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services and arranging coverage by qualified colleagues: counsellors that are effective,
economical and humane. There should be ongoing evaluation of service goals and outcomes
as an integral part of counselling activities. Terminating of services if the results cannot be
improved is part of the counsellor’s responsibility. The counsellor must provide the reasons
for termination, the number and goals of sessions remaining, the nature of follow-up and an
appropriate referral. Counsellors must be aware of their level of competence. They must not
attempt to counsel individuals who have problems that require knowledge or skills beyond
their qualifications.
Counselling Profession and the Role of Professional Association
The practice of Counselling as a helping profession is recorded in many books that
have been written by the Founding Fathers of Counselling Association of Nigeria. Much of
the history captures how Reverend Sisters at St. Theresa’s College, Ibadan Western Nigeria
in the 1950’s and 1960’s institutionalized the events of Careers Day for students as a
platform for motivating them for appropriate career choices (Makinde, 1986). Counselling is
a professional service provided by a competent counsellor, psychologist, or other mental
health specialist that is intended to promote individual adaptability to changing life demands
by helping clients to develop or enhance a variety of personal-social, coping and decision
making skills or by helping clients to alter dysfunctional or undesired patterns of living.
Professional counsellor training prepares counsellors to engage in direct counseling with
individuals, groups or families experiencing stress in everyday living resulting from normal
developmental conflicts. Counsellor training orients counsellors to engage in psychological
education, consultation and social change to improve the overall mental health climate in a
work setting or community (Fisher & Hennessy, 2009). Counsellors are considered members
of a profession because their services meet the essential criteria that determine if an
occupational group constitutes a profession. These criteria as stated in Nugent (2009) require
that members: perform a unique service; be trained in special skills and knowledge; have an
explicit code of ethics to monitor the profession; be bound by certain legal standards; have
the power to perform their service as they describe it; have the ability and take responsibility
to assess and upgrade the practice of the profession.
In pursuing these objectives, counsellors recognize that their interventions hold the
potential for great benefit as well as considerable harm to their clients and, therefore, are
aware of the standards for practice stipulated by the professional organization to which they
belong. Professions are initiated, shaped and nurtured by the activities of professional
associations made up of members who are dedicated to developing definitions and standards
for the profession and are willing to monitor these standards (Francis, 2016). These
standards according to Fisher and Hennessy (2009) describe to the public and to other related
professions the services offered and the recommended qualifications. They serve as
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information to help guide consumers as to what is sound, ethical and practice. The legal
responsibilities for a profession through credentialing, certification, or licensing of members
in practice are determined by the state legislatures.
The standard of professional associations is used to set the legal standard which makes
the profession attain a legal status. These procedures apply to all professionals offering
human services to the public, including professional counsellors, social workers,
psychologists, psychiatrists, physicians and nurses. These professional organizations
concerned with the delivery of counselling services have codified these standards into
statements generally referred to as ethical principles which has competence and
responsibility as its components. Ethical principles as observed by Fisher and Hennessy
(2009) are manifestations of a profession’s efforts to guide and regulate the practices of
members of that profession. These principles hold that counsellors have ultimate ethical
responsibility for the procedures and outcomes of their services.
It further holds that counsellors must strive to promote the welfare and respect the
rights and dignity of those with whom they work. Professional association is a body of
persons engaged in the same profession, formed usually to control entry into the profession,
maintain standards and represent the profession in discussions with other bodies (Collins,
2014). It is an organization formed to unite and inform people who work in the same
occupation. Members are bounded together as they advocate for their peers and share their
challenges and triumphs among one another. Professional association according to Wikipedia
is usually a non-profit organization seeking to further a particular profession, the interest of
individuals engaged in that profession and the public interest.
Professional associations, according to British Association for Counselling and
Psychotherapy (2010) address her concerns for education in their respective fields in a
variety of ways: through programming at conferences and meetings; through the sponsorship
or conduct of education-related research, individually or in cooperation with other agencies;
through publication programmes; through provision of continuing education opportunities;
through certification of members; and through the development and adoption of standards for
professional education and the implementation of an accreditation of programmes. The
standards and the accrediting activities of associations are the major, formal way in which
these associations attempt to identify and acknowledge an agreed upon level of excellence in
professional education. Accreditation deals with institutions or programmes, and is a status
granted to an institution or programme that has been found to meet or exceed stated criteria
of educational quality.
Professional associations provide unparalleled networking opportunities, allowing
individuals to connect with their peers, mentors, and other industry leaders. As a member,
one is in the unique position to attend conventions, seminars, award dinners and other related
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events with like-minded professionals in the field. These events are attended by the brightest
minds and are a hotbed of ideas and collaborative efforts. An association’s annual meeting
represents an incredible opportunity for one to meet and network with the largest gathering of
one’s peers during the year. Networking with professionals outside one’s place of
employment can give one a broader perspective on the profession in general. Listening to the
experiences of others leaves one feeling energized and refreshed with the feeling that one is
not alone in the fight.
Conclusion
Attempt was made to stress the importance of the issue of professional competence in
guidance and counseling practice. Each professional organization observes certain ethical
standards which guide the performance of members, govern their preparation or training and
serve as legal, constitutional and ethical controls. The counselling profession is not an
exception. The over-arching standard in the ethical principles of all counselling professions
is that the counsellor protects the integrity, dignity and welfare of the client regardless of who
the client is. Instead of worrying about the ways they can get in trouble, counsellors should
think about ethics as a way of asking - how can I be even better in my practice? The reason
being that good ethical practice is good professional practice. When psychologists do end up
in ethical quandaries, it's often because they unwittingly slid too far down a slippery slope--a
result of ignorance about their ethical obligations or thinking they could handle a situation
that spiraled out of control. Conclusively, counsellors must maintain accurate knowledge and
expertise in areas of responsibility, maintain professional growth through continuing
education, and provide only those services for which qualified and trained.
Recommendations
The following recommendations were made on how to maintain competence and practice
within the ethical codes of guidance and counseling:
1. Newly-graduated counsellors, even seasoned counselors must consult other
professionals. It’s tempting to try to solve everything on one’s own, but consultation
is now the cornerstone of good, ethical counseling practice.
2. Counsellors should strive to become experts in their field, which sets them apart from the rest
of the pack as the world of the professional counselor continues to evolve, whether the
setting is private practice, school counseling, agency counseling or myriad other
counseling venues..
3. Counsellors should demonstrate reliability by responding to people promptly and follow
through on promises in a timely manner.
4. Counsellors should adhere to a strict code of ethics even if their company or industry
doesn't have a written code, they should display ethical behaviour at all times.
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References
British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (2010).Ethical Framework for Good
Practice in Counseling & Psychotherapy. Available at
http://www.bacp.co.uk/ethical_framework/ Retrieved on March 17, 2017
Caroll, M. A., Schneider, H. G., & Wesley, G. R. (2005).Ethics in the practice of psychology.
Englewood cliffs, NJ: Prentice – Hall.
Collins, H. (2014). Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved from – https://www.collins
dictionary,com/dictionary/English/professional-association. Accessed on 22-2-2017.
Corey,G., Corey, M.S., &Callanan,P. (2007). Issues and ethics in the helping
professions.(7th Ed.). Belmont: Thompson Brooks/Cole
Corey, G. (2005). Theory and practice of counselling and Psychotherapy (seventh edition).
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(3rded.). Pacific Grove, (A. Brooks/Cole.
Etuk, U. (2003). An Invitation to philosophy and logic. Lagos: Minder International
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Fisher, C. B & Hennessy, J. (2009).Ethical issues. In: Ronch, J. L., Ornun, W. V., and
Stillwell, N. C (eds). The Counselling sourcebook. New York: The Crossroad
publishing company.
Francis, K. A. (2016). What are the characteristics of professionalism? Available at
http://smallbusiness.chron.com/characteristics-professionalism Retrieved on February
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Publishing Company.
Makinde, O. (1986). Fundamentals of guidance and counseling. London: Macmillan
Publishers Ltd.
Maughan, M., Coyle, B., McGowan, P. J., &Wroe, P. (2016). Guidance counselling: core
competencies and professional practice. Available at
http://www.igc.ie/download/1/2017/Guidance Counselling Core competencies &
Professional Practice.pdf. Retrieved on March 20, 2017
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Merriam-Webster (2017).Merriam-Webster online dictionary.Retrieved from:
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/professionalism.Accessed on March 6,
2017.
Nugent, F. A. (2009). An Introduction to the profession of counselling. London: Merrill
Publishing Company.
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Educational Research and Publisher.
Pope, K. S. & Vasquez, M. J. T. (2011).Ethics in psychotherapy and counselling.A practical
guide for psychologists. San Francisco: Jossey – Bass.
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(2nded.). San Francisco; Jossey-bass.
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Effect of Teaching Styles on Senior Secondary School Students’
Achievement in Geometry in Hadejia Education Zone,
Jigawa State
Jimin Nguuma
Department of Science Education
Faculty of Education
Sule Lamido University, Kafin Hausa
Jigawa State, Nigeria
Abstract
This study investigated the comparative effect of mathematics teachers’ teaching styles on
students’ achievement in geometry in Hadejia Education Zone, Jigawa State, Nigeria. The
study was conducted using non randomized pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design. The
sample comprised of 238 Senior Secondary 2 students (122 male and 116 female) selected
from 6 senior secondary schools through a multi-stage sampling techniques. The study was
guided by four research questions and four hypotheses. The researcher’s designed
instrument titled Geometry Achievement Test (GAT) was used in generating data. The
instrument was validated by three experts with the reliability computed using K- R 20
formulae and estimated to be 0.89. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the
four research questions while Analysis of Covariance was used to test the four hypotheses at
0.05 level of significant. The study found that students exposed to demonstrator teaching
styles significantly gained higher mean achievement score than those exposed to facilitator
teaching style (p=0.00) while those exposed to facilitator teaching style significantly gained
higher mean achievement score than those exposed to authority teaching style (p=0.02). the
result showed that there was no significant difference in the achievement of male and female
students in demonstrator (p=0.34) and facilitator (p=0.12) teaching styles. The study also
found that there was no significant interactive effect of gender and teaching styles on
students’ achievement in geometry. Based on these findings, the study recommended that
mathematics teachers should use the teaching style that gives teachers opportunities to
incorporate a variety of formats including multiple presentations and demonstrations.
Keyword: Teaching Styles, Students’ Achievement, Mathematics.
Introduction
Mathematics is central and indispensible to the development of every nation.
Mathematics is a branch of science which involves the use of numbers and their operations in
calculating, computing and solving problems. It is compulsory up to secondary school level
in Nigeria. The Federal Government of Nigeria in recognition of the importance of
mathematics made a credit pass in the subject a basic requirement to almost all courses in
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tertiary institutions. Azuka (2013) sees mathematics as the language of the science and an
essential nutrient for thought, logic, reasoning and therefore, progress. Ones proficiency in
mathematics will arguably determine ones effectiveness virtually in any endeavour one
virtues in. Considering the important of mathematics, the attainment of the objectives of
teaching and learning mathematics in Nigeria requires a teacher who uses teaching styles that
will enable the learner to take maximally benefit from the teaching and learning process
(Opdenakker&Damm, 2016). Hence the challenge before a mathematics teacher is how to
bring about meaningful teaching that will engender meaningful learning (Aguele& Usman,
2007). Grasha (1996) developed a teaching style inventory among which includes; Authority
teaching style, Demonstrator teaching style, Facilitator teaching style, Delegator teaching
style and Hybrid teaching style. This study tested the comparative effectiveness of the first
three.
Authority Teaching Style:
The authority teaching style uses a dogmatic approach to teaching. The authority
model is teacher-centered and frequently entails one-way presentations. Students are
expected to take notes and absorb the sequence of the solution path. Questions from students
in this teaching style are expected at the end of the lesson as lessons are highly structured
with no room for deviations. Students are therefore required to wait up to the end to
determine whether they actually need to ask their questions.Authoritative teachers
incorporate the traditional lecture format and share many of the characteristics as experts, but
with less student interaction. Gill (2016) in this light, sees it as a questionable model for
teaching children because there is little or no interaction with the teacher.
However, proponents of authority teaching style are inspired by the “empty vessel” theory,
which assumes a student’s mind is essentially empty and needs to be filled by the “expert” teacher.
However, Critics of this traditional approach to teaching mathematics insist this teaching style is
outmoded and needs to be updated for the diverse 21st-century classroom.Another school of
thought believe that overemphasis on group-oriented participatory teaching styles, like
facilitator and the likes, favours gifted and competitive students over passive children with
varied learning abilities, thereby exacerbating the challenges of meeting the needs of all
learners (Gill, 2016).
Demonstrator Teaching Style:
The demonstrator retains the formal authority role while allowing teachers to
demonstrate their expertise by showing students what they need to learn.Here, the
teachershare knowledge, demonstrate their expertise, advise students and provide feedback to
improve understanding and promote learning. This teaching style gives teachers
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opportunities to incorporate a variety of formats including lectures, multimedia presentations
and demonstrations. The major problem with the teaching style is that it is difficult to
accommodate students’ individual needs in larger mathematics classrooms.
Facilitator Teaching Style:
Facilitator mathematics teachers promote self-learning and help students develop
critical thinking skills and retain knowledge that leads to self-actualization.Here, the teacher
designs participatory learning activities and manages classroom projects while providing
information and offering feedback to facilitate critical thinking. The teacher’s role in this
teaching style is reduced to organizing group learning, observing students, providing
consultation, and promoting interaction between groups and among individuals within group
to achieve learning objectives. This style encourages teachers to function as advisors who
help students learn by doing. The style trains students to ask questions and helps them to
develop skills to finding answers and solutions through exploration. The challenge for the
mathematics teacher using this style is how to interact with students and prompt them toward
discovery rather than teaching facts and testing knowledge through memorisation.
The onus of this review is that, notwithstanding the strength or weakness of any teaching
style, student-centric learning should not be sacrifices at the altar of an instructor’s preferred teaching
style. Differentiated instruction demands that teachers finesse their style to accommodate the diverse
needs of 21st-century classrooms. In doing so, the teacher needs to be creative and acquire
different teaching styles and know how to implore these styles in the mathematics classroom.
Though every teaching method could be effective to some extent, the overall effect of some
teaching styles may be counterproductive. The desire of educational programme is for
students to be given the ability to acquire the formerly set lesson objectives which precisely
meet their needs. Choosing appropriate teaching and learning strategies is a complicated
process that demands a deep thinking on the part of the teacher and the ability to make
balance between the available strategies in the light of the many interrelated variables
(Hamzeh, 2014).
Purpose of the Study
The general purpose of the study was to compare the effectiveness of three teaching styles on
students’ achievement in a Geometry Achievement Test (GAT) in some selected schools in
Hadejia Education Zone, Jigawa State.
Research Questions
The following research questions were posed to guide the study:
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1. What are the mean achievement scores of students taught geometry using
demonstrator and facilitator teaching styles?
2. What are the mean achievement scores of students taught geometry using
demonstrator and authority teaching styles?
3. What are the mean achievement scores of students taught geometry using facilitator
and authority teaching styles?
Null Hypotheses: The following null hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of
significance:
1. There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught
geometry using demonstrator and facilitator teaching styles
2. There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught
geometry using demonstrator and authority teaching styles.
3. There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught
geometry using facilitator and authority teaching styles.
Methodology
The design adopted in this study is non-randomized pretest, posttest quasi-
experimental groups design. Reasons for the adoption of this design were hinged on the fact
that, it was not possible to have a complete randomization of the subjects hence intact classes
were assigned to authoritarian, demonstrator and facilitators’ groups. The population of the
study consisted of 9025 Senior Secondary 2 (SS2) students drawn from the 3 Local
Government Areas that make up Hadejia Education Zone. The sample was made up of 238
SS 2 students (122 male and 116 female) selected from 6 six intact classes in 6 senior
secondary schools through a multi-stage sampling techniques. Two of the classes were each
assigned into the three groups of teaching style. The teaching styles were used as treatment.
Lesson plan for each teaching style was prepared by the researcher and given to the
mathematics teacher handling SS 2 in the selected schools who served as research assistants
and helped in conducting the exercise. An instrument; Geometry Achievement Test (GAT)
designed by the researcher was used in generating data. The instrument was validated by
three experts with the reliability computed using Kuder-Richardson20 (K- R20) formulae and
estimated to be 0.89. The instrument was administered to the students as pretest by the
research assistant to determine their entry ability levels. The teachers were then instructed to
teach topics in geometry selected from SS 2 mathematics curriculum for 3 week after which
they were given a reshuffled GAT as posttest. Mean and standard deviation were used to
answer the three research questions while Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to
test the three hypotheses at 0.05 level of significant. The choice of ANCOVA was due to the
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fact that the initial equivalence among group was not ascertained before the commencement
of the exercise.
Data Presentation, Analyses and Interpretation
Research Question 1
What are the mean achievement scores of students taught geometry using demonstrator and
facilitator teaching styles?
Table 1: Mean achievement scores and SD of students exposed to authority, demonstrator and
facilitator teaching styles
Teaching Style N Pre GAT Post GAT Mean Gain
xδ xδ
Demonstrator 81 12.79 4.74 32.58 5.61 19.79
Facilitator 63 11.19 3.93 25.44 9.54 14.25
Mean Difference 01.60 07.14 5.54
Table 1 presents mean achievement scores and standard deviations of students
exposed to demonstrator and facilitator teaching styles. The table shows the pre GAT mean
difference between students in the two teaching style as 1.60 while at post GAT it was
revealed as 7.14. The table also reported the mean gained by the students exposed to
demonstrator teaching style as 19.79 while that of students exposed to facilitator teaching
styles was 14.25. The difference in the mean gains was 5.54.
Research Question 2
What are the mean achievement scores of students taught geometry using demonstrator and
authority teaching styles?
Table 2: Mean achievement scores and SD of students taught geometry using demonstrator and
authority teaching styles
Gender N Pre GAT Post GAT Mean Gain
xδ xδ
Demonstrator 81 12.79 4.74 32.58 5.61 19.79
Authority 94 12.04 3.82 21.96 7.06 9.92
Mean Difference 0.75 10.62 9.87
Table 2 presents mean achievement scores and standard deviations of students exposed to
demonstrator and authority teaching styles. Results from the table indicate that the difference
in the students mean score at Pre GAT was 0.75. At post GAT, the difference was shown as
10.62. The mean gained by the students exposed to demonstrator teaching style was shown as
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19.79 while that of students exposed to authority teaching styles was 9.92. The difference in
the mean gains was 9.87.
Research Question 3
What are the mean achievement scores of students taught geometry using facilitator and
authority teaching styles?
Table 3: Mean achievement scores and SD of female students exposed to facilitator and authority
teaching styles
Gender N Pre GAT Post GAT Mean Gain
xδ xδ
Facilitator 63 11.19 3.93 25.44 9.54 14.25
Authority 94 12.04 3.82 21.96 7.06 9.92
Mean Difference -0.85 03.48 4.33
Table 3 presents mean achievement scores and standard deviations of students exposed to
facilitator and authority teaching styles. The table shows the pre GAT mean difference
between students in the two teaching style as -0.85 while at post GAT it was revealed as
3.48. The table further reported the mean gained by the students exposed to facilitator
teaching style as 14.25 while that of students exposed to authority teaching styles was 9.92.
The difference in the mean gains was 4.33.
Null Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of
students taught geometry using demonstrator and facilitator teaching styles
Table 4: One-way ANCOVA report on the effect of demonstrator and facilitator teaching
styles on students’ achievement in geometry
Source Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 1137.47 2 568.74 9.32 0.00
Intercept 12817.70 1 12817.70 210.09 0.00
pregat1 9.43 1 9.43 0.16 0.69
gp1 1056.13 1 1056.13 17.31 0.00
Error 8602.52 141 61.01
Total 127675.00 144
Corrected Total 9739.99 143
Table 4 presents one-way ANCOVA report on the effect of demonstration and facilitator
teaching styles on students’ achievement in geometry. The table reveals that F(1,141) = 17.31
and p = 0.00. With p<0.05, the study find the test statistic significant. The null hypothesis
which states that there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students
taught geometry using demonstrator and facilitator teaching styles was therefore rejected.
The study submits that students exposed to demonstration teaching style significantly
attained high mean scores than those exposed to facilitator teaching style.
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Null Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of
students taught geometry using demonstrator and authority teaching styles.
Table 5: One-way ANCOVA report on the effect of demonstrator and authority teaching
styles on students’ achievement in geometry
Source Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 3634.70 2 1817.35 35.87 0.00
Intercept 13518.17 1 13518.17 266.78 0.00
pregat2 8.78 1 8.78 0.17 0.68
gp2 3629.34 1 3629.34 71.63 0.00
Error 8715.45 172 50.67
Total 132320.00 175
Corrected Total 12350.15 174
Table 5 presents one-way ANCOVA report on the effect of demonstrator and authority
teaching styles on students’ achievement in geometry. The table reveals that F(1,172) = 71.63
and p = 0.00. Since p < 0.05, the study found the test statistic significant. The null hypothesis
stated that there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students
taught geometry using demonstrator and authority teaching styles was not rejected. The
conclusion drawn was that students significantly benefited more from demonstrator teaching
style than authority teaching style.
Null Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of
students taught geometry using facilitator and authority teaching styles.
Table 6: One-way ANCOVA report on the effect of facilitator and authority teaching styles
on students’ achievement in geometry
Source Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 469.15 2 234.57 3.95 0.02
Intercept 8079.66 1 8079.66 135.94 0.00
pregat3 10.51 1 10.51 0.18 0.68
gp3 468.33 1 468.33 7.88 0.01
Error 9152.88 154 59.43
Total 95271.00 157
Corrected Total 9622.03 156
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Table 6 presents one-way ANCOVA report on the effect of facilitator teaching
strategies on students’ achievement in geometry. The table reveals that F(1,154) = 7.88 and p =
0.01. With p < 0.05, the study found the test statistic significant. The null hypothesis stated
that there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught
geometry using facilitator and authority teaching styles was rejected. This confirms that
students exposed to facilitator teaching style significant gained higher mean scores than those
exposed to authority teaching style.
Discussion of Findings
This study investigated the effect of mathematics teachers’ teaching styles on
students’ achievement in geometry in Hadejia Education Zone, Jigawa State. Results of
analysis from Tables 1 and 4 reveals that students exposed to demonstration teaching style
significantly attained high mean scores than those exposed to facilitator teaching style. This
finding could be attributed to the fact that most students may learn mathematics concept
better when the teacher is actively participating in the lesson through the incorporation of a
variety of formats including lectures, multimedia presentations and demonstrations.
This finding was consistent with Suntorapot (2014) who reported that students who
were expose to demonstrator teaching style significantly outperformed those who were
taught by a facilitator teaching style and working more independently in mathematics. The
finding is also in consonance with Pedro (2010) submission that demonstrator teaching style
was found to be significantly more effective than delegator teaching style in term of students’
achievement in mathematics.
Results of analysis from Tables 2 and 5 of this study show that students significantly
benefited from demonstrator teaching style than authority teaching style. This finding was
consistent with Daluba (2013) who in a study on demonstration method found that
demonstration method was significantly more effective on students’ achievement than the
conventional lecture method.
Another finding of the study as reported in Tables 3 and 6 was that students exposed
to facilitator teaching style significant gained higher mean scores than those exposed to
authority teaching style. This fining is supported by the fact that facilitators promote self-
learning and help students develop critical mathematics thinking skills and retain knowledge
that leads to self-actualization.This explains why the style has proven to be more effective
that the authority style where learning is a one way traffic.This finding was in agreement
with Pedro (2010) finding that authority and expert teaching style were significantly less
effective than delegator teaching style. The finding was also in agreement with Stanford
(2014) who found that mathematical scores of students in classes with teachers using
facilitator and delegator teaching styles significantly obtained higher mean scores than
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students in classes with teachers using expert, formal authority, and personal model teaching
styles.
Conclusion
Conclusively, this study has demonstrated that secondary school students performed
differently when taught with the demonstrator, facilitator and authority teaching styles.
Students who were expose to geometric concepts using demonstrator teaching style
benefitted more from the mathematics teacher’s activities than those in the authority teaching
style and facilitator teaching style. Students with the facilitator teachers were also found to be
better than those in with the authority teachers. However, the large standard deviation from
the facilitators group shows that students scored high and low scores which points out to the
weakness of the teaching style that low ability students hardly do well with the teaching
style.
Recommendations
Based on the above findings, the study recommends that:
1. Mathematics teachers should use teaching styles that will implore demonstrator and
facilitators’ activities since these teaching styles have shown to be more effective.
2. Mathematics teaching should desist from using authority teaching style as it has been
proven to be less effective in enhancing students’ achievement in mathematics.
3. Though facilitator teaching style was found to be more effective in teaching mathematics
than authority teaching style, mathematics teachers should be mindful that students will
need more learning materials with this style to be able to learn meaningfully. Were these
materials are not available, teachers should reframe from using the style as both the
influence of the teaching and learning materials/aids cannot be minimized at the same
time.
References
Aguele, L. I. & Usman, K.O. (2007). Mathematics Education for Dynamic Economy in
Nigeria in the 21st Century. Journal of Social Science, 15(3): 293-296
Azuka, B.F. (2013). Activity-based learning strategy in the mathematics classroom.Journal
of Education and Practice, 4(13): 8-14
Daluba N. E. (2013). Effect of Demonstration Method of Teaching on Students’
Achievement in Agricultural Science.World Journal of Education, 3(6): 1-7.
Emaikwu, S. O. (2012). Assessing the Relative Effectiveness of Three Teaching Methods in
the Measurement of Student’ Achievement in Mathematics.Journal of Emerging Trends
in Educational Research and Policy Studies (JETERAPS) 3(4): 479-486 .
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Gill, E. (2016).Teaching strategies.Retrieved 22/3/2017 from http://education.cu-portland.edu/wp-
content/uploads/sites/21/2013/01/CU-Edu-Blog -5typesofteahcers-Mockup-page-v2.
Grasha, A. (1996). Teaching with style.Pittburgh, PA: Alliance Publishers.
Hamzeh, M.A.H. (2014). Teaching Strategies Used by Mathematics Teachers in the Jordan
Public Schools and Their Relationship with Some Variables. American Journal of
Educational Research, 2014 2 (6), pp 331-340.
Opdenakker. M.C. &Damm, J.V. (2016). Teacher characteristics and teaching styles as
effectiveness enhancing factors of classroom practice. Teaching and Teacher Education
22, 1–21.
Pedro, T.A (2010). Teaching beliefs and teaching styles of mathematics teachers and their
relationship with academic achievement.Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(11),
344-355.
Stanford A. G. (2014).The effects of teachers‟ teaching styles and experience on elementary
students’ mathematical achievement.Retrieved 2/2/2017 from
http://longleaf.net/teachingstyle.html.
Suntorapot, D. (2014). An interaction of learning and teaching styles influencing
mathematics achievements of nine grade students.Academic Journals, 9(9): 771-779.
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Implementation of Academic Policies and Achievement of Academic
Excellence in Vocational and Technical Education (VTE)
at College of Education, AfahaNsit
Augustine Bassey Etuk, Ph. D
Department of Business Education
College of Education, AfahaNsit
Abstract
This study investigated the extent to which academic policies are implemented to influence
achievement of academic excellence in Vocational and Technical Education (VTE) at
College of Education, AfahaNsit, AKS. Academic policies under study include staff
recruitment policy, staff development policy and staff welfare policy. Three research
questions and three null hypotheses guided the study. The design used for the study was the
descriptive survey. The population of the study comprised all the 42 lecturers in the School of
Vocational and Technical Education at College of Education, AfahaNsit. All the lecturers
were studied because of the limited number. The instrument used for data collection was the
structured questionnaire. The reliability of the instrument was obtained using the Spearman
Brown prophecy formula which yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.90. The results of the test
showed that there is no significant difference in the mean responses of male and female
lecturers at College of Education, AfahaNsit on the extent to which staff recruitment and
development policies are implemented to influence achievement of academic excellence in
VTE. The result of the test also showed that there is a significant difference in the mean
responses of male and female lecturers at College of Education, AfahaNsit on the extent to
which staff welfare policy is implemented to influence achievement of academic excellence in
VTE. It was recommended among other things that politics, favoritism, godfatherism,
ethnicity and other recruitment irregularities should be avoided during the institution’s
screening, selection and appointment of lecturers in VTE.
Key words: Implementation, Academic Policies, Achievement of Academic Excellence
Introduction
Over the years, Nigeria has used education as a tool for effecting national
development. At the tertiary institutions level, education is adopted as an instrument par
excellence for acquisition of knowledge, skills, competencies and abilities by individuals to
enable them face the challenges of the past, present and the future. At this level, the top
management is saddled with the responsibility of directing the activities of the institution
including the making of academic policies. In Colleges of Education, the Chief Executive,
the Academic Board and Directors, and the Governing Council at the Apex perform the top
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management functions while the National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE)
perform statutory duties which include among other things the periodic review of terms and
conditions of service and setting minimum standards to be achieved.
Before forging ahead, it is pertinent to define the concept of policy. Kilpatrick (2017)
defines policy as a course of action, guiding principles, or procedures considered expedient,
prudent, or advantageous. The source also defines it as a set of basic principles and
associated guidelines, formulated and enforced by the governing body of an organization, to
direct and limit its actions in pursuit of long term goals. Other definitions of policy cited in
Opara (2012) are as follows:
a. A clear-cut statement of what to do in a particular circumstance in order to promote
the intentions and smooth functioning of an organization.
b. A definite course or method of action selected by government, institution, group or
individual from among alternatives and in the light of given conditions to guide and
usually determine present and future decisions.
c. A course of action of dealing with a particular matter or situation, especially as
chosen by a political party, government, business or company.
From the foregoing definitions of policy, one can deduce that academic policy is a set
of basic principles, rules and regulations, guidelines and procedures formulated at the top
management level to regulate and direct academic matters of the institution. According to
Opara (2012), academic policy is made to protect the interest, values, wishes and
programmes of academic staff. Policies ensure that every member of the organization has a
focus on the goals of the organization. They are typically instituted to avoid some negative
effects and disorderliness that have been noticed in the organization. For instance, the
National Policy on Education is a kind of Policy which the Federal Government of Nigeria
issues and uses to address the educational system by issuing laws, rules, regulations and
ordinances that govern the educational operations in the country
For any policy to be worth its salt, it should be made by experts in the area that the
policy is tailored to guide. Policies are generally made by the Board or senior governance
body of the organization. In education, policies are made by specialists in education before
issuing the policy statements for implementation.All academic policies issued gear towards
the attainment of academic excellence in the organization. Ukeje, cited in Ategwu and Ugwu
(2012), opines that the teachers translate policies into practice, and programmes into action.
The implementation of policy has been a great concern to people in Nigeria. This country is
good at formulating lofty goals and objectives to be achieved of anything, but the
implementation of the policy is most at times the problem. Opara (2012) opines that the
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National Policy on Education is the typical example of a Policy issued by the Federal
Government of Nigeria since 1977 and revised as many times as possible, which is not yet
fully implemented to achieve the goals and objectives of education at any level.
Policies are equally made at the organizational levels to regulate the operational
activities of the members toward the achievement of the set objectives. According to
Mgbekem (2004), there are standing policies issued by the top management of tertiary
institutions to regulate such subjects as admission, recruitment, funding, training and
development, welfare scheme, discipline, promotion, budgeting and retirement of staff. It is
hoped that these policies would have a positive influence on the running of institutions’
programmes if they are effectively formulated, implemented and evaluated by the concerned
bodies. Thus, effective implementation of school policies can endanger academic excellence.
Academic excellence connotes high academic quality, high academic standard and
above all, high educational benchmark by which the implementation of academic policies
can be measured as the case may be. Academic excellence in VTE also implies high
lecturers’ quality in teaching skills which encompass effective subject matter mastery, lesson
planning, instructional delivery, classroom management, assessment and evaluation of
students’ academic activities. Academic excellence in VTE can also be measured in terms of
the lecturers’ quality in research and development. Other indicators of academic excellence
include good students’ performance in semester examinations; lecturers’ co-operation, job
satisfaction, discipline and obedience to college authority; positive attitude towards work;
punctuality; and good inter-personal relations. Mgbekem (2004) contends that achievement
of excellence or quality in tertiary institution education begins with the use of competent
lecturers to teach the students who enroll to learn and obtain certificates. It is believed that
only the qualified, competent, conscientious and professional lecturers can produce academic
excellence. Hence, high standard of implementation of academic policies begets high quality
in VTE and vice versa. This work considers that some academic policies including staff
recruitment policy, staff development policy and staff welfare policy can be the panacea for
attaining the expected academic excellence in VTE.
Staff recruitment policy regulates the employment and promotion of staff in an
organization. The first step is to identify the areas of staff deficiencies and declare the
vacancies open through advertisement in Daily Newspapers, magazines, periodicals, radio,
television and other public media. The next step is the receipt of applications from the
qualified candidates, screening and interviewing the candidates. The successful ones are
hence issued with appointment letters. In Colleges of Education, the job is handled by the
Appointment, Promotion and Disciplinary Committee (APDC). According to
Mgbekem(2004), only the best brains should be favoured during the recruitment exercise.
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The author noted that, employing competent and qualified lecturers is the first step towards
promoting academic excellence in a tertiary institution. At College of Education, the
condition for promotion to the next rank is to publish a specified number of journal articles
and books. This is another yardstick for measuring academic excellence of each lecturer.
According to Bayo (2006) and Rogers (2012), regular promotion is reinforcing to the
employees because it motivates them to higher job performance.
Staff development policy encompasses the rules, principles and guidelines that
regulate staff training and retraining to improve their performance on the job. The training
and retraining can take either a long duration of one year and above or a short duration of less
than one year. The long service training can take the form of in-service training, on-the-job
training or oversees training with part-time or full-time schooling for the award of higher
certificates such as Master and Doctorate Degrees. The short duration training on the other
hand includes Information and Communication Technology (ICT) training, conferences,
workshops, seminars, secondment, relief duty, understudy, appointment into committees, or
as head of a department. Eddie (2003) found out that the new and emerging knowledge,
ideas, skills and competencies, methods and usage of materials acquired during employee
development enhance staff motivation and productivity.
The Federal Republic of Nigeria (2014), states in her National Policy on Education of
2014 that staff development is a goal of Teacher Education. The Policy states among other
things that Teacher Education shall be to produce highly motivated, conscientious and
efficient classroom teachers who also possess the intellectual and professional background
adequate for their assignment and the changing situation in educational system. This goal
lays emphases on effective implementation of training and development policies as the
corollary for the achievement of excellence in Teacher Education of which VTE is not an
exception. On the part of the students, the Policy provides that the trainees completing their
Vocational and Technical Educations programme shall among other things secure
employment at the end of the whole course or after completing one or more modules of
employability skill; or set up their own business and become self-employed and be able to
employ others. Such indicators which portray lecturers’ high productivity are further
evidences of effective implementation of academic policies in VTE.
When organizations offer employment to their employees, they often consider it
expedient to arrange for them a remunerative scheme also called scheme of service or
welfare scheme. In College of Education, such welfare services include salaries and
allowances, fringe benefits, housing loan, vehicle loan, maternity leave, rent allowance,
lavatory services, transport allowance, canteen services, teaching practice allowance,
sabbatical leave and retirement benefits. According to Mgbekem (2004), such conditions of
service are strategies for teachers’ comfort and motivation to higher productivity. Onuoha
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(2005) asserts that bad condition of service demoralizes the teacher giving him a bad frame
of mind towards work. This study therefore aims at determining the extent to which these
selected academic policies are implemented to influence achievement of academic excellence
in Vocational and Technical Education at College of Education, AfahaNsit.
Statement of the Problem
Implementation of educational policies has suffered a setback in various institutions
in Nigeria. This has reflected in the calibre of some ill-fitted and incompetent graduates
turned out yearly by some institutions. Okon (2002) and Edna (2009) found out that such
ineffective graduates are correlates of poor teaching and poor academic performance of
students. Colleges of Education are not exceptions to these problems. That is why many
students overstay their number of years while some leave the college with poor pass grades
and few others without a certificate at all. As stated earlier by Opara (2012), the National
Policy on Education which came into existence in 1977 and even after going through some
revisions could not be effectively implemented at any level of education to attain the
goal it was meant. The issues arising for this study are: How are lecturers, students and
departments in the School of Vocational and Technical Education (VTE) performing in
teaching, learning and running of academic programmes at College of Education (C.O.E.),
AfahaNsit? Are planned academic policies effectively implemented to influence positively
the envisaged academic excellence? These issues are addressed in this work.
Purpose of the Study
1. To determine the extent to which staff recruitment policy is implemented at C. O. E.,
AfahaNsit to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE.
2. To determine the extent to which staff development policy is implemented at
C. O. E., AfahaNsit to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE.
3. To determine the extent to which staff welfare policy is implemented at C. O. E.,
AfahaNsit to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE
Research Questions
1. To what extent is staff recruitment policy implemented at C. O. E., AfahaNsit to
influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE?
2. To what extent is staff development policy implemented at C. O. E., AfahaNsit to
influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE?
3. To what extent is staff welfare policy implemented at C. O. E., AfahaNsit to
influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE?
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Null Hypotheses
1. There is no significant difference in the mean responses of male and female lecturers
at College of Education, AfahaNsit on the extent to which staff recruitment policy
is implemented to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE.
2. There is no significant difference in the mean responses of male and female lecturers
at College of Education, AfahaNsit on the extent to which staff development policy
is implemented to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE.
3. There is no significant difference in the mean responses of male and female lecturers
at College of Education, AfahaNsit on the extent to which staff welfare policy is
implemented to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE.
Methodology
The design used for this study was the descriptive survey. This design was deemed
most appropriate because it helped the researcher in probing the minds of the lecturers on the
subject matter of this work. According to Onwioduokit (2000), the essence of survey
research is to seek the opinion of a number of people about events, development or proposal
by asking questions. This study was carried out specifically in the School of Vocational and
Technical Education, College of Education, AfahaNsit in Akwa Ibom State. The school has
the population of 42 lecturers made up of 27 males and 15 females in all the four
Departments of Business Education, Technical Education, Agricultural Education and Home
Economic Education. All the 42 lecturers were studied without further sampling because the
number was manageable.
The instrument used for data collection was the researcher-developed-closed-ended
questionnaire titled: Implementation of Academic Policies and Achievement of Academic
Excellence Questionnaire (IAPAAEQ). The instrument was divided into sections A and B.
Section A contained information on the personal data of the respondents while section B
sought for information on the implementation of staff recruitment policy, staff development
policy, staff welfare policy and how it influences academic excellence in the School of
Vocational and Technical Education. Each item in the questionnaire has the response rating
scale of: Very Great Extent (3.00-4.00), Great Extent (2.50-2.99), Little Extent (2.00-2.49)
and Very Little Extent (1-1.99). Respondents were requested to tick one option that suits
their sincere opinion. The instrument was face validated by two experts in the Department of
Educational Foundations, Measurement and Evaluation, University of Uyo, Uyo.
The instrument was further tested for reliability using the split-half method. The
instrument-IAPAAEQ was administered on 15 lecturers in the Department of Vocational
Education, University of Uyo who did not take part in the main study. The responses
obtained were split and recorded according to the odd and even number items. The internal
consistency of the two halves of the instrument was computed using the Pearson-Product
Moment Correlation (PPMC) analysis and the correlation coefficient (r) of 0.82 was
obtained. The reliability of the instrument was therefore obtained using the Spearman Brown
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prophecy formula. The analysis yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.90 which is evident that
the instrument is highly reliable and therefore very suited for the study. The instrument was
administered personally by the researcher. All the questionnaires administered were
completed and returned successfully. Hence, a hundred percent response rate was attained.
Data obtained were tested using t-test. The decision was to reject the null hypothesis if the
calculated value of t was greater than its critical value, or otherwise accept it.
Results and Discussion of Findings
Research Question 1: To what extent is staff recruitment policy implemented at C. O. E.,
AfahaNsit to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE?
Table 1: Mean Ratings of Lecturers on the Extent to which Staff Recruitment Policy is
Implemented to Influence Achievement of Academic Excellence in VTE (N=42)
S/N Implementation of Staff Recruitment Policy X Standard Remark
Items for Academic Excellence in VTE Deviation
1 Effective Screening interview 3.40 1.17 Accept
2 Appointment of most qualified candidate 3.58 1.04 Accept
3 Appointment not based on ethnic sentiment 3.05 1.17 Accept
4 Appointment not based on political class 2.80 1.13 Accept
5 Appointment not based on social class 3.86 1.16 Accept
6 Appointment not based on god fatherism 3.77 1.18 Accept
7 Appointment not based on family affiliation 3.68 1.14 Accept
8 Appointment not based on favoritism 3.44 1.01 Accept
9 Promotion based on journal publication 3.78 1.12 Accept
10 Promotion based on additional qualification 3.32 0.97 Accept
11 Promotion based on publication of text book 2.86 1.05 Accept
12 Promotion as a reward for outstanding performance 2.84 0.96 Accept
Table 1 presents the lecturers’ mean ratings and standard deviation of the 12 items on
the extent to which staff recruitment policy is implemented at College of Education
AfahaNsit to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE. The analysis reveals
that the mean ratings of all the items range from 2.80 to 3.86 which are above the cut-off
point of 2.50. This finding reflects the lecturers’ acceptance of the fact that staff recruitment
policy is implemented to a greater extent in the College to influence achievement of
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academic excellence in VTE. The standard deviation of the ratings of the 12 items also
ranges from 0.96 to 1.18 which shows that the lecturers’ responses to each item were closer
to the mean.
Research Question 2: To what extent is staff development policy implemented at C. O. E.,
AfahaNsit to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE
Table 2: Mean Ratings of Lecturers on the Extent to which Staff Development Policy is
Implemented to Influence Achievement of Academic Excellence in VTE (N = 42)
S/N Implementation of Staff Recruitment Policy X Standard Remark
Items for Academic Excellence in VTE Deviation
1 Full-time education with pay 3.88 1.02 Accept
2 Part-time education with pay 3.64 0.98 Accept
3 Overseas inservice education 2.72 1.05 Accept
4 ICT training 2.40 1.01 Reject
5 Conference participation with pay 3.53 1.04 Accept
6 Seminars 2.68 0.85 Accept
7 Workshops 2.84 0.91 Accept
8 Relief duty 2.71 0.95 Accept
9 Secondment 2.82 1.00 Accept
10 Appointment into committees 3.35 0.03 Accept
11 Appointment into Boards 2 .66 0.90 Accept
12 Appointment as a Director 2.78 0.98 Accept
13 Appointment as the HOD 3.06 1.01 Accept
14 Appointment as a coordinator 2.70 1.00 Accept
Table 2 presents the lecturers’ mean ratings and standard deviation of the 14 items on
the extent to which staff development policy is implemented at College of Education
AfahaNsit to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE. The analysis reveals
that the mean 13 out of 14 items range from 2.66 to 3.88 which are above the cut-off point of
2.50. This finding reflects the lecturers’ acceptance of the fact that staff development policy
is implemented to a greater extent in the College to influence achievement of academic
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excellence in VTE. The standard deviation of the ratings of the 14 items also ranges from
0.85 to 1.05 which shows that the lecturers’ responses to each item were closer to the mean.
Research Question 3: To what extent is staff development policy implemented at C. O. E.,
AfahaNsit to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE?
Table 3: Mean Ratings of Lecturers on the Extent to which Staff Welfare Policy is
Implemented to Influence Achievement of Academic Excellence in VTE (N = 42)
S/N Implementation of Staff Recruitment Policy X SD Remark
Items for Academic Excellence in VTE
1 Regular salary 3.54 1.02 Accept
2 Salary advance 2.03 0.96 Reject
3 Journal allowance 3.82 0.84 Accept
4 Research allowance 3.67 1.06 Accept
5 Leave allowance 3.44 0.87 Accept
6 Learned society allowance 3.73 1.02 Accept
7 SIWES allowance 3.44 1.00 Accept
8 Contributory pension scheme 2.18 0.78 Reject
9 Teaching Practice allowance 2.86 1.05 Accept
10 Housing loan 2.38 0.96 Reject
11 Rent allowance 2.46 0.71 Reject
12 Vehicle loan 2.30 0.87 Reject
13 Adequate staff office 2.41 0.72 Reject
14 Recreational facilities 2.47 0.81 Reject
15 Excretory facilities 2.33 0.80 Reject
16 Canteen services 2.35 0.88 Reject
17 Transport allowance 2.06 0.90 Reject
18 Medical services 2.93 0.79 Accept
19 Out-of-station allowance 2.44 0.81 Reject
20 Retirement Benefits 2.42 0.68 Reject
Table 3 presents the lecturers’ mean ratings and standard deviation of the 20 items on
the extent to which staff welfare policy is implemented at College of Education, AfahaNsit to
influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE. The analysis reveals that the mean
rating of 8 out of 20 items range from 2.86 to 3.82 which are above the cut-off point of 2.50
while the mean rating of the other 12 items range from 2.03 to 2.47 which are below the cut-
off point of 2.50. Since the high mean ratings/range represent the minority opinion of the
respondents while the low mean ratings/range represent the majority opinion, it therefore
means that staff welfare policy is not implemented to a greater extent in the College to
influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE. The standard deviation of the ratings
of all the 20 items range from 0.68 to 1.06 which shows a higher dispersion or variability of
the lecturers’ responses from the mean of the items.
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Null Hypothesis I: There is no significant difference in the mean responses of male and
female lecturers at College of Education, AfahaNsit on the extent to which staff recruitment
policy is implemented to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE.
Table 4: t-test of the Mean of Male and Female Lecturers on the Extent of Implementation
of Staff Recruitment Policy to Influence Achievement of Academic Excellence in
VTE
Gender N X S. D t-cal t-crit df Decision
Male 27 3.66 1.06
1.63 2.02 40 Accepted
Female 15 3.08 1.12
In Table 4, it is observed that the calculated t-value of 1.63 is less than the critical t-
value of 2.02 at the significant level of .05 and degree of freedom (df) of 40. Hence, the null
hypothesis is upheld. This means that there is no significant difference in the mean responses
of male and female lecturers at College of Education, AfahaNsit on the extent to which staff
recruitment policy is implemented to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE.
Null Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the mean responses of male and
female lecturers at College of Education, AfahaNsit on the extent to which staff development
policy is implemented to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE.
Table 5: t-test of the Mean of Male and Female Lecturers on the Extent of Implementation
of Staff Development Policy to Influence Achievement of Academic Excellence in
VTE.
Gender N X S. D t-cal t-crit df Decision
Male 27 3.19 1.01
1.46 2.02 40 Accepted
Female 15 2.77 0.82
In Table 5, it is observed that the calculated t-value of 1.46 is less than the critical t-
value of 2.02 at the significant level of .05 and degree of freedom (df) of 40. Hence, the null
hypothesis is upheld. This means that there is no significant difference in the mean responses
of male and female lecturers at College of Education, AfahaNsit on the extent to which staff
development policy is implemented to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE
Null Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the mean responses of male and
female lecturers at College of Education, AfahaNsit on the extent to which staff welfare
policy is implemented to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE.
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Table 6: t-test of the Mean of Male and Female Lecturers on the Extent of Implementation
of Staff Welfare Policy to Influence Achievement of Academic Excellence in
VTE.
Gender N X S. D t-cal t-crit df Decision
Male 27 3.06 0.96
2.11 2.02 40 Rejected
Female 15 2.46 0.84
In Table 6, it is observed that the calculated t-value of 2.11 is greater than the critical
t-value of 2.02 at the significant level of .05 and degree of freedom (df) of 40. Hence, the null
hypothesis is rejected. This means that there is significant difference in the mean responses
of male and female lecturers at College of Education, AfahaNsit on the extent to which staff
welfare policy is implemented to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE.
Discussion of Findings
The findings in Table 4 revealed that there is no significant difference in the mean
responses of male and female lecturers at College of Education, AfahaNsit on the extent to
which staff recruitment policy is implemented to influence achievement of academic
excellence in VTE. This closeness in their assessment of recruitment policy and achievement
of academic excellence reflects a bridge in the gap between the two variables. The two
parties therefore agree that recruitment policy is effectively implemented at College of
Education, AfahaNsit to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE. This finding
is further strengthened by the high rated mean (Table 1) of all the lecturers in this respect.
These findings agree with the findings of Bayo (2006) and Rogers (2012) whose studies
revealed that regular promotion is reinforcing to the employees because it motivates them to
higher job performance.
The findings in Table 5 revealed that there is no significant difference in the mean
responses of male and female lecturers at College of Education, AfahaNsit on the extent to
which staff development policy is implemented to influence achievement of academic
excellence in VTE. This closeness in their assessment of the two variables reflects a bridge in
the gap between implementation of development policy and achievement of academic
excellence in VTE. The two parties therefore agree that development policy is effectively
implemented at College of Education, AfahaNsit to influence achievement of academic
excellence in VTE. This finding is further strengthened by the high rated mean (Table 2) of
the majority of the lecturers in this respect. These findings agree with the findings of Eddie
(2003) who found out that the new and emerging knowledge, ideas, skills, competencies,
methods and usage of materials acquired during employees’ training and development
enhance staff productivity.
The findings in Table 6 revealed that there is significant difference in the mean
responses of male and female lecturers at College of Education, AfahaNsit on the extent to
which staff welfare policy is implemented to influence achievement of academic excellence
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in VTE. This significant difference in their opinions reflects a wider gap between
implementation of staff welfare policy and achievement of academic excellence in VTE. This
means that the policy is not effectively implemented to influence achievement of academic
excellence in VTE. This finding is in consonant with the lower rated mean (Table 3) of the
majority of the lecturers in this respect. The findings of Onuoha (2005) corroborate that bad
condition of service demoralizes the teacher giving him a bad frame of mind towards work.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of this work, it is concluded that academic excellence in VTE is
achieved in the School of Vocational and Technical Education through effective
implementation of staff recruitment policy and staff training and development programmes.
However, ICT training is jet to be fully implemented in the college to beef up staff academic
excellence in VTE. It is also concluded that staff welfare policy is not effectively
implemented in the college to influence achievement of academic excellence in VTE.
Recommendations
Based on the findings and conclusions of this work, the following recommendations were
proffered.
1. Politics, favoritism, godfatherism, ethnicity and other recruitment irregularities
should be avoided during institution’s screening, selection and appointment of
lecturers in the school of VTE. This is the surest way to recruiting the most fitted and
competent lecturers for the achievement of academic excellence in VTE.
2. The State Government should, as a matter of policy, offer free and compulsory ICT
training to lecturers in Vocational and Technical Education for sustainable
academic excellence in their job performance.
3. Staff welfare scheme should be reviewed generally by the college authority and the
welfare packages lacking should be made good to the lecturers in the School of
Vocational and Technical Education.
References
Ategwu, E. F. and Ugwu, C. (2012).Attaining the MDGs through Qualitative Teacher
Education.Journal of Teacher Perspective (JOTEP). A Publication of ASSONT, 6 (3): 480-
488.
Boyo, M. M. (2006). Effect of Promotion on Employee Productivity. Available at:
www.Webpages.widaha.edu/mbolin/oba... Accessed on 15 June, 2016.
Eddie, D. E. (2003).An Introduction to Teacher Education for Higher Institutions. Lagos: Spectrum
Books Ltd.
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Edna B. I. (2009). Assessment of Adequacy, Functionality and Utilization of Office Technology for
Teaching in Tertiary Institutions in Kogi State.Business Education Journal of the
Association of Business Educators in Nigeria (ABEN). 7 (1): 114-123.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (20114).National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC Press.
Kilpatrick, D. (2017). Definition of Public Policy and Law. Available at the Wikipedia, the Free
Encyclopedia: en.m.wikipedia.org. Accessed on 6 February, 2017.
Mgbekem, S. J. A. (2004). Management of University Education in Nigeria.Calabar: University of
Calabar Press.
Okon, F. I. (2002). Strategies for Improving Students’ Interest in Accounting in Secondary Schools in
Akwa Ibom State.M.Ed Thesis, University of Nigeria, Nsukka (Unpublished).
Onuoha, B. C. (2005). Fundamentals of Business and Management in Nigeria, Aba: Unique Press
Limited.
Onwioduokit, F. A. (2000). Educational Research, Methodology and Statistics.Uyo: Dorand
Publishers.
Opara, P. A. (2012). Instructional Manual on Policy Issues and Legislation in Vocational Education.
Department of Vocational Education, University of Uyo, Uyo (Unpublished).
Rogers, T. (2012). Conferences, Seminars and Conventions. Available at:
en.theglobalIndustryBooksGoogle.Com. Accessed on 6 May, 2014.
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Comparative Outlook of Teacher Education in Nigeria and India
Muhammad BadamasiAbdullahi
Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education
Northwest University, Kano
Nigeria
Dr Danladi Sa’adu Ibrahim
Department of Education
SuleLamido University, Kafin Hausa
Jigawa State, Nigeria
Dr. Abdullahi Sango
Department of Curriculum and Instructions
Federal College of Education, Okene
Kogi State, Nigeria
Abstract
Teacher education, both pre- and in-service programs, is offered in many countries of the world
by different teacher education institutions as declared in the Policies on Education of the
countries. However, differences exist from one country to another as a result of some factors
peculiar to them. Notwithstanding, there also exist similarities among them in regard to teacher
education. This paper dig into teacher education programs in Nigeria and India so that areas of
similarities and differences would be highlighted as well as provide avenue for possible
recommendation of both countries to learn from one another. All these are directed towards
providing a no -border approach in enhancing effective teaching and learning.
Key Words: Teacher education, Teaching & Learning, Pre-service, In-service
Introduction
According to Goods Dictionary of Education (2012) teacher education mean—all the formal
and non-formal and experiences that help to qualify a person to assume responsibilities AS a
member of the educational profession AND to discharge his responsibilities more effectively. In
1906-1956, the program of teacher preparation was called teacher training. It perceived teachers
as mechanics or technicians. It had narrower goals with its focus being only on skill training. The
perspective of teacher training was therefore very narrow and its scope was limited. As
Kilpatrick (2014) put it, —Training is given to animals and circus performers, while education is
to human beings.
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Teacher education refers to professional education of teachers towards attainment of
attitudes, skills and knowledge considered desirable so as to make them efficient and effective
in their work in accordance with the need of a society at any point in time. It includes
training/education occurring before Commencement of service (pre-service) and
education/training during service (in-service or on-the-job). As a matter of fact, teacher
education should constitute a conspicuous element in the totality of organized education, both
formal and non-formal sub-systems. As the title indicates, our concern is with teacher education
in Nigeria as compared to that of India. Nigeria country that has since 1977 avowed to adopt
lifelong education in her education principle and practice however, India has engaged in that far
before Nigeria.
The design for this paper is historical analysis so as to have a peep into the teacher education
policy and practice of both countries concerned. Thus, researchers have to; firstly, have a review
of teacher education in these countries. Secondly, analyze the concept '. Thirdly, weigh the
policy and practice in education and also compared. Finally, suggestions towards improving
teacher education were made.
It is well known fact that the quality and extent of learner achievement are determined
primarily by teacher competence, sensitivity and teacher motivation. Teacher education is a
programme that is related to the development of teacher proficiency and competence that would
enable and empower the teacher to meet the requirements of the profession and face the
challenges therein. Teacher education encompasses teaching skills, sound pedagogical theory
and professional skills.
Teacher Education = Teaching Skills + Pedagogical theory + Professional skills.
Teaching skills would include providing training and practice in different techniques,
approaches and strategies that would help the teachers to plan and impart instruction, provide
appropriate reinforcement and conduct effective assessment. It includes effective classroom
management skills, preparation and use of instructional materials as well as communication
skills (Isyaku, 2002)
Pedagogical theory includes the philosophical, sociological and psychological
considerations that would enable the teachers to have a sound basis for practicing the teaching
skills in the classroom. The theory is stage specific and is based on the needs and requirements
that are characteristic of that stage (Isyaku, 2002). Professional skills include the techniques,
strategies and approaches that would help teachers to grow in the profession and also work
towards the growth of the profession. It includes soft skills, counseling skills, interpersonal
skills, computer skills, information retrieving and management skills and above all lifelong
learning skills (Isyaku, 2002). These are not only applicable to Nigeria and India, but they are
universal (Isyaku, 2002).
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Policy and Procedure for Teacher Education in Nigeria
In the Teacher Education Sector, the purpose is stated to include production of highly
motivated, meticulous and efficient classroom teachers for all levels of education system;
production of teachers with intellectual and professional background adequate for their
assignment; and, to enhance teachers' commitment to the teaching profession. As a matter of
fact, the essence of teacher education should be production of intellectually grounded and
professionally committed teachers. It is very relevant that the policy realizes that no
education system can rise above the quality of its teachers (NPE, 2004:64). However, the
Policy contains the phrase 'teacher training'. It should be realized that 'training' means
acquisition of narrow mechanical skills.
The concept 'teacher education' should be preferred because it reflects production of
educators who are academically and professionally well-groomed to be able to translate
theory of teaching into practice and vise-versa. Hence it is also stated in the policy that the
curriculum is structured on the components of General Studies (basic academic subjects);
Foundation Studies (Principles and Practice of Education); studies related to the student
teachers' subject of specialization or teaching subject and Teaching Practice. Other relevant
declarations include free in-service courses for up-grading untrained teachers which the NTI,
Kaduna will have overall responsibility for; and that in-service training to be developed as an
integral part of continuing teacher education. National Certificate of Education (NCE) which
is awarded after a 3-year college of education course has been declared to be the minimum
qualification for teaching in the primary schools (NPE, 2014).Consequently, many Colleges
of Education offer in-service courses towards up-grading grade II teachers to NCE for the
primary schools.
These courses are differently tagged sandwich or part-time programmes. The NTI
(National Teachers Institute) has been alive to its responsibility over part-time or sandwich
programmes. Its distance education programmes make use of the print (written text) and the
electronic media (radio, television and video tapes) towards successful offering of in-service
teacher education in the country (Aghenta, 1992:191). However, there is uncertainty over the
up-and-coming use of the microelectronic media in the face of perpetual power failure in the
country.
Teacher education, both pre-and in-service programmes are being offered in the
Universities, Colleges of Education and Polytechnics with different tags, such as, distance
education, sandwich and part-time. Even the interest of the country over knowledge and
skills of teachers could be seen through the Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria (1993),
duty of which includes:
Determining what standards of knowledge and skill are to be attained by persons
seeking to become registered as teachers... and raising those standards from time to time as
circumstances may permit: classifying from time to time members of the teaching profession
according to their level of training and qualification.
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Teacher Education: The Indian Perspective
The well-established tradition of teaching and learning in India has reserved its
inherent strength even under adverse circumstances. The post-independence period was
characterized by major efforts being made to nurture and transform teacher education. The
system of teacher preparation has come under considerable pressure as a result of the
expansion and growth of school education, through efforts to universalize elementary
education. Having inherited a foreign model of teacher preparation at the time of
independence from Britain in 1946, major efforts have been made to adapt and up-date the
teacher education curriculum to local needs, to make it more context based, responsive and
dynamic with regard to best meeting the particular needs of India. The current Indian system
of teacher education is supported by a network of national, provincial and district level
resource institutions working together to enhance the quality and effectiveness of teacher
preparation programs at the pre-service level and also through in-service programs for
serving teachers throughout the country (Gupta, 1999)
Policy and Procedure for Teacher Education in IndiaIndia has one of the largest systems
of teacher education in the world. Besides the university departments of education and their
affiliated colleges, government and government aided institutions; private and self-fmancing
colleges and open universities are also engaged in teacher education. Though most teacher
education programs are nearly identical yet their standard varies across institutions and
universities. Education of teachers not only facilitates improvement of school education by
preparing proficient, committed and professionally well qualified teachers who can meet the
demand of the system, but also functions as a bridge between schooling and higher
education. In certain areas, the supply of teachers far exceeds the demand while in others
there are acute shortages of qualified teachers which results in the appointment of under-
qualified and unqualified persons. The role of teacher education as a process of nation
building is universally recognized. "Education has continued to grow, diversify and extend
its coverage since the start of history. Every country develops its system of education to
express and promote its unique socio-cultural identity and also to meet the challenges of
time". These words give direction to Indian Education. The policy further emphasizes that
"the Government of India will also review, every five years; the progress made and
recommend guidelines for further development". In the light of the aforesaid statements, the
National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE), a statutory body, established by the
Government of India for the maintenance of standards and improvement of the quality of
teacher education in the country. During these years, large scale and far reaching
developments as well as changes have taken place on the national scenes in social, economic,
cultural, scientific and technological spheres as well as in information and communication
technologies. These developments have affected education, including teacher education call
for review and reform of Indian teacher education.
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The acquisition of teacher education qualification in India has to do with one year B.Ed,
training after B.Sc. or its equivalent and two year for the intermediates. Graduates from these
one or two year program are considered qualified to teach in high and higher secondary
schools in India. The National council for teacher education (NCTE) is vested with
responsibility of check and balances as well as quality maintenance of all teacher education
programs in the country. In other word, a four year training course after senior secondary.
For elementary teachers it is desirable to have a two year training course after Class XII. The
integrated four year curriculum for a degree in education should consist of general education
and professional preparation. Training curriculum for elementary teachers should emphasize
on mastering of language and communication skills. The teacher educators in colleges of
education should be drawn from disciplines of various school subjects and educational
disciplines like psychology, sociology, philosophy etc. The minimum qualification for a
teacher educator should be post-graduate degree in the subject and a B.Ed., preferably
aM.Ed, degree. The minimum qualification for a teacher educator for the elementary training
institutes should be a post graduate degree with B.Ed, training.
Policy and Program-Wise Comparison of Teacher Education in Nigeria and India
S/NO NIGERIA INDIA
1 Knowledge of Subject or Knowledge of subject or discipline is separated
Discipline is integrated with from professionalism in teaching i.e. one year
Methodology i e. studied at after three or four years of graduation
once, usually four years after
Secondary School in most
Nigerian Universities
2 Accreditation of Teacher National council for teacher Education (NCTE)
Education programs in joins hands with National Assessment and
Universities is the responsibility Accreditation council (NAAC) as well as
of National Universities National Council for educational Research and
commission(NUC) and in training (NCERT) to enhance quality of teacher
Colleges of Education , it is education program.
monitored by National Council
for Colleges of
Education(NCCE)
3 Not much attention is paid in Yashpal committee of 1993 provides
specialization on primary, recommendation for such specialization:
secondary or nursery Education primary education
for teacher trainees.
4 The 9, 3, 4 system most likely 10 +2+3 system must need additional one year
provide basic minimum for professionalism as minimum qualification
qualification for teaching. for teaching.
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5 Certification by Universities Pre -recruitment tests called eligibility tests in
and Colleges of Educations National and state level determines ones
qualifies one as ready-made and eligibility as teacher.
eligible teacher.
6 Practice - model is employed in Internship-model is employed in teaching
teaching practice for student practice of student teachers
teachers.
Challenges of Teacher Education in Nigeria
There are so many problems persisting in connection to teacher education in Nigeria, according to
Ibidafo,O. (2007), the prevailing problems include the following:
Falling Standard and Poor Quality of Output
There has been so much concern in recent times about the standard of education in Nigeria.
Concerns have also been expressed about the quality of the graduates produced by the universities.
While there is no doubt that there are some problems at the tertiary (university) level, a belief that we
also strongly subscribe to is that input determines output. It has been noted that there has been a
decline in the quality of candidates admitted into the universities as a result of the combination of
poor quality output from the secondary level (also believed to be inherited from the primary level)
and problems of examination malpractice which make it possible for undeserving candidates to score
high marks to secure admission into the universities. Many of the undeserving Candidates are not
adequately prepared for university education and are not quite amenable to learning.
Teacher's Inadequacy
Available statistics indicate the gross inadequacy of teachers in the Nigerian educational
system. For instance, contrary to the recommended Teacher: Student Ratio (TSR) of about 1:28 at the
primary school level, recent statistics shows higher ratio of about l:35(Federal Office ofStatistics,
2001:228). However, the Teacher: Students Ratio (TSR) is much better at the secondary school level
with an average of about 1:28. There is an also severe shortfall in the Teacher: Students Ratio (TSR)
at the tertiary level. The approved National Universities Commission Teacher Student Ratio is 1:20
for courses with Arts and Social Sciences origin, but unfortunately, as obtained from collected
statistical data of Federal office of statistics (2001), the ratio was 1:30.. However, not only is the
number of teachers inadequate to meet the needs of the educational system, the number of teachers
also seems to be decreasing. For instance, the total number of teachers at the primary school level
decreased from 435,210 in 1994 to 418,715 in 1998, with a teacher-pupil ratio of 1:38 in 1998 (FOS,
2001:228). This point at the problem of attracting suitable people into the teaching profession and
retaining quality teachers.
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Deficiency in Teacher Quality
There is also serious deficiency in teacher quality in terms of the ideal minimum qualification for
teaching at various levels. For instance, the National Economic Empowerment and Development
Strategy (NEEDS) document noted that about half (49%) of the teaching force in Nigeria is
unqualified (NEEDS, 2004:34).
Challenges of Teacher Education in India
Every country of the world has its peculiar problem connected to teacher education, though; the
government in India is trying its possible best to solve the existing problems, however, despite the
efforts being made, many problems persists. According to Ashok (2012), the following are some of
the problems bedeviling teacher Education in India.
Deficiencies of Small Time Period Provided for Teacher's Training
In India, this period is of one year after the graduation-the effective session being of eight to nine
months. The main purpose of teacher education programme is to develop healthy attitude, broad
based interest and values. It is not possible during the short duration of nine months.
Incompetency of Students and Teachers
The existing training programme does not provide adequate opportunities to the student teachers to
develop competency. There should be a close matching between the work schedule of the teacher in a
school and the programme adopted for teacher preparation in a training college.
Defects Concerning Papers
A student teacher should know the meaning of education, its objectives, the socio-cultural and
politico-economics background, the principles that guide construction of curriculum etc, preparation
and orientation is needed towards a good. Orientation is impossible in a short duration. Following
steps may be taken in this connection:
(i) allowing more time to learners for good reading and sound build-up of the intellect and attitude,
(ii) pruning the existing course (iii) arranging for exchange of experience than merely attending
lectures,(iv) changing the mode of testing inputs (v) the content must have direct implications in the
daily school teaching.
Problems of Practice Teaching
Inspire of all kinds of elaborate arrangements regarding practice in teaching, student teachers are non-
serious to the task of teaching, deficient in sense of duty irresponsible, aimless, indifferent to children,
lacking innovative measure in teaching which are great obstacles in the development of pedagogical
skills.
Problem of Supervision of Teaching
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The supervisory organizations for practice teaching aims at bringing improvement in the instructional
activity of the student teachers by using various techniques and practical skills in teaching and help
them to develop confidence in facing the classroom situations. This is done through following types
of supervisions:
Supervision before Classroom Teaching:
It aims at guiding in planning their lessons, learning to organize contents, formulating
suitable gestures and developing other related skills. At present the lesson plans are checked
superficially and no discussion is made by the subject method specialist.
Lack of Subject Knowledge
The B.Ed, programme does not emphasize the knowledge of the basic subject. The
whole teaching practice remains indifferent with regard to the subject knowledge of the
student teacher.
Faulty Methods of Teaching
In India teacher educators are averse to innovation and experimentation in the use of
methods of teaching. Their acquaintance with modern class-room communication devices is
negligible.
Isolation of Teacher's Education Department
As has been observed by education commission, the teacher education has become
isolated from schools and current development in school education. The schools consider the
teacher education department as an alien institution and not a nursery for the professional
development of school teacher. These departments only observe the formality of finishing the
prescribed number of lessons no caring for the sounders of pedagogy involved in the
procedure.
Lack of Regulations in Demand and Supply
The State Education Department has no data on the basis of which they may work out the
desired intake for their institutions. There is a considerable lag between the demand and
supply of teachers. This has created the problems of unemployment and underemployment.
Inadequate Empirical Research
In India, research in education has been considerably neglected. The research conducted is of
inferior quality. The teacher education programmes are not properly studied before
undertaking any research.
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Lack of Facilities for Professional Development
Most of the programmes are being conducted in a routine and unimaginative manner. Even
the association of teacher educators has not contributed anything towards development of a
sound professionalization of teacher education in the country
Cross-Border Solutions to Teacher Education Problems with Reference to Nigeria and
India
In general, the problems of teacher education in Nigeria and India are to some extent
having certain degrees of similarities. This is because its nature has to do with partial system
failure, for this, many parameters need to be considered in order to restore total sanity. Some
of these solutions include the following:
Library Development
The Universities should places high priority on the library as the base for academic
excellence and thus invests substantial internally generated funds in library development. The
Universities also has to provide well-equipped and stocked dedicated library (Education
Library) to cater to the needs of staff and students in the Faculties and colleges of Education.
In order to further increase access to the libraries, 24-hour access to the Library for staff and
students, seven days a week especially during examination period Isyaku, (2002) Gupta,
(1999)
Linkages
Moreover, useful linkages have to be established by the Faculties of Education with
some top- ranking international foreign Universities, especially for staff exchange in order to
ensure the conformity with international standards and development through:
a. Developing teacher education Information Base in Public Domain,
b. Creating additional support systems in the field of teacher education.
c. Strengthening academic capacity.
d. Professional development of teacher through training programs.
e. Professional development of teacher educators through Refresher Courses and
fellowship programs.
f. Support to NGOs.
g. Technology in teacher education.
h. Integrating elementary teacher education with higher education.
i. Strategizing Teaching internship or practice to help student teachers in acquisition of
experience.
j. Provision of incentives to both teachers and students that shows interest in teaching
Conclusions
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Teaching is a greatly professional activity which demands specialized knowledge,
skill and behaviours. Teacher professionalism comprises proficiency, performance and
behaviours which reflect on teacher's personality in school and society. Professional
competence is essential in teaching profession which comprises preparation of teacher for
classroom processes, acquisition of knowledge of subject and smooths personality
development of children. Competencies of an effective teacher include interpersonal
communication, pedagogical empowerment and organizational leadership. Professional
competence results in performance of teacher in terms of overall development of children.
The competent teacher is thought to perform better in the interest of the children and society
as well. It has been rightly remarked, "If you educate a boy, you educate one individual but if
you educate a girl, you educate the whole family and if you educate a teacher, you educate
the whole family and if you educate a teacher, you educate the whole community". Teacher
education is not teaching the teachers how to teach. It is to. Kindle his initiative, to keep it
alive, to minimize the menace of missing the targeted objectives in the process and to save
time, energy, money and trouble of the teacher and taught. Teacher education is needed for
developing a purpose and for formation of a positive attitude for the profession. The success
of the educational process depends to a rigid extent on the characteristics and ability of the
teacher who is the corner stone of the arch of education. The development of teacher
education was observed in terms of quantitative and qualitative aspects. All the above
described commissions and report emphasis on the quality of teachers in general and teacher
educator in specific. At present teachers are not the mere transmitters of information but
facilitators in the pathway of students urge for more knowledge.
General Recommendations
Teacher Education is an indispensable aspect of general education, this is because of
the fact that, anything learned need to be taught and also the quality of learning determines
the quality of teaching and vice versa. In addition to this, teacher education is a system in
which one variable or factor does not depends alone but rather depends on the other, based
on this nature of education a problem in it exhibit a vicious cycle nature syndrome. Measures
can be employed to support and make qualitative teacher education in Nigeria and also they
can produce positive result elsewhere in the world like India.
Funding
The issue of inadequate funding in Nigeria's educational system which has nearly
ground the entire education system could be tackle if the government at various levels
intensifies effort to provide funds and finance the sector adequately. Adequate funding will
no doubt improve the entire system not only in Nigeria but also in India.
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Facilities
To improve the quality of teacher education in both Nigeria and India to attain desired
level of development, teacher training institution should be provided with adequate facilities,
example: well ventilated classrooms, laboratories for carrying out scientific experiments.
Staffing
The academic staffs of teacher education institution play a vital role in terms of
quality and quantity of teachers produced. It is expected that, he who is to teach or lecture at
the teacher education institution must be professionally qualified and of high moral integrity.
This is because teachers are seen as role models, on no account must teacher educator be not
professionally qualified since no nation can rise above the quality of its teachers. Teacher
educator must have a sense of belonging, loyal and dedicated and of course must have a
vision and mission for the institution.
Professionalism
Emphasis should be made on the issue of teacher's professionalization in both Nigeria
and India, the well-defined processes and procedures and requirements such as sound
training and license to be practicing as professionals. The regulation bodies NCCE and
TRCN (in case of Nigeria), NAAC, NCTE and NCERT (in case of India) should make it
compulsory for all in the teaching jobs, at all levels to acquire teaching qualification and
license. Also, more time should be provided for practical as recommended or internship
model approach of teacher training to be put in place.
Teacher's motivation
Government of both Nigeria and India should consider motivation for teachers as a
means of improving the quality of output as well as productivity, welfare of teachers does not
means only increase in salary but also entails regular payment and improved conditions of
service at all levels. Capacity building, promotion and upgrading can also significantly
contribute to restore sanity to the system.
Other essential measures that can also help include the following:
1.Provision of rich and resourceful libraries with uninterrupted access to
internet for the teachers as well as students.
2.Inculcating in the student and teachers the interest of conducting
qualitative researches that can provide bases for solution to problems
connected to teacher education.
3.Making flexible the general system of teacher education so as to
accommodate recent changes in the world especially with respect to
information and communication technology.
4.Providing an avenue of linkages directly and indirectly among
institutions of teacher education throughout the world in order to help
exchange of skills, manpower and experiences.
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5.Providing and maintaining qualitative teaching and learning materials
that will satisfy the educational needs of every country.
6.Formulating national policies that will bridge the educational gap
across gender, economic status, family caste etc. in order to maximize
full utilization of human resources.
References
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Isyaku, K. (2002). The curriculum of Teacher Education in Nigeria: issues of Relevance and
Quality in Teacher Education in Nigeria: Past, Present and Future. Proceedings of the
first Teachers Summit, Kaduna: NTI
Jegede, O. J. (2002). A celebration of teacher education and open and distance learning
(ODL) in Nigeria: Attainments, Challenges & Strategies in Teaching Education in
Nigeria: Past, Present and Future. Proceedings of the first Teachers Summit, Kaduna:
NTI
National Planning Commission, (2004): National Economic Empowerment and Development
Strategy (NEEDS), Abuja: National Planning Commission.
Usha, M. D. (2010). Challenges before Indian Government (Convocation Address).
Vashist, S.R. (2003). Professional Education of Teachers. Jaipur: Mangal Deep.
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Influence of Human Resource Management Practices on Productivity of
Civil Servants in Rivers State
Thomas Bariere & Effiong E. Asuquo (Ph.D)
Department of Vocational Education
University of Uyo, Uyo
Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
Abstract
The study determined the extent to which human resource management practices influence
the productivity of civil servants in Rivers State. Three research questions were answered
and three null hypotheses were tested at .05 level of significance. The population of the study
comprised 371 male and female civil servants. A sample of 104 civil servants obtained
through cluster sampling technique was used for the study. A 50-item structured instrument
named “influence of Human Resource Management Practices on Productivity of Civil
Servants Questionnaire”(IHRMPPCSQ) designed by the researchers was used for data
collection. The questionnaire was face-validated by three experts in Faculty of Education,
University of Uyo. Cronbach Alpha Technique was used to determine the reliability of the
instrument and a coefficient index of 0.70 was obtained. Mean was used to answer the
research questions and t-test was used to test null hypothesis 1, while ANOVA was used to
test null hypotheses 2 and 3. The findings of the study revealed that the three variables have
great influence on the productivity of civil servants. Similarly, the findings also showed that
there is no significant difference in the mean responses of civil servants on the extent to
which these human resource management variables influence the productivity of civil
servants in Rivers State. The study therefore recommended among others that Rivers State
Government should make provision for regular and qualitative development exercise to
update the knowledge and skills of civil servants for optimum productivity.
Key words: Human Resource, Management Practices, Productivity, Civil Servant
Introduction
The concept of human resource management as a management task is not new.
Evidence abound regarding scholarly efforts expended from time immemorial till present day
in man’s attempt to proffer lasting solutions to the problems that repeatedly confront
managers in terms of how to effectively and efficiently utilize the human element in an
organization for group goal accomplishment. The need to gain control over greater share of
the market in the face of stiff competition has compelled organizational managers to result to
different methods of managing the human element, and like never before, human resource
management has apparently become the most discussed of all managerial tasks. This
development may not be unconnected to the modern line of thinking which recognizes,
emphasizes and holds the human element as central to organizational success. Guest (2002)
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defined human resource management as a set of policies designed to maximize
organizational integration, employee commitment, flexibility and quality of work.
Effective discharge of human resource management responsibilities leads to the
actualization of human resource management goals. The practice of human resource
management therefore involves the manipulation of several variables such as human resource
development, workplace discipline, employee welfare, regular promotion and job security,
for the actualization of increased human resource productivity.
The desired human resource management practice is that which guarantees staff
development. This according to Okereke (2010) is organized learning activities arranged
within an organization in order to improve performance and/or personal growth for the
purpose of improving the job, the individual or the organization. Staff development is about
the most important variable that promotes employee competence and effective job
performance. The importance of staff development has long been observed by Becker (2002)
who observed that investment to gain skills and knowledge through training programmes is
more important than any concern on the physical capital investment. Ivancevich (2008) also
identified training and development as one important human resource management variable
that leads to workforce efficiency and increased productivity.
Employee welfare influences the productivity of workers in an organization.
Employee or worker’s welfare is a term including various services, benefits and facilities
offered to employees. The welfare measures need not be monetary but in any kind or forms.
Components of employee welfare include allowance, transportation, housing, medical,
insurance, monitoring of working conditions, creation of industrial harmony through
infrastructure for health, and insurance against disaster and accident for workers and their
families. Mamoria and Rao (2014) opined that the initial effort and investment required to
institute sound employee welfare programmes may prove to be quite heavy but the long run
reward are quite fruitful as improvements in employee welfare result in better work attitude,
higher morale, job satisfaction, reduced absenteeism and turnover.
Regular promotion as a human resource management variable also affects employee
productivity. Promotion according to Lazear (2000), involves the movement of an employer
upward in the hierarchy of the organization, typically that leads to enhancement of
responsibility and rank and an improved compensation or package. Promotion motivates
workers to perform optimally within the organization.
Productivity as both a managerial and organizational concept presupposes the ability
of an organization to actualize set goals. The application of cost reduction techniques,
technology in use and managerial expertise in the recruitment, selection and placement of
human resource are core determinants of optimum productivity. Lazear (2000) opined that
effective human resource management affords an organization the right to getting the right
people with the right skills, in the right jobs and at the right time.
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Civil servants are employees of government charged with the responsibilities of
delivering services to members of the public. It would be worthwhile to note that government
is the machinery by which a state or country is governed. Civil servants, therefore, serve as
windows and vehicles through which key government services are delivered to the people.
Successive governments both within and outside Nigeria have had to establish
different/specific agencies for different/specific purposes, pursuance to their public
administration objective. These agencies are usually referred to as Public Parastatals. The
focus of this study, therefore, is on selected public Parastatals whose existence is being
threatened by human resource management challenges in Rivers State.
Civil servants in most Public Parastatals in Rivers State are currently experiencing the
most difficult times in the history of their career, due to the numerous human resource related
challenges that they are facing. These challenges include delayed staff promotion, mass
retrenchment of workers, non-payment of staff salaries and other benefits on time, incessant
strikes, low productivity and declining income amongst others. There is equally the challenge
of how to efficiently combine, deploy, mobilize and utilize the available staff for optimum
productivity considering that the recent restructuring and job-rotation policy initiated by the
management of most Public Parastatals in Rivers State has become counter-productive.
The outstanding problem of this study includes the need to critically examine the
extent to which the identified human resource management variables influence the
productivity of civil servants in the Parastatals being studied. Absence of sufficient empirical
evidence to support, refute or review existing view-points regarding appropriate human
resource management practices to adopt in resolving the present challenges threatening the
survival of public Parastatals in Rivers State equally form part of the problem that this study
sought to provide solution. Besides, much research attention has not been given to human
resource management practices as it affects workforce productivity in Rivers State Public
Parastatals. It is against this background that the researcher carried out this study to
determine the extent of influence of human resource management practices on productivity
of civil servants in Rivers State.
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study was to determine the extent of influence of human
resource management practices on productivity of civil servants in Rivers State. Specifically
the study sought to:
1. determine the extent of influence of staff development on the productivity of civil
servants in Rivers State;
2. determine the extent of influence of regular promotion on the productivity of civil
servants in Rivers State;
3. determine the extent of influence of staff welfare on the productivity of civil servants
in Rivers State;
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Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study
1. To what extent does staff development influence the productivity of civil servants in
Rivers States?
2. To what extent does regular promotion influence the productivity of civil servants in
Rivers State?
3. To what extent does staff welfare influence the productivity of civil servants in Rivers
State?
Null Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.
Ho1 There is no significant difference in the mean responses of male and female civil
servants on the extent of influence of staff development on their productivity in
Rivers State.
Ho2 There is no significant difference in the mean responses of civil servants on the extent
of influence of regular promotion on their productivity in Rivers State based on age.
Ho3 There is no significant difference in the mean responses of civil servant on the extent
of influence of staff welfare on their productivity in Rivers State based on marital
status.
Methodology
The descriptive survey research design was employed for this study. The study was
carried out in Rivers State. The population of the study comprised all 371 male and female
civil servants on salary grade level 04-12. These civil servants are basically junior and
middle level workers directly involved in the discharge of the daily activities of the
Parastatals. The sample of the study comprised 104 male and female of the civil servants.
The sample was statistically determined using Taro Yamane’s formula for a finite
population. Cluster sampling technique was used to ascertain the actual number of civil
servants (respondents) drawn from each Parastatal. The cap and ball technique was used to
draw the sample from the population. An instrument tagged “Influence of Human Resource
Management Practices on Productivity of Civil Servants Questionnaire” (IHRMPPCSQ)
developed by the researchers was used to obtain data for the study. The instrument was
divided into two parts, I and II. Part I focused on obtaining data that concern personal
information of the respondents while part II was presented in 5 clusters based on the
variables of the study. The instrument was constructed on a 4-point rating scale of Very
Great Extent (VGE) – 4 points, Great Extent (GE) – 3 points, Little Extent (LE) – 2 points
and Very Little Extent (VLE) – 1 point.Three research experts who are Lecturers in the
Faculty of Education, University of Uyo, ascertained the face-validity of the instrument. The
internal consistency of the instrument was determined using Cronbach’s alpha reliability
technique. In this method, the trial-test was carried out using 30 civil servants from Port
Harcourt City Local Government Council who were not part of the actual study. This yielded
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a reliability coefficient of 0.70. The questionnaire was administered on the respondents by
the researchers together with two research assistants. Mean score and standard deviation
were used to answer the research questions. The t-test statistic was used to test null
hypothesis 1 based on gender (male and female), while null hypotheses 2and 3 were tested
using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) based on age (20–30 years; 31–40 years; 41 years and
above), marital status (single, married, divorced and widowed).respectively at .05 level of
significance.
Result
Research Question 1
Table 1: Mean responses of respondents on the extent of influence of staff development on
the productivity of civil servants in Rivers State. (n=94)
S/N Staff Development Practices X SD Decision
1. Orientation courses leads to employee Productivity
2. Study leave with pay enhances workers productivity 3.17 0.93 GE
3. Study leave without pay aids productivity
4. Sponsorship for workshops enable employees to be 3.89 0.32 VGE
productive 2.07 0.67 LE
5. Sponsorship for conferences enhances productivity
6. On-the-job train1236553 2.96 0.47 LE
ing leads employee productivity 2.95 0.65 GE
7. In service training leads to employee productivity
8. Apprenticeship promotes workers productivity 3.96 0.28 VGE
9. Induction programmes lead to employee productivity
10. Mentoring enhances employees’ productivity 3.68 0.61 VGE
3.26 0.82 GE
Cluster Mean 3.17 0.43 GE
Source: Field Survey, 2017 3.68 0.35 VGE
3.28
The result presented in Table 1 reveals that the staff development influence on
productivity of civil servants has the cluster mean of 3.28. This indicates that staff
development has a great influence on the productivity of civil servants in Rivers State.
Notably, the item on on-the-job training leads to productivity has the highest mean ( x =3.96);
this is closely followed by the item on study leave with pay enhanced workers’ productivity.
On the other hand, item on study leave without pay aids productivity has Little Extent of
influence on productivity of civil servants in Rivers State with a mean of 2.07. The Table
also shows that the standard deviation of the items fall within the range of 0.32 – 0.93. This
indicates that respondents were not too far apart in their opinions.
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Research Question 2
Table 2: Mean responses of respondents on the extent of influence of regular promotion on the
productivity of civil servant in Rivers State. (n=94)
S/N Regular Promotion Practices X SD Decision
1. Upward shift of rank without increasing pay (Dry 2.19 0.27 LE
3.68 0.39 VGE
promotion) enhances workers productivity 3.96 0.34 VGE
2. Upward shift of rank with increased pay leads to employee 2.28 0.63 LE
2.04 0.41 LE
productivity
3. Promotion based on merit promotes workforce productivity
4. Promotion based on seniority enable workers to be more
productive
5. Transfer from one department to another aids employee
productivity
6. Transfer or charge of employee duty within the same 2.28 0.41 LE
department enable workers to be productive LE
VGE
7. Promotion based on management discretion leads to 1.83 0.53 LE
increased productivity VGE
8. Posting of employees to jobs matching their abilities 3.74 0.81
enhances active participation and increased productivity
9. Enlargement of a workers responsibility increases his or her 2.41 0.75
productivity
10. Combining ability and seniority as a basis of promotion 3.85 0.66
leads to employee productivity
Cluster Mean 2.83
Source: Field Survey, 2017
The result presented in Table 2 reveals that the influence of regular promotion on
productivity has a cluster mean of 2.83. This shows that regular promotion has a great
influence on the productivity of civil servants in Rivers State. Worthy of note, is the item on
promotion based on merit promotes workforce productivity with the highest mean of 3.96.
This is followed by the item on combining ability and seniority as a basis of promotion leads
to employees’ productivity with a mean of 3.85. However, the item on promotion based on
management discretion leads to increase productivity has the lowest mean of 1.83. The Table
also shows that the standard deviation of the items fall within the range of 0.27 – 0.81. This
indicates that respondents were not too far apart in their opinions.
Research Question 3
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Table 3: Mean responses of respondents on the extent of influence of staff welfare on the productivity of civil
servants in Rivers State. (n=94)
S/N Staff Welfare Practices X SD Decision
VGE
1. Free health care for employees and members of their family VGE
VGE
motivate workers to be productive. 3.96 0.34
VGE
2. Safe working environment and insurance against workplace
LE
hazards enhances workers productivity. 3.89 0.42 GE
VGE
3. Prompt payment of first 28 days of accommodation for workers VGE
VGE
transferred from one station to another promote employee GE
productivity 3.96 0.34
4. Access to soft loans and salary advances leads to employee
productivity
3.74 0.94
5. Provision of recreational facilities promotes employee productivity
2.17 0.57
6. Provision of free transport facilities or payment of transport
allowances increases employee productivity 2.64 0.28
7. Provision of staff accommodation enhances employee productivity
3.79 0.62
8. Good pay package positively influence employee productivity
3.89 0.41
9. Unhealthy work environment negatively affect employee
productivity 3.83 0.71
10. Moderate office ventilation encourages employee productivity
3.36 0.35
Cluster Mean 3.52
Source:Field Survey, 2017
The result presented in Table 3 reveals that the influence of staff welfare on
productivity has a cluster mean of 3.52. This indicates that staff welfare has a very great
influence on civil servants productivity in Rivers State. All the items except the one on
provision of recreational facilities promotes employees’ productivity have their mean above
the cutoff point of 2.50. More importantly, items on free health care for employees and
members of their family motivated workers to be productive and safe working environment
and insurance against workplace hazards enhance workers’ productivity have the highest
mean of 3.96. This is followed by the item on good pay package positively influence
employees’ productivity with a mean of 3.89. However, the item on provision of recreational
facilities promotes employees’ productivity with a mean of 2.17 is the lowest. The Table also
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shows that the standard deviation of the items fall within the range of 0.28 – 0.94. This
indicates that respondents were not divergent in their responses.
Null Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were tested in the study:
Null Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference in the mean responses of civil servants
on the extent of influence of staff development on their productivity in Rivers State.
Table 6: t-test analysis of significant difference in the mean responses of civil servants on the
extent of influence of staff development on their productivity in Rivers State based
on sex.
S/N Items Male(1) Female(2) t-cal t-tab Decision
X SD X SD .025 2.00 NS
1. Orientation courses leads 3.29 .980 2.96 .789 1.01 2.00 NS
to employee Productivity 3.85 .666
3.96 .341 NS
2. Study leave with pay 2.04 0.62 NS
enhances workers 3.00 0.51 2.13 0.596 .691 2.00
productivity 2.93 0.496 .593 2.00 NS
3.10 .506
3. Study leave without pay 2.91 0.534 .821 2.00 NS
aids productivity 3.97 .270 NS
3.69 .603 3.94 0.290 .622 2.00 NS
4. Sponsorship for 3.30 .730 3.67 0.629 .681 2.00 NS
workshops enable 3.18 .810 3.24 0.810 .1.010 2.00
employees to be 3.15 .828 .912 2.00 NS
productive 3.70 .721
3.66 .811 .1.240 2.00
5. Sponsorship for
conferences enhances
productivity
6. On-the-job training leads
employee productivity
7. In service training leads
to employee productivity
8. Apprenticeship promotes
workers’ productivity
9. Induction programmes
lead to employee
productivity
10. Mentoring enhances
employees to be
productivity
Source: Field Survey, 2017
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The result in Table 6 shows the t-values of the t-test analysis comparing the mean
Reponses of civil servants in Rivers State on the influence of staff development on
productivity based on sex. This result reveals that there is no significant difference in the
mean responses of civil servants on the extent of influence of staff development on their
productivity in Rivers State based on sex for all the items. With this result, the null
hypothesis for all the items is retained.
Null Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the mean responses of civil servants
on the extent of influence of regular promotion on their productivity in Rivers State based on
age.
Table 7: One-way analysis of variance of the difference in the mean responses of civil
servants on the extent of influence of Regular Promotion on their productivity in
Rivers State based on age
S/N Item Source of Sum of Df Mean F-cal F-tab Decisio
Square Square .509 n
Variation .471 2 .236 .245
64.830 91 .7124 1.061 3.07 NS
1. Upward shift of rank Between 65.301 93 .121
.258 .032 3.07 NS
without increasing pay (Dry Groups 1.6179 1.092
.717 3.07 NS
promotion) enhances Within Groups .592 1.284
.8578 3.07 NS
workers productivity Total
.043 3.07 NS
2. Upward shift of rank with Between .516 2 .5443
147.232 91 3.07 NS
increased pay leads to Groups 147.748 93 .019
.9224 3.07 NS
employee productivity Within Groups
.504 3.07 NS
Total .7092 Page 85
3. Promotion based on merit Between 1.184 2 .261
78.061 91 .5597
promotes workforce Groups 79.245 93
.592
productivity Within Groups .7093
Total
4. Promotion based on Between .086 2
49.53 91
seniority enable workers to Groups 49.608 93
be more productive Within Groups
Total
5. Transfer from one Between .038 2
83.934 91
department to another aids Groups 83.972 93
employee productivity Within Groups
Total
6. Transfer or charge of Between 1.007 2
64.545 91
employee duty within the Groups 65.552 93
same department enable Within Groups
workers to be productive Total
7. Promotion based on Between .522 2
50.933 91
management discretion Groups 51.455 93
leads to increased Within Groups
productivity Total
8. Posting of employees to jobs Between 1.184 2
64.551 91
matching their abilities Groups
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enhances active Within Groups 65.734 93 .045 3.07 NS
participation and increased Total .509 3.07 NS
productivity .027 2 0.13
9. Enlargement of a workers Between 42.043 91 .4620
responsibility increases his Groups 42.070 93
or her productivity Within Groups
Total .471 2 .236
10. Combining ability and Between 64.830 91 .7124
seniority as a basis of Groups 65.301 93
promotion leads to Within Groups
employee productivity Total
Source:Field Survey, 2017
The result in Table 7 shows the one-way analysis of variance of the difference in the
responses of civil servants on the extent of influence of regular promotion on their
productivity. The calculated F-values range of .045-1.284 is less than the Table value of 3.07
at .05 level of significance with the degree of freedom of 2 and 91 respectively. With this
result, the null hypothesis for all the items is retained. This means that there is no significant
difference in the responses of civil servants on the extent of influence of regular promotion
on their productivity in Rivers State based on age.
Null Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the mean response of civil servants
on the extent of influence of regular promotion on the productivity in Rivers State based on
marital status.
Table 8: One-way analysis of the difference in the mean responses of civil servants on the
extent of influence of staff welfare on their productivity in Rivers State based on
marital status
S/ Item Source of Sum of df Mean F- F-tab Decision
N Variation
Square Square cal
1. Free health care for Between .033 2 .016 .054 3.07 NS
employees and members of Groups 42.247 91 .4642
their family motivate 42.280 93
workers to be productive. Within
Groups
Total
2. Safe working environment Between .205 2 .103 .099 3.07 NS
144.620 91 1.5892
and insurance against Groups 144.825 93
workplace hazards enhances
workers productivity. Within
Groups
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