrumental in the 1940s in the fight back against Japanese rule during World War II. In the years following the war, the MCP continued to fight against British colonialism and was a key player in the Malayan Emergency, a time of military warfare between communist insurgents and British forces. Left-wing politics remained to be significant in Malaysian society after independence. Since its founding in 1998, the Malaysian socialism Party (PSM) has been actively promoting socialism and progressive ideas and fighting for the rights of underrepresented groups like workers, peasants, and indigenous peoples The left 1950 Given the significant political and social change that occurred in Malaysia during the 1950s, this decade was crucial for the left. The country had a rise in nationalism following World War II, and the left was crucial in the anti-colonial battle against British control. The Malayan Communist Party (MCP) was a strong left-leaning force during this time and contributed significantly to the Malayan Emergency, a time of military warfare between communist insurgents and British forces. Many Chinese Malaysians first backed the MCP because of the party's demands for workers' rights, land reform, and the abolition of British colonial control. The Malaysian Socialist Party (PSM), which was founded in the 1980s and 1990s, has continued to advance socialist and progressive policies and to fight for the rights of underrepresented groups like workers, peasants, and indigenous peoples. The People’s Constitution Proposals A united Malaya including Singapore A popularly elected Central Government and popularly elected State councils A citizenship granting equal rights to all who made Malaya their permanent home and the object of their undivided loyalty Malay Rulers to have real sovereign power responsible to the people through popularly elected Councils Malay customs and religion to be fully controlled by the Malay people through special councils Special provisions for the advancement of the Malays politically, economically and educationally Malay to be the official language A national flag and a national anthem Melayu (Malay) to be the title of any proposed citizenship and nationality in Malaya Foreign affairs and defence to be the joint responsibility of the government of Malaya and the government of Great Britain GROUP PBSM

Malaysia Social History 14 GROUP PBSM The Formation of Labour Movements End of the war brought hardship to the living condition in Malaya. The economic and social conditions of workers had not improved despite the restoration of civilian government. The employers more interested in restoring their businesses and their profits. Signs of dissatisfaction - walkout of 7000 dockworkers in Tanjung Pagar (1945) Labour strikes occur - in Malaya such as in Ipoh, Seremban, Johor Bharu, Kluang etc. Between 1945 – 1948: 425 unions formed with 290,000 members. 80% - 90% of the unions joined the Pan-Malayan Federation of Trade Unions (PMFTU) with 263,000 members. PMFTU also became member of AMCJA to widen their struggle. Aftermath The left's actions in Malaysia have left a complex, varied wake. On the one hand, the left was crucial in the fight against colonialism and in promoting social justice and equality. However, political repression and violence were also significantly increased by the left's participation in armed conflict and affiliation with communist ideology. Following the Malayan Communist Party's defeat in the late 1950s, the Malaysian government began a campaign to repress left-wing organisations and people. This included remanding people in jail, arresting people, and censoring left-leaning media and publications. Left-leaning student movements that demanded more social justice and democracy arose in the 1960s and 1970s. The repression of these protests, however, also resulted in the arrest and detention of student leaders Trade union / Labour Politics With labour rights being a top priority for employees in Malaysia, trade unions and labour politics have been significant problems. Malaysia has a sizable labour force, with many people working in industries including manufacturing, construction, and services. Trade unions have been crucial in promoting workers' rights, such as fair pay, secure employment, and safe working conditions. However, there have been many obstacles for trade unionism in Malaysia, such as limitations on the freedom to organise and a lack of access to collective bargaining. The largest organisation of trade unions in the nation, the Malaysian Trades Union Congress (MTUC), represents employees in numerous industries. The MTUC has been involved in a variety of activities, including encouraging worker education and training, campaigning for labour law reform, and organising strikes and protests. However, the government has also posed difficulties for the MTUC, such as limitations on its operations and the detention of union officials. Many workers in Malaysia are also working in informal or unstable jobs with little access to unions or legal safeguards.

Introduction Secret societies have a long history as a global phenomenon, with examples: 1. Yakuza and Black Dragon Society (Japan) 2. Ku Klux Klan (US) 3. Poro (Africa) 4. Mafia (Italy) 5. Freemasons Some of the oldest societies: 1. Thugee (13th century) 2. White Lotus (14th century) 3. Dragon Court (around 1403) 4. Rosicrucian Order (1607) Secret Societies § Hidden groups with hidden rituals § They involve a persisting pattern of relationships that link participants in related secret activities § Some secret societies are involved in criminal activities: 1. Drug and human trafficking 2. Smuggling 3. Financial crimes § Not all secret societies are linked to criminal activities, some have: 1. Political 2. Business 3. Religious interests, and others uphold magical beliefs or racist ideologies § The main purpose of these societies is to protect their members or clans Who Involved? Exclusive to certain people Objectives and shared interests Some have their own code of communication A hierarchy and leaders with titles Malaysia Social History 15 GROUP PBSM How About Malaya/Malaysia? What you learnt in school? – about Perak Wars and Klang Wars = involving Chinese Kongsi. Two prominent Chinese Kongsi mentioned – Hai San and Ghee Hin. These two Kongsis fought each other for controlling the tin mine in Perak and Selangor. Their conflict became part of the civil war in Perak and Selangor. They joined the fighting between the Malay princes in both states. Then the British coming to settle the problem in Perak with Pangkor Treaty. In Selangor – the problem settled with the defeat of Tengku Mahadi and began the British intervention in Selangor. What is a Kongsi? The term “gongsi” originated from the Chinese word for “clan hall” Roughly translates to “brotherhood” Was used to describe Chinese overseas oragnizations Their goal was to assist their fellow clan members, especially migrants from China, in adjusting to life in places like Malaya, Singapore and North Borneo Secret Societies in Malaya Chinese SS had root from China – against the Imperial Dynasty i.e. the Ch’ing Dynasty Honman case in point, related to the Heaven and Earth Society (Tiandihui) in Fujian based on dialect – Hai San mostly Hakka plus Hokkien, Teochew, Foochow etc – Ghee Hin on other hand dominated by Cantonese To protect their own clan when the Chinese Immigrants came to Malaya a blood oath will be taken to those whose want to became member of Chinese SS Temples became center for the Chinese SS’s activities The Kongsi in Sarawak Predominantly Hakka gold miners (the Hakkas in Kalimantan and Sarawak originate from the four Hakka district in Kwangtung province). The miners’ successful adaptation to their new place (economically and socially) is due to their frontier organisation, the kongsi. The kongsi formed the basis of the miners’ political and social organization. It was an instrument of self-government and looked after its members’ economic and social needs. Origin of the Kongsi 1743-1745 The first mining partnerships were formed These mines, run by 10-25 men, were subject to the control of the Malay sultans on the coast The local Sultans looked upon the Chinese as a source of income, and monopolized and regulated their flow of supplies, tools, provisions and opium The Hakka protected their own interests through mutual support for each other By 1764 12 mining unions in Larah and 24 in Montrado were formed Sarawak Secret Societies and the Brookes Started with the migration of the Hakka people to Sarawak from Sambas. In Sambas, the Hakka had formed several Chinese Kongsi. The clash between the kongsi brought the San Tiao Quo Kongsi to Sarawak. They control gold mine in Bau and became powerful kongsi and later known as Twelve Kongsi. 1857 When James Brooke tried to control them, the kongsi attacked Kuching J. Brooke retaliated and attack Bau This attack brought the end to the kongsi In late 1880s The Ghee Hin tried to establish their branch in Sarawak but no avail

Malaysia Social History 16 GROUP PBSM Secret Societes (SS) in other communities Secret Societies not only confined to the Chinese Malays - either joined the Chinese or set up their own SS Early/well known Malay SS - the Red (bendera merah) and White Flag (bendera putih) in Penang Around 1830s White Flag (WF) was the first Malay kongsi and formed 1859 Red Flag (RF) was formed and challenged the WF Indian Muslims and Jawi Pekan/Peranakan were forerunners of these secret societies Other States WF and RF had their branch in Perak Both of these groups used football clubs to hide their activities such as Darul Makmor football Club, Darul Aishen Football Club and Jelutong Football Club In Perlis had two local Malay secret societies - Tuan Bulat and Sofian Club Other Secret Societies The SS in Malaysia not only confined to crime or clan society. There also emerging the politics and nationalism. Several of Malay and Chinese nationalisms used secretive way to organize their movement. International Secret Societies The coming of the British brought not only capitalism but also their culture to Malaya This included the SS 1806 Freemason had been formed in Penang with opened Lodge Neptune 1889 From Penang, the Freemason had been formed in KL, Klang, Seremban, Malacca, Sungai Petani, Ipoh, Kota Kinabalu, Sandakan and Beaufort. In 60s and 70s The famous and dangerous gangster under leadership Botak Chin or Wong See Chin Botak Chin had involved on several robberies in Kuala Lumpur and Selangor. He formed his own group and started crime activities He had been arrested in 1976 and executed in 1981 The Malay SS Today The Malay SS organization has their own council/majlis This council headed by godfather/ayahanda Their members consisted head of branch/samji Under this umbrella is their foot soldier/subordinates which always call Abang Long, Along or Taiko Every chief/head of branch had around 500 - 1000 followers A chief usually have more than one abang long under his command , usually 3-5 sometimes even more Abang Long has commanded around 150 men Religious Group In Malaysia, the heresy or cult (ajaran sesat) activities had been flourished within the Malay society Heresy or cult definite as a religion whose beliefs differ from the majority around them Several of the leader group proclaimed as Nabi/prophet and can healed any diseases Also could brought their members to heaven The Underground Youth Bands The birth of the underground youth band could be seemed as early as 1980s Punk among the earliest groups formed as new youth activities to express their idea in formed of music, art and fanzines In 1990s, they involved in business. Conclusion SS are an alternative option for people who want to protect their culture, safety, and activities and also who desire to be special in society These SS operate freely outside of authority control and can become a new organizational body. Some secretive activities can lead to negatives such as criminal behavior

TOPIC 13:HISTORY OF THE MALAYSIAN STUDENT MOVEMENT The Indonesia Influence - The Indonesia’s influence upon Malay student movements was quite profound – 1930s. Books and magazines imported from Indonesia as reading material to college students in the Sultan Idris Training College (SITC). Therefore, Indonesian nationalist ideas among SITC students. - The Sumpah Pemuda Indonesia became encouragement for Ibrahim to organize the student movements in SITC. He supported the idea of “Indonesia Raya” and wanted to unite students in unified organization. This idea began to materialize by formation of Young Student’s Alliance (Ikatan Pemuda Pelajar) and PeninsulaBorneo Students Alliance (Ikatan Pelajar Semenanjung Borneo). - The formation of these oraginzation led to emerging of Kesatuan Melayu Muda (KMM) nationally. KMM became new vehicle for the young Malay to struggle against the British. Anti British Movement-Independent. - Apart from the ideas of “Melayu Raya/Indonesia Raya”, some students focus on anti-British movements. Students began to be more vocal and act independently. Therefore they creat a Independent body to organise student movements in Chinese Middle Schools. But the organise was banned by British because of Communist influence. Communist influence in student movements continued with the formation of Sarawak Overseas Chinese Democratic Youth League. University of Malaya (1949) opened a new chapter in student movements. More concentrated in campus and focused on national and international issues post independence. Govt reaction – - Government was react by destroyed the crops and demolished the houses. Hamid Tuan and several followers were arrested. The students denounced the govt. action. The students had demonstration in front of The S’gor State Building and demanded the release of Hamid Tuah. The student also collected money and clothes to be donated to the landless peasants in Teluk Gong. - In order to control the students, the government introduced the University And University College Act, 1971. This brought protests and demonstrations by students. Demonstrations led to clashes between students and the police Many student leaders were arrested. Communal Outlook – early years - Earliest student movements – groups based on race and struggle to help each other. Seen in the formation of the Malay Boys League in 1937. After WW II, another student organization was formed in Victoria Institution. The Kesatuan Melayu Victoria Institution was formed in 1945 and later changed to Persuratan Penuntut Melayu Kuala Lumpur (PPMKL) in 1946 to help the Malay students in education. PPMKL led to formation of other Malay student organizations. - Kesatuan Persuratan Penuntut Melayu Selangor (KPPMS) formed in 1947 consisted several of student associations in Selangor and Kuala Lumpur. The objectives of this organization was to avoid Malay student dropouts, set up fund for poor students and assist weak students in education. POST 1974 - AUKU and ISA used to suppress radical student movements. Student movements now confined to campus. Islamic groups like Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia (ABIM) attempted to influence Student Representative Councils. Recently, rise of two camps – pro-Aspirasi (anti-BN) and pro-Mahasiswa (BN) groups. - Current Issues - more towards Islamic issues such as wearing hijab, prohibition of alcohol, anti un-Islamic concerts, faith-based (fundamentalist); etc. – PEMBINA/ISMA Other activities include community services, entrepreneurships, celebrate Merdeka and other religious festivals, etc. Post-Reformasi 1999, students began to get involved in street demos again. 2001 - students organized Gerakan Mahasiswa Mansuh ISA Malaysia Social History 17 GROUP PBSM

REFERE N CES GROUP PBSM Malaysia Social History 18 Jones, A. (1968). The Orang Asli: An Outline of their Progress in Modern Malaya. Journal of Southeast Asian History Vol. 9 (2): 286-305 Nicholas, C. (2010). The Orang Asli and the UNDRIP: From Rhetoric to Recognition. Subang Jaya, Malaysia: Centre for Orang Asli Concerns and Jaringan Orang Asal SeMalaysia Rusaslina Idrus (2011). The Discourse of Protection and the Orang Asli in Malaysia, Kajian Malaysia Vol. 29, Supp. 1: 53-74) Creation Myths of the World: http://maghon.weebly.com/uploads/2/0/0/3/20035969/small_creation-myths-of-the world.pdf Nowak, Barbara (2004), Btsisi’, Blandas, and Malays. Ethnicity and Identity in the Malay Peninsula Based on Btsisi’ Folklore and Ethnohistory: http://nirc.nanzan u.ac.jp/nfile/655 Hooker, Virginia Matheson (2003), A Short History of Malaysia, Crows Nest NSW: Allen & Unwin (Chp.1). INSAN (1989), Where Monsoons Meet, Petaling Jaya: INSAN Khoo, Agnes (2004), Life as the River Flows, Petaling Jaya: SIRD (Chapters 1 & 2) Prehistoric Malaysia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_Malaysia Anon (2008), The Census and Ethnicity in Colonial Malaya and the Philippines, University of Hawaii Working Paper Series, http://www2.hawaii.edu/~culdiff/docs_10- 12/working_papers/ Mohamad Redzuan Othman (2006), The Arab Migration and its importance in the Historical Development of the Late-Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century Malaya; Paper presented at the 15th Annual World HIstory AssocIatIon Conference held on 22- 25 June 2006 in California, USA; http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/library/arabmigration.pdf Reid, Anthony (2010), Malaysia/Singapore as Immigrant Societies, Asia Research Institute Working Paper Series No. 141; http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/wps/wps10_141.pdf Sabri Zain (u.d.), The Malays, http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/malays.htm Sagoo, Kiran (2008), Colonial Construction of Malayness: The Influence of Population Size and Composition, Research Paper, Ph.D. in Sociology Program, University of Hawaii Working Paper Series; http://www2.hawaii.edu/~culdiff/docs_10- 12/working_papers/ Andaya, Barbara W. & Leonard Y. Andaya (2001), A History of Malaysia, (Chapter 4) Cleary, Mark and Peter Eaton (1995), Borneo: Change and Development, (Chapters 2 & 3).

THANK YOU RE SULTS OF COOP ER A TION FRO M GROUP PBSM