Published by
Benchmark Journals
Department of Vocational Education,
University of Uyo, Nigeria
International Journal of Educational
Benchmark (IJEB)
Vol. 8, Issue 1, July/September 2017
Uyo, Nigeria 2017
Editorial Board Members of International Journal of Educational
Benchmark
Chief Editorial Officer
Professor G. A. Akpan
University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
Prof. Ignatius Uduk University of Uyo, Nigeria
Prof. E. B. Usoro University of Uyo, Nigeria
Dr. K. Nachimuthu
Assistant Professor, Periyar University, Salem,
Prof. B.A. Ladani Tamil Nadu, India.
Prof. A. O. Ekong Federal University, Dutsin-ma, Nigeria
Dr. T. C. Ogbuanya University of Uyo, Nigeria
Prof Ayodeji Badejo University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Dr. E. U. Joseph Lagos State University Ojo.
Prof. E. C. Osinem University of Uyo, Nigeria
Dr. E. E. Asuquo University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Prof. V. E. Onweh University of Uyo, Nigeria
Michael Okpara University of Agriculture,
Dr. Uduak A. Okon Umudike, Nigeria
Prof E. J. Udoh University of Uyo, Nigeria
Asso. Prof. P.C. Okwelle University of Uyo, Nigeria
Rivers State University of Science and Technology
Dr. Uduak Enang University of Uyo, Nigeria
Dr. Uwakwe Okereke Igbokwe Abia State University, Uturu
E-mail: [email protected]
Prof. V.C. Chibuike Enugu State University of Technology
Prof. K.R.E. Okoye Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka
ii
Prof. Chris Chukuwrah University of Calabar
Dr. Paulinus Etim University of Uyo, Nigeria
Dr. P. S. William University of Uyo, Nigeria
iii
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International Journal of Educational Benchmark
About the Journal
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International Journal of Educational Benchmark
ISSN: ONLINE: 2489-0170, PRINT: 2489-4162
Volume 8, Issue 1, July/September 2017
TABLE OF CONTENTS
S/NO TITLE AUTHOR(S) PAGE
NO
1 Effects of Teachers’ Teaching Experience and Class size Ojo, Yetunde Abiola Ph.D . 1-12
on Achievement of Social Studies Students in Oyo, Oyo Ogunmilugba Bamidele Joke
state, Nigeria
Caroline, O. Olomukoro 13-24
2 Utilizing Adult Literacy Facilitators for Capacity
Building through Effective Training Programmes. (Ph.D) & Felix, U. Aghedo
3 Effect of Two Modes of Lesson Study on Male and Dogo, John Daniel 25-34
Female Senior Secondary Students’ Achievement in & Jimin Nguuma
Algebra in Kafanchan Education Zone of Kaduna State,
Nigeria.
4 Demographic Variables and Leadership Behaviour of Dr Abdullahi Sango, 35-40
Secondary School Teachers in Kano State. Muhammad Badamasi
Abdullahi, & Dr. Danladi
Sa’adu Ibrahim
5 Securing Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN), Review of Bello, Samaila & 41-51
some Models and Frameworks. Jafaru, Badamasi
6 HIV/AIDS Awareness and Sexual Behaviour among Dr. Muhammad Adam & 52-59
Adolescent Students in Senior Secondary Schools, Mu’azu Abba Jabir
Bauchi Metropolis.
7 Mathematics ability and Achievement in Quantitative Joseph John Mawak & Bako 60-68
aspect of Economics among Senior Secondary School Gonzwal Wakdos
Students in Jos North Area Directorate, Plateau State,
Nigeria.
8 Adoption of Environment Friendly Agricultural Practices Abanyam, V. A., Ph.D & 69-78
among Farmers in South – South, Nigeria. Okadi, A. O., Ph.D
9 Assessing the Effectiveness of the Treasure Single Dr. Eno Gregory Ukpong & 79-86
Account as a Tool for Curbing Financial Irregularities in Mrs. Ese Bassey Nsentip
the Nigerian Public Sector.
10 Effect of Cooperative Learning Approach on Students’ Abdulkarim, Musa & 87-97
Performance in Business Plan Writing in Federal College Ukpong, O. U. Ph.D
of Education (Tech.), Omoku, Rivers State.
11 Technical Teachers’ Competency and Utilisation of Okworo, Gibson Samuel 98-108
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for (Ph.D) Gabriel, Chibuzor Job
Effective Instructional Delivery in Technical Colleges in (Ph.D)
Akwa Ibom State.
12 Ethnical Relativity and Entrepreneurship for Effective Etokeren, Marcus S. 109-118
Market System, Economic Growth and Development
viii
Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo
Effects of Teachers’ Teaching Experience and Class size on Achievement of
Social Studies Students in Oyo, Oyo state, Nigeria
Ojo, Yetunde Abiola Ph.D . Ogunmilugba Bamidele Joke
Department of Counselling and Human Development Studies
University of Ibadan
[email protected]
Abstract
The study examined the effects of teachers’ teaching experience and class size on academic
achievement of Social studies students in Oyo, Oyo State. The subject of the study were 350
junior secondary school students and twenty social studies teachers selected from ten public
secondary schools in Oyo, Oyo state. The study adopted descriptive research design and two
null hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. Three experts
carried out face and content validation on the three instruments namely: Teachers’ Teaching
Experience Questionnaire, Student Class size Questionnaire and Social Studies Achievement
Test which were used for data collection and responses were analyzed through t-test
statistical analysis. Result of the study revealed that there was significant difference in the
achievement of social studies students in large and small class (t=3.031; p<0.05). Social
studies students in small class performed better than those in the large class. Teachers’
teaching experience did not have influence on the academic achievement of social studies
students. It was therefore, recommended that government should build more classrooms in
public secondary schools and policy makers must ensure that schools comply with a
maximum of 40 students per class. Parent Teacher Association (PTA), Philanthropists and
charitable organizations could support quality education by improving and providing
resources that would enhance the teaching and learning of social studies in secondary
schools.
Keywords: Teachers’ Teaching Experience, Class size, Achievement, Social Studies
Students.
Introduction
Social studies, an area of school curriculum offered at junior secondary schools in
Nigeria is specifically designed for the study of man in both his physical and social
environment. It is a core subject that the society uses to instill in the younger generation the
knowledge, skills, attitudes and actions considered important concerning human relationships
with each other and the world around so as to become responsible citizens. Social studies
education is expected to contribute immeasurably towards developing the ability to respect
the worth and dignity of individuals through social and moral topics embedded in the
curriculum. It helps in the inculcation of national consciousness and unity, active
participation in intelligent social action and as well builds confidence in the ability to solve
social problems in youths.
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As the society becomes more complex and advanced in technology a lot of
innovations emanated in different perspectives some of such innovation includes, change in
shelter, transportation, use of products, culture, social institutions, socialization and change in
education. Social studies have been viewed as a discipline if properly programmed and
effectively taught should help to understand and adapt to these changes and advancement. A
society propagates its acceptable norms, attitudes, values and behaviour through social
studies education. Adekogba (2016) noted that social and moral problems are been faced in
most countries of the world and especially in Nigeria where the old norms are fast losing
their grips without any substitute to replace them. Hence, this could be solved with the
effective teaching and learning of social studies. Considering the economic recession being
experienced at present in Nigeria, the country needs self- sufficient youths and the study of
subject such as social studies would help to build such individuals.
However, despite the relevance of social studies education to national development as
evident in its objectives articulated in the Nigerian school curriculum, there has been a
dismay arising from the excepted outcome of social studies curriculum implementation.
Educators and researchers have expressed serious concern about the state of teaching and
learning of social studies in most secondary schools in Nigeria (Adekogba, 2016). Social
studies education in Nigeria for long had been criticized for not quite preparing students for
effective living in the society and this is proved beyond reasonable doubt by the low level of
achievement of Social studies students in external examination (Oyibe & Mbang, 2013).
The achievement of social studies students in certificate examinations has not been so
impressive and due to this, stakeholders in the education sector have expressed their concern
over it. For instance, in 2014 one of the chief examiner reported that the achievement of
students in social studies examination in the July 2014 was generally poor (Oyibe &
Nnamani, 2015). Also, in 2014, Ebonyi State Secondary Education Board noted that it was
disheartening to see the degree of ignorance among candidates of social studies in their home
country (Oyibe & Nnamani, 2015). In Oyo State, education remains the largest industry and
government continues to ensure that funds, instructional material and teaching personnel are
made available for the sector but it has been observed by Ajayi (1998), Owoeye (2000) and
Adepoju (2002) that all is not well with the system as a result of the poor performance of
students recorded in public examinations in virtually all school subjects which social studies
is not left out.
Social Studies is believed to be essential in laying a solid foundation for the teaching
of subjects like Economics, Geography and History at the Senior Secondary School level and
courses such as Anthropology, Philosophy, Political Science, Psychology and Sociology at
higher institutions. From the above it is evident that Social Studies lead to the study of social
sciences and Art subjects at the Senior Secondary School level and beyond. Thus, the
performance of students in this subject at the Junior Secondary level could therefore
influence their choice of career.
Nigeria as a developing country has complex economic, social, political and
environmental issues that call for self-sufficient citizens that are conscious of national unity
and development who could actively participate in intelligent social action. One of the ways
to build and develop such youths is through social studies education. It is therefore of great
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importance to look into the factors that could hinder students’ achievement in social studies.
For instance, Mezieobi (1991) attributed it to poor teaching methods involving selection and
application of orthodox or traditional methods in social studies classroom, Mkpa (2001)
noted wrong selection and poor uses of Social studies instructional methods and materials.
Moreover, Ede and Onyia (2002) observed that poor teaching techniques by teachers, lack of
interest and poor concentration by Social studies students while Chukwu (2009) submitted
that poor teachers’ qualification and content presentation were responsible for poor
performance in Social studies.
To the best of the knowledge of the researchers, few studies have looked into the
influence of teachers’ teaching experience and class size on achievement of social studies
students respectively and no study has examined both factors. It is against this backdrop that
the study set out to investigate the effect of teachers’ teaching experience and class size on
achievement of social studies students in Oyo, Oyo state, Nigeria. Thus, an understanding of
factors that affect social studies students’ achievement would provide a framework to embark
on measures that could enhance academic achievement in social studies.
Teachers’ characteristics have been regarded as one of the key elements to students’
academic success and achievement. One of such characteristics is teachers’ teaching
experience which has become a phenomenon in education related literatures. The underlying
assumption is that experience promotes effectiveness and the characteristics teachers take
into the classroom influences the teaching learning process. In this study, teachers’ teaching
experience is described as the number of year’s teachers has taught social studies as a subject
in the junior secondary schools. In a correlational research survey done by Adeyemi (2008)
on teachers’ teaching experience and students’ learning outcomes in secondary schools in
Ondo State, Nigeria, the participants of the study comprised all the 257 secondary schools in
the state which comprised of 147 rural schools and 110 urban schools, 12 single sex schools
and 245 mixed schools. The result of the chi-square test, correlation analysis, and t-test
statistic revealed that teachers’ teaching experience was significantly related to students’
learning outcomes as measured by their performance in the SSCE examinations.
In a study, Angbing (2013) used 62 social studies teachers and 2,253 students from 13
metropolitan in Central Region of Religion of Ghana. Result revealed that students taught by
teachers with 8 years and above teaching experience performed better when compared with
their counterparts taught by teachers less 8 years of teaching experience. Ladd and Sorensen
(2014) examined the patterns of differential effectiveness by teachers’ years of experience,
using longitudinal data on students and teachers in North Carolina. The study found that
teachers’ experience was positively associated with students’ test scores and students’
behavior, with the clearest behavioral effects emerging for reductions in student absenteeism.
The effect of teacher experience and teacher degree levels on student achievement in
Mathematics and Communication on Missouri Assessment Program (MAP) which is the
state assessment administered to Missouri students in the spring of each year was
investigated by Dial (2008). The sample size for the study comprised of 5064 students in
grades 3-8, 10 and11 and 955 teachers. The study discovered that at the secondary level,
years of teachers’ teaching experience within the first 20 years had a positive impact on
student achievement but teaching experience after 20 years had a negative impact.
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Moreover, Zhang (2008) carried out a research on the effects of teacher education
level, teaching experience, And teaching behaviors on student science achievement which
comprised of 12 science teachers and 655 sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-grade students from
four middle schools in a large urban school district in Utah using four instruments to collect
the data. The study discovered that years of teaching experience in science did not directly
influence student science achievement.
A research on the impact of teacher experience: examining the evidence and policy
implications in Washington, DC was done by Rice (2010). The study summarizes key
findings on the effects of teachers’ experience on academic performance of students that
emerged from recent studies using state datasets. The finding was that the impact of teaching
experience is strongest during the first few years of teaching, and after that, marginal returns
diminish. That is, teachers’ teaching experience in first few years had positive influence on
the academic performance of students but in later years of teaching experience, there was no
significant impact of teachers’ teaching experience on the students’ performance.
An investigation on influence of teacher qualifications, experience, instructional
methods and professional development on student achievement on the Mississippi Writing
Assessment in grades four and seven was carried out by Garcia (2012). The study was
conducted in the three coastal countries of southern Mississippi. Participants were fourth and
seventh grade teachers who taught in one of the eight school districts included in the study.
The researcher used descriptive statistics, frequencies, correlation tables, regressions and
ANOVA for data analysis. Results of the study indicated that teachers’ teaching experience
was not strongly correlated with classroom average, that is, students’ academic performance.
In every academic session, the school population increases and so also the class
size. Class size is one of factors that could influence student academic achievement in social
studies. Kedney (2009) assert that class size is a tool that could be used to measure academic
achievement. According to Adeyemi (2005), class size is an educational tool used to describe
the average number of students per class in a school. Class size refers to the actual number of
pupils taught by a teacher at a particular time. In most developing countries such as Nigeria,
enrolment in secondary schools exceeds the availability of adequate classrooms thereby
leading to classroom congestion. The National Policy on Education and All Nigerian
Conference of Principals of Secondary Schools (ANCOPSS) have recommended a
maximum of forty students per class for efficient and effective teaching but in most
secondary schools in Oyo state, average class size exceeds 60. This situation has negative
impact on the average classroom space per student and does not enhance the teaching
learning process thus hampering academic achievement of such students.
Fabunmi, Braiabu and Adeniyi (2007) discovered that classroom congestion and low
utilization rate of classrooms are common features of secondary schools in Nigeria. They
have negative impact on secondary school teacher productivity, student learning input and
thus secondary school student academic performance. In particular, poor scholastic
achievement can influence the reputation of a school because academic success is associated
with the quality of the school. The alarming rate of failure in our secondary schools is highly
embarrassing. Adeyela (2000) found in her study that large class size is not conducive for
serious academic work. In the same vein, Yara (2010) in his study on class size and academic
achievement of students in mathematics in Southwestern Nigeria found out that the
performance of students in large classes was very low (23%) compared to those students in
smaller classes (64%). Kolawole (2009) observed that the relationship between class size and
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student achievement was negative, such that the larger the class, the lower the students
achievement would be.
In a survey research carried out by Eze (2010) on influence of school environment on
academic achievement of students of public schools in Enugu state. The sample size used for
the study was 600 respondents while a researchers’ self-developed questionnaire formed the
instrument for data collection. The study revealed that the school environment which the
teaching learning process takes place have a positive influence on the academic achievement
of students. Another study on the effect of class size on academic performance of 350 senior
secondary school Biology students and ten Biology teachers in Somolu Local Government
Area of Lagos State was conducted by Okoye and Madueke (2016). Two instruments were
used for data collection. These instruments include Questionnaire for Biology Teachers and
Biology Achievement Test. Result showed that there was significant difference in academic
performance of Biology student in small and large classes. That is, Biology students in the
small class performed excellently in the achievement test on Biology administered to
participants than those in the large class.
Owoeye and Yara (2011) conducted a research on final year students of 50 secondary
schools comprising 4 Federal unity schools and 64 public schools in the rural and urban areas
of Ekiti state, Nigeria. The research instrument used for data collection was Student Class
Size Questionnaire (SCSQ) which was designed by the researchers. The study discovered
that there was no significant difference in the achievement scores of students in both urban
large and urban small classes. Also, there was no significant difference in the achievement
scores of students in both rural large and rural small classes.
Uhrain (2016) in his study examined whether class size in secondary school predicted
student achievement as measured by teacher-issued end-of-course numerical student grades
(TIECNSG). The study used a correlational design with a sample of 17,582 students from 5
secondary schools in the South Carolina district. The effect of smaller class sizes on
TIECNSG was determined through the use of a linear regression model. For 9 course
offerings, an increase in class size resulted in a decrease in TIECNSG, whereas for 8 course
offerings, an increase in class size resulted in an increase in TIECNSG. The results of this
study, therefore, were inconclusive, suggesting that other unaccounted confounding variables
may have affected student achievement. Of the 40 different class types analyzed, only 17 of
40 yielded statistically significant results. Out of those 17, nine showed that increasing class
size had a negative impact on TIECNSG, while eight showed that increasing class size had a
positive impact on TIECNSG.
Hoxby (2000) identified the effects of class size on student achievement, using a
longitudinal variation in the population associated with each grade in 649 elementary
schools. The estimates indicate that the class size does not have a statistically significant
effect on student achievement. Afolabi (2002) found no significant relationship among class
size and students’ learning outcomes.
This study is anchored on Dewey (1938) and Skinner (1948) Learning theories.
Dewey (1938/1997) philosophy introduced progressive education which focuses primarily on
pedagogy and the importance of the teacher in the classroom. According to the theory, the
role of the teacher in the classroom is to make use of their abilities, efforts and experience so
as to stimulate students’ learning for academic performance. The theory is applicable in this
study because teachers’ characteristics such as teaching experience could have impact on
student achievement in social studies. Skinnerian Learning theory (1948) is based on the
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assumption that learning is a function of the physical environment. The model contributed in
shaping the views on learning expressed by environmental approach of Thorndike Toleman,
Guthrie and Hull. The theory is based on the assumption that learning is manifested by a
change in behaviour, and the environment shapes behaviour. Thus, learning is the acquisition
of new behaviour through the class environment (conditioning).The model holds that
learning takes place by interacting with external environment stimuli. Emphasis is laid on
providing conducive environment in school for effective teaching and learning process. The
theory is relevant to the current study because school environment such as class size could
affect students’ achievement in social studies.
Purpose of the Study
This study is aimed at examining the effect of teachers’ teaching experience and class size on
the academic achievement of social studies students in Oyo, Oyo state of Nigeria.
Null Hypotheses
The following null hypothesis was postulated in the course of the study
1. No significant difference exists between the achievement of social studies students
who have teachers with less than five years teaching experience and those who have
teachers above five years teaching experience.
2. No significant difference exists between the achievement of social studies students in
large and small class size.
Methodology
A descriptive survey design was used for the study to find the difference between the
achievement of social studies students based on teachers’ teaching experience and class
size.The population was made up of 350 junior secondary school 2 students and twelve
teachers in Oyo, Oyo state. Simple random sampling was used to select six out of the existing
public secondary schools in Oyo, Oyo state. The six selected schools are: (1) Oranyan
Grammar School (2) Durbar Grammar School (3)Alaafin High School (4) Isale Oyo
Community Grammar School (5) Oke-lola Grammar School (6) Ojongbodu Grammar
School. In each of the selected schools, 60 students who are in the junior secondary school 2
(JSS2) were selected to participate in the study. However, out of the three hundred and sixty
questionnaires distributed, three hundred and fifty were retrieved. In all, 167 males and 183
females participated in the study. Their age ranged between 10 years and 14 years with mean
age of 12 years.
The researchers obtained permission from the principals of the six schools selected
for the study. Thereafter, the purpose of the study was explained to the students and the
questionnaire was administered by the researchers and two trained research assistants.
Students were not allowed to use any notes or texts when taking the tests. In each of the
schools, administration and collection of questionnaire was done on the same day and this
lasted for two weeks. T-test statistical tool was used for testing the stated null hypotheses.
The level of significance chosen for this study is 0.05 probability level.
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Instruments
Questionnaire for Social Studies Teachers (QSST)
The QSST was developed by the researchers. It consists three sections. Section A is
made up of seven questions which entails the name of the school, age, gender, qualification,
years of experience, number of students in the social studies class of teachers, numbers of
period of teaching social studies in a week, number of hours spent on other activities apart
from teaching students such as staff meeting, keeping students record up to date which has
the option of “None”, <1, 1-2, 3-4 and >4 hr. Section B consists of 5 items which entails the
influence of class size on teaching effectiveness and student performance while Section C
has 5 items on the influence of teaching experience on student performance. Section B and C
had response format that ranges from “Strongly agree (SA) 4”, Agree (A) 3”, Disagree (D)
(2)” to strongly disagree (SD) (1)”.
Student Class size Questionnaire (SCSQ)
Student Class Size Questionnaire (SCSQ) was designed by the researchers and
administered to the participants who were junior secondary school 2 students. It has section
A with seven items dealing with profile of the respondents such as gender, age, school type,
grade among others. Section B has eight items that measured the number of students in class,
number of periods taught by teachers among others.
Social Studies Achievement Test (SSAT)
This test was developed by the researchers in order to assess the level of acquisition
of social studies concepts of the students. The Junior Secondary School Social studies
curriculum 2 was used to set fifty questions which covered the main topics of social studies
taught at Junior secondary school 2. After the face and content validation of the set questions
by social studies teachers from various schools within the state, thirty questions were selected
for the achievement test. The 30-item multiple choice questions has 4 response options A-D
and was based on three cognitive levels “knowledge”, “understanding” and “application”.
SATSS was administered to social studies students in JSS2 in the various selected schools.
The response given by the participants on the achievement test was marked and scored
manually and the results provided the data for the analysis. Each correct answer attracted one
mark while a wrong answer was scored zero. The level of achievement of a student was
taken to be the student’s total test score. Social Studies Achievement Test was trial tested on
twenty JSS2 students in a different school in Oyo. The Pearson correlation coefficient
formula was used to determine the reliability coefficient of 0.76.
Results
Hypothesis 1 : No significant difference exist between the achievement of social studies
students who have teachers with less than five years teaching experience and those who have
teachers above five years teaching experience.
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Table 1: Achievement in Social studies between students having teachers less than five
years teaching experience and those above five years teaching experience
Teachers’ N Mean Standard Df t P-Value
Teaching Deviation Stat
Experience
Achievement 1-5years 157 24.72 5.65 348 .683 0.495
In Social
Studies
5years 193 24.29 5.21
above
The result on Table 1 indicates that there is no significant difference between the
achievement in social studies of students having teachers less than five years teaching
experience and those above five years teaching experience. The average scores (24.72) shows
social studies students having teachers less than five years teaching experience and (24.29)
those above five years teaching experience.
Hypothesis 2: No significant difference exist between the achievement in social studies
students in large and small class.
Table 2: Achievement in Social studies between students in Large and Small Class
Achievement Class N Mean Standard Df t P-Value
In Social Size 179 23.61 Deviation Stat 0.003
Studies Large 3.031
Class 171 5.42 348
Small 25.42 5.18
class
The result on Table 2 reveals that there is significant difference (P<0.05) between the
achievement in social studies of students in large class and students in small class. The
average scores (25.42) reveals that social studies students in small class performed better
than social studies students in large class (23.61).
Discussion of Findings
The result in Table1 was used to answer research hypothesis 1. From Table 1 there is
no significant difference between the achievement in social studies of students having
teachers less than five years teaching experience and those above five years teaching
experience. Thus, teachers’ teaching experience did not have effect on the students’
achievement in social studies.
This corroborates the findings of Dial (2008); Zhang (2008); Rice (2010) and Garcia (2012).
However, the result of this study contradicts the findings of earlier researches by Adeyemi
(2008) and Angbing (2013) that teachers’ teaching experience have impact on the academic
achievement of students.
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From Table 2, the study found that there is significant difference between the
achievement in social studies of students in large class and students in small class. Hence,
social studies students in small class performed better than social studies students in large
class. This finding was consistent with that of Eze (2010); Okoye and Madueke (2016). All
these researchers discovered in their studies that academic performance of participants in
small class was better than their counterparts in large class. On the other hand, these findings
are inconsistent with the findings in the work of Owoeye and Yara (2011) and Uhrain (2016).
Both researches found no difference in achievement of students in small and large classes.
Conclusion
Social studies is one of the core subject in the junior secondary schools which the
society uses to instill in the younger generation the knowledge, skills, attitudes and actions
considered important concerning human relationships with each other and the world around
so as to become responsible citizens. The study discovered that class size have influence on
the academic achievement of social studies students.
Implications for counselling
Social studies education is essential in the stimulation of social and economic
development. From what has been discovered in the study, there is an imperative need for
academic counselling for an excellent achievement in social studies and other various
subjects taught at the secondary schools. School counsellors are required to keep
enlightening policy makers, government at all levels(Local, State and Federal), the school
administrators, teachers and parents of the importance of quality of school building and
student-teacher ratio(class size) on students’ academic achievement. This is of necessity so
that all stakeholders in education could understand the implications and consequences of
overcrowded classes and thus mobilize all resources to curtail the problems arising from such
situation. This enlightenment programme would be an eye-opener which could encourage
charitable organizations and philanthropists to contribute immensely towards quality
education.
Moreover, considering the relevance of social studies education in nation building,
school counsellors should assists students with adequate guidance and counselling services
which would help facilitate and develop in them positive interest in Social studies as a school
subject.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that:
1. Policy makers must ensure that schools comply with a maximum of 40 students per
class. This in turn would make the government at all levels (Local, State and Federal)
to provide enough classrooms for various schools. Also, there is need for the
provision of instructional materials and other learning facilities to encourage the
teaching and learning of Social studies.
2. It is an obvious fact that the government alone cannot provide for all the needed
resources and facilities in the public schools. Thus, Parent Teacher Association
(PTA), philanthropists and charitable organizations could support and compliment
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government effort towards quality education by improving and providing resources
that would enhance the teaching and learning of Social studies in secondary schools.
3. Competent and qualified Social studies teachers should be employed to teach the
subject in secondary schools.
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Utilizing Adult Literacy Facilitators for Capacity Building through
Effective Training Programmes
Caroline, O. Olomukoro (Ph.D) & Felix, U. Aghedo
Department of Adult and Non-Formal Education,
Faculty of Education, University of Benin,
Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria
e-mail: carolomukoro @yahoo.co.uk./
e.mail:ceejayaghedo @gmail.com
Abstract
Good educators and competent adult education personnel are crux of successful literacy
programmes. Trained personnel could significantly assist in motivating and sensitizing
learners to enroll and continue learning. This paper recognizes that staffing system has not
been effective in the provision of adult literacy in Nigeria. There is very little evidence to
suggest that the National Commission for Mass Literacy Adult and Non-formal Education
(NMEC) and the state Agencies made significant impact in terms of improving the quality of
facilitators to accomplish the goal of adult literacy programmes. This paper, therefore,
examines the effective training programmes to enhance the capacity building of the
facilitators. Exposure to diverse training programmes could foster facilitators to learn new
knowledge and equip them with innovative skills. Utilizing training programmes for the
facilitators is more obvious given the growing complexity of the illiterate adults in the
society, the low rate of literacy level and the need to attain the goal of Education for All
(EFA). Nigerian adult literacy facilitators need to be more equipped to practice in modern
day globalization. The study concludes that the overall effectiveness and profitability of adult
literacy education can only depend on the ability, the skill, the understanding, and the
information, which every facilitator requires in order to be able to function effectively and
perform efficiently. Therefore, the paper recommends a proper framework to be put in place
by government for the professional development of the adult literacy facilitators with full
opportunities for exchanges with other facilitators.
Keywords: Adult Literacy, Literacy Facilitator, Capacity Building, Training Programme.
Introduction
Adult Education remains an indispensable aspect of education that enhances an
individual well-being as well as a tool to participate effectively in national life. Adult
education as an integral part of general education has been used as a transformational tool for
improving the lot of people through capacity building. It has come to be associated with the
everyday life activities of adults and therefore has expanded to encompass literacy
programmes. The essential goal of adult literacy education is to enable the people have
knowledge and awareness on new productive opportunities to develop themselves to
contribute positively to national development and the world at large. It is obvious, that when
a man has its potential fully developed, he will be able to develop his environment and
contribute substantially to the growth of his nation, (Nzeneri, 2008).
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Iyabo (2004) states that literacy education expands the horizon of the individuals and brings
people out of their narrow and restrained vision, thus enabling them to appreciate and
participate in their socio-economic, political and cultural milieu.
Adult literacy education therefore, requires adequate provision of appropriate adult
education personnel to ensure effective implementation of the programme. It is when adult
education personnel are competent and trained that a successful literacy education
programme can be achieved. It follows therefore that for the literacy facilitators in adult
literacy programme to be able to perform their duties and make meaningful contributions to
the success of the programme goals they need to acquire the relevant skills and knowledge.
Man is dynamic in nature, the need to be current and relevant in all spheres of human
endeavour make staff development a necessity, to keep track with current event and methods.
Consequently, the spectrum of adult education staff is extremely broad given the integration
of adult education in all sectors of the society which makes it a borderless discipline.
Youngman (2000a) had however affirmed that the availability of competent personnel to
develop, organize, promote, teach and evaluate modes of learning for adults is an
indispensable condition for the successful implementation of adult education policies and
programmes.
An effective staffing system can help adult education management in selecting and
allocating competent and qualified workforce to do the required tasks. Acquiring training for
literacy facilitators with particular knowledge and expertise is crucial for their professional
development. Moreover, it is also important for literacy facilitators to develop their capacity
building. Corroborating this view, UNESCO’s Fifth International Conference on Adult
Education (CONFINTEA V) held in Hamburg in 1997 espoused the vision for improving the
conditions for the professional development of adult educators and facilitators. Hence, the
key dimensions of CONFINTEA V, provide a basis for developing the curricula of training
for adult educators. Infact, CONFINTEA V had very important implications for the training
of adult educators. Not only did it give a new emphasis to the role of adult education in
attaining development agendas, it also identified the need to improve the professional
development of adult educators within the overall thematic area of improving the conditions
and quality of adult learning (Fasokun, 2008).
It has been stated clearly that adult education has the potential to contribute positively
to the development of societies (Akintayo & Adeyemo, 2013). For this potential to be
realized and for the desire impact to be achieved, there is need for well-prepared adult
educators/literacy facilitators that will implement high quality programmes that will have an
impact. UNESCO (2003) reported that achieving high quality in adult learning programmes
depends in large measure on the availability of knowledgeable, skillful, sensitive and socially
committed adult educators. Yet priority has not been given to their training. The questions
that could emanate are: (1). Why is the training of Adult educators an important area of
concern? (2). what kind of training will be appropriate for adult educators?
Training has become more obvious for facilitators in a literacy programme given the
growing complexity of the learning environment for the adults, the rapid changes in the adult
life and technological advancement employing the use of computers in their day-to-day
economic activities. Jones, George and Hill (2000) believe that training primarily focuses on
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teaching organizational members how to perform their current jobs and helping them acquire
the knowledge and skills on the need to be effective performers.
Training of course depends on the perceived roles which the literacy facilitators are
expected to fulfill. These roles are seen in one of two models- the transformative change
agent and development workers. Most agencies however see adult literacy facilitators not
simply as instructors of literacy to adults but as change agents. Teaching literacy to adults is
not just about literacy and numeracy. The objective of any literacy programme is to bring
about qualitative changes in the lives of the learners. This would involve changes in their
physical, social and cultural environment. The literacy facilitator, who must play the crucial
role in the process, must learn to be a change agent, one who can help to initiate meaningful
changes in the lives of the learners and the community in which they live. Any training
programme for the facilitators in this sense should take care of this aspect (Kumar, 2002).
Training becomes the only way to ensure that literacy facilitators run their
programmes to meet the required standard in a participatory way (using a learner centered
methodology that will ensure active participation of all the learners). The successful
implementation of adult learning would depend in large measure on the availability of
knowledgeable, skillful, sensitive and socially committed adult literacy facilitators as
indicated earlier. It is therefore essential that capacity for research, knowledge production
and materials development is enhanced in their training (Youngman and Singh, 2005). They
must be able to conduct research into the daily lives and attitudes of the community leaders
and development workers. As opined by Youngman and Singh, one of the main weaknesses
of the voluntary literacy facilitators is their lack of pedagogical training and lack of
understanding of how to establish an atmosphere conducive to adult learning.
In addition Fasokun (2008) further stressed that only a few of those working in adult
education have received basic professional training in the field, and facilitators used are often
primarily school teachers or volunteers. In line with this view, Ugwoegbu (2003) supported
this notion that many of the adult facilitators are not trained to teach the adults with
andragogical methods, most of them are teachers trained for pedagogy and find it difficult to
change to andragogy. Furthermore, Agboola and Akinsanya cited in Oyitso and Olomukoro
(2015) noted that most personnel overseeing adult education programmes in government
ministries and departments that accommodate adult education programmes are not
professionals but only find themselves in adult education offices by chance and quickly blend
with the system so as to become suitable. Also most of the literacy instructors lack basic
training in adult education. Explaining further, Fasokun (2008) stated that adult education has
not commonly recognized credential or mechanisms designed to ensure quality of teachers at
any level especially in adult literacy programme. The training of adult facilitators deserved a
higher degree of emphasis at the national and international level.
The need for holistic measures to improve teaching quality cannot be
overemphasized. In essence, there is the urgent need to give the literacy facilitator the central
place in the process of improving the quality of adult education. The administrative system
need to offer internal and external training opportunities to develop and nurture required
knowledge and expertise for literacy facilitators. The need for improved quality and quantity
human resource development in adult literacy education programme depends on efficient and
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effective training. From past experience, it is common knowledge that the staffing system in
adult education has the weakest capacity to initiate and manage adult literacy programme.
This is due to the fact that the quality and quantity of human resources available at the
National Mass Literacy Commission (NMEC) and Agencies for adult and non-formal
education level is seriously insufficient. Most of the staff, especially facilitators are
performing their functions without the relevant qualifications to perform effectively. As a
result, available resources for accelerated and sustainable literacy development are
inefficiently utilized for the purposes intended, thus leaving NMEC and the agencies today
without a reasonable number of qualified personnel. Thus, the focus of this paper is to
examine how effective training programmes can lead to capacity building of the adult
literacy facilitators.
Clarification of Concept
The following concepts used as relevant issues in the paper need to be well clarified. They
include:
Literacy Facilitator
Capacity Building
Training Programme
Literacy Facilitator:
The facilitator is a person directly charged with the responsibility of making learners
to learn in adult literacy centre. Ani (2003) defined an adult facilitator as those who help
adults to learn anything useful to them. The literacy facilitators are engaged in impacting the
skills of reading, writing and, the skill of numeracy to the adult cases, the skill of numeracy
to the illiterate adults.
Facilitators should be indigenous people who receive substantial initial training and
regular refresher training, as well as having ongoing opportunities for exchange with other
facilitators. Most of the facilitators are primary school leavers; others are grade II teachers,
who teach in the formal school system in the morning and help adults learn in the evening.
Others are also secondary school certificate (WASC) holders, and recently the National
Certificate in Education (NCE). This has led to the conclusion that facilitators should clearly
have a basic level of literacy, and do not need to have achieved a specific educational level.
However, rather than to focus on the prior level of educational attainment of facilitators, this
paper attempts to emphasize effective training and professional development.
Capacity Building
To begin with, capacity can be seen as the ability of a person or an individual to
perform a given task effectively, efficiently and on a continuing basis and with reduced
dependence on external resources. Capacity building is therefore concerned with human
resource development (people) and overall policy environment within which the management
of the programme or organization operate and interact. Capacity building in general is often
regarded as empowering. It can help to determine the efficient utilization and allocation of
human resources among competing demand. The training of adult educators is of similar
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importance to the training of teachers for schools. Trained adult educators need upgrading of
their skills or retraining from time to time. Hence, it is imperative to support the
organizational structures and the professional capacities of education and training providers.
Fasokun (2008) defined capacity building as the heart of the renewal of effective and
high quality work in literacy and adult education. The part-time instructors and volunteers
should be trained in the field of adult education. All literacy facilitators should be exposed to
course of instruction on adult teaching methods, the teaching of literacy and numeracy, adult
psychology. They should learn management techniques, classroom control, supervision and
assessment systems. It has become imperative to adopt urgent measures aimed at raising the
capacity building of adult. Literacy facilitators if they are to fulfill the attainment of literacy
for all adults in Nigeria.
Capacity building according to Sanusi (2002) entails investment in human capital and
practices necessary to enhance human skills and improve procedures and systems. Sanusi
further sees capacity building as the internalization of the knowledge, skills and focuses that
enable the formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of set of goals in an
efficient manner; while Anyanwu (2002) views it as a series of activities which an
organization needs to undertake to provide for itself, on a continuous basis, the supply of
skilled manpower to meet its present and future needs.
Training Programme
Training can be formal, informal, academic or applied, guided or self directed,
provided in public agencies or private institutions. To be effective, training is to be designed
as an on-going process. Training alone is often not sufficient to change behaviour or
improved performance. Improved performance, changed attitude and new skills acquired
during training may need to be complemented by and maintained through continuing
education, supportive supervision and adequate motivational incentives.
Training can be viewed as acquisition of skills, knowledge and abilities to enable one
fuction effectively in the performance of ones’s job. It is any planning activity to transfer or
modify knowledge, skills and experience, attitudes through learning. (Cited in Oyitso and
Olomukoro, 2015). Training programme builds a team that is effective, efficient and well
motivating, thereby enhancing the confidence and self-esteem of employees or workers. The
employees’ knowledge and skills are thus developed to adapt to new technologies and other
organizational changes. Training programmes if well organized and provided for
literacy facilitators can enhance their capacity building and improve performance as literacy
provider. However, training programmes are not sufficiently supported by government and
agencies of adult and non-formal education in Nigeria. This is because usually the
government and agencies consider the money they will spend on their training programmes
as waste rather than investment. They fail to foresee the desirability of continuous training
and development of their employees in order to promote the efficiency and effectiveness of
facilitators.
There are diverse educational and training institutions that provide such training
programmes for their workers or employees in Nigeria. These include universities,
community development training centres established by state governments and non-
governmental agencies. For training to be effective, various methods must be used because
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adults learn in different ways. Successful training requires theory, demonstration as well as
application. Effective training programmes must be systematic and continuous, so that it can
cause a significant effect on the trainee. In essence, training programmes provided for
literacy facilitators can help decrease the anxiety or frustration originated by the nature of job
and will show a greater level of job satisfaction along with superior performance. The
literacy facilitators can only be satisfied when they feel themselves competent to perform
their jobs, which are achieved through better training programmes.
The Place of Facilitators in Adult Learning
The facilitator’s position and status in an adult class depend upon his knowledge of
the subject and his ability to help his clients learn. It is important for the facilitator to be
trained in this aspect. He should always be in search of new ideas and techniques and possess
the ability to make learning interesting and pleasurable. It is the responsibility of the adult
facilitator to understand the goal of the programme in order to be able to lead the learners
well.
The facilitator needs to be conscious of the characteristics of the adult and let that
dictate what takes place in the classroom or in the process of learning interaction. He should
know that the learners have a lot to contribute in class and make sure that their experiences
are tapped during interaction in the class. In the grouping of adults for learning purposes, it
should be done according to their needs and problems where they are likely to have
confidence in themselves and interact freely in a learning environment.
Adult facilitator should always be acquainted with ways and means of using audio
visual aids relevant to their teaching. However, this will require sufficient training skills and
knowledge to effectively carry out the procedures. According to Vonk (1992) teachers of
adults should be considered to be innovative, capable of self-improvement, analyzing their
own actions, identifying and reacting to learners’ needs and evaluating the results of their
own actions. Be that as it may, adult literacy facilitators can only acquire the desirable
knowledge, skill and the expected personal characteristics only when there is efficient and
effective training programmes provided for them.
Training Programmes for Literacy Facilitators
Training both physically, socially, intellectually and mentally are very essential in
facilitating the development of adult education personnel. Goldstein (1980) defined training
as the systematic acquisition and development of the knowledge, skills and attitudes required
by employees to adequately perform a task or job or to improve performance in the job
environment. This implies that for any organization to succeed in achieving the objectives of
its training programme, the design and implementation must be planned and systematic,
tailored towards enhancing performance and productivity. Training programmes not only
develop employees but also help an organization to make best use of their human resources
in favour of gaining competitive advantage. Therefore, it seems mandatory by the
organization to plan for such a training programme for its employees to enhance their
abilities and competencies that are needed at the work place.
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There is need for more innovative training programmes that integrate theory with
practice, enable collaborative and participatory learning, address the personal values of the
adult educators and show greater concern for adult educators, social and political role
(Youngman and Singh, 2005). Such programme includes community-based education and
semi-distance education programmes. Effective training is beneficial to adult literacy
facilitators as it plays a vital role in building and maintaining capabilities in the process of
job performance. Jolles (2005) maintained that establishing utility of training programme will
make trainees understand the need to learn. Wikiamasinghe (2006) also claimed that
objectives are utilized throughout the training effort. They are frequently used to choose the
type of training programmes, to provide an overview of what participants are going to learn,
to explain the resource persons what is expected after the completion of the programme and
to validate/ evaluate training programmes.
The person who is entrusted with the job to convey the training objectives is the
trainer, trainer holds centre stage in achieving efficacy with the training programme. The
trainer will need to plan, be prepared and show encouragement and empathy to the learners
otherwise, he may not get them involved in the training process and transform them
professionally. Thus a complete trainer is one who has the skills ranging from foundation to
administration.
All developing countries, like Nigeria experiencing mass or functional literacy
programmes have shown a need for pre-service and in-service training of literacy facilitators.
Yet adequate measures to incorporate such training in the larger development plans have not
been seriously taken. As it stands now, literacy facilitators have no significant training in
adult literacy programme, and most of their instructional experience is pedagogical in nature.
Despite this limitation, effort has been made by National Mass Adult Literacy Education
Commission to have an organized training workshop for the facilitators in adult literacy
programme in Nigeria. This was tagged “Training the Trainers” (TOT). Specialists hired to
train the skilled or unskilled involved in the process of literacy programme implementation.
The purpose was to ensure that quality facilitators are recruited, selected and employed in
different states. In spite of this, about 50% of some Nigerian states population is illiterate.
This is evidenced from table 1 which shows literacy situation in seven selected states in
Nigeria.
In addition, Nigeria as a developing nation with a population of over 140million
people has 43.1 non literate citizens. Nigeria has a literacy rate of 61% and it ranked 184th
out of 194 countries in the world according to human development report in July 2014 in
commemoration of the International Literacy Day September 8th.
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Table 1: Projection of Literacy / Illiteracy Rate in Nigeria
S/N States Projected Literates Illiterates % of
Illiterate
population of 795105
1186363 70.1
15yrs and above 1970930 46.0
1516636 75.4
1 Adamawa 1133498 3383931 477004 53.2
834293 40.3
2 Anambra 2748822 1662459 754139 60.0
Rate 32.3
3 Borno 2614308 643378 53.3
4 Benue 2848694 1332058
5 Bayelsa 1182452 705448
6 Abia 1399394 565101
7 Akwa-Ibom 2334528 1580389
Grand Total % Illiteracy
Source: EFA Draft Report in Nzeneri (2010:41)
The information provided in table 1 and the statistics indicated shows that our literacy
facilitators have not achieved the expected goal of the programme. It is obvious that they
need to be more equipped with effective training programmes in order to practice in a
modern day globalization and attain the goal of education for All in Nigeria. It is always
important for the facilitators to identify the learning needs of our learners, to make them
relate the learning to their daily lives which should be incorporated into their curriculum.
This is why literacy facilitators deserve to be properly trained for capacity building.
Development of Adult Literacy facilitators for Capacity Building
Facilitators’ development in adult literacy refers to the capacity and capability
building of the facilitator and the programme as a whole to meet the standard performance
level required. The more the facilitators are developed, the more they are satisfied with the
teaching of the adults, hence ensuring their literacy attainment. The most significant trend
that continues to make an impact on facilitators is the demand for the incorporation of
technology into the content and delivery of professional development. Professional
development of facilitators of adults should promote dialogue, reflection and quality and
should include demonstrating multiple approaches to delivering the same information. This is
why facilitators development programmes are needed to provide the foundation for a work-
place environment. In many organizations, employees do not work under the same roof. This
challenge is forcing training out of the classroom in order to make it accessible to all.
However, facilitators in adult literacy may not keep up in today’s fast-paced world if they
have to wait for seminars and conferences to receive new knowledge. They will need
technical training in a specific position and to combine it with distance learning to make
information known to them easily. According to Garger (1999), instead of employees waiting
for opportunities to come up to increase their knowledge base, they must pursue and create
those opportunities for themselves. It is then the responsibility of their organizations to make
sure those learning opportunities exist.
Facilitators must be sufficiently trained for them to understand the motives for
learning and the needs of the clientele. The facilitators must be conversant with the concept
of literacy. This is because literacy is no longer seen as a simple skill or competency but as a
process of using the skills acquired for specific social purpose, (Archer and Nottingham,
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1996). Literacy programmes development for facilitators should emphasize the creative and
active involvement of the participant in specific activities that are geared towards solving
individual or problems affecting the society such as security and safety problems and
environmental degradation. Literacy facilitators should also be able to take into consideration
Education For All Goals 3 and 6 coined at Dakar Senegal in 2000 (According to UNESCO
(2006).
Goals 3 states that
‘’ Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through
equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills programmes
While Goal 6 says that
‘’Improving all aspects of the quality education and ensuring excellence of all so that
recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all especially in
literacy, numeracy and essential learning skills,
When all these are put in place, learner’s social rates of return will be assumed and
the myopic perception of adult education will be eroded and adult education will be
more appreciated in the society
Another key component to the success of programme development for facilitators in
adult literacy organization is funding. Such programme to develop facilitators will fail if the
organization is not willing to put some financial resources into it. Creating a compensation
structure that will support the facilitators’ development programme is a distinct challenge for
adult education management and stakeholders. Even at this, salaries of the facilitator is not
enough to keep them in the programme and are therefore not always motivated to work nor
be prepared to respond or attend training programmes for their development. This attitude of
remunerating can cause frustration and cynicism by facilitators in the programme. This has
been one of the factors of not retaining the literacy facilitators. It is important for adult
education management to recognize that competent facilitators are one of their greatest assets
and they need to face the challenge of retaining them (Onwuadi, 2013). Moreover, the roles
of institutions, for example, the universities, National association body like Nigerian National
Council for Adult Education (NNCAE) and NMEC to achieve effective training of literacy
facilitators cannot be over emphasized. The institution recognizes that in adult literacy
education programmes, the facilitators are the first contact with the illiterate adults in the
communities. Therefore, if the literacy rate in Nigeria is to be significantly improved,
adequate and greater attention has to be paid to the training of these literacy facilitators.
Accordingly, the state agencies for adult and non-formal education, the Universities and
National Mass Literacy Education Commission have developed training policies to enhance
the development of literacy facilitators.
The Universities have also made a joint collaboration with NMEC and other agencies
to institute an extension training programmes aimed primarily at development skills,
knowledge and attitude of the facilitators in the literacy programme for the facilitators in the
literacy programme for the performance of their specific duties. This involves in-house
methods of training for the newly recruited facilitators who may not have acquired
professionalism orientation.
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Conclusion
For the quality of facilitators in adult literacy programmes to be sustainably
guaranteed, there should be effective and well organized training programmes for them to
develop their human capacity for teaching the adults. Therefore, NMEC and state agencies
for adult and non-formal education must design the training programme with clear goals and
objectives while keeping in mind the particular needs of both adults and the programme. The
programme should be more practical oriented and be able to provide learners with skills for
immediate application to solve problems that they face in society.
More importantly, the training of professional adult educators at institutions of higher
learning must be in tandem with the prevailing global trends as to raise their professional
status and have the capability to enhance its relevance to the society. Especially, the
professional capacity of NMEC should be enhanced through secondment of qualified and
experienced staff from universities for the duration of the programme. However, the overall
effectiveness and profitability of adult literacy education can only depend on the ability, the
skill, the understanding and the information, which every facilitator requires in order to be
able to function effectively and perform efficiently.
Recommendations
The following suggestions are put forward to enhance the building capacity of adult literacy
facilitators:
A proper framework should be put in place by FEDERAL government for the
professional development of the adult literacy facilitators with full opportunities for
exchanges with other facilitators to elicit quality performance on the job and
motivation of the learners.
NMEC and Agencies for Adult and Non-Formal Education should be adequately
funded BY THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT in order to improve the general
welfare of literacy facilitators, as that is the only way they can be made to respond to
training modalities in the programme.
Adult Education personnel should be exposed to regular professional training and
development as to enhance current knowledge on adult literacy issues for productivity
in the programme. It is also necessary for them to be exposed constantly to seminars,
conferences and workshops to enable them keep abreast with the challenges posed by
the modern trends in globalization.
There should be effective utilization of integration of resources, physical and human
by NMEC (National Mass Adult Literacy Education Commisson) will in the
provision of training programmes for the literacy facilitators in order to yield high
quality assurance in the programme.
Educational planners should review the curriculum and training programmes to put
the programme in its rightful place where beneficiaries can acquire the required skill,
knowledge capacity and capability for greater productivity and efficiency
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Effect of Two Modes of Lesson Study on Male and Female Senior
Secondary Students’ Achievement in Algebra in Kafanchan
Education Zone of Kaduna State,
Nigeria
Dogo, John Daniel
Department of Mathematics
Kaduna State College of Education
Gidan-Waya
email: [email protected]
&
Jimin Nguuma
Department of Science Education
Faculty of Education
Sule Lamido University, Kafin Hausa
email: [email protected]
Abstract
This study investigated the impact of two modes of lesson study on senior secondary students’
achievement in algebra in Kafanchan Education Zone of Kaduna State. The study adopted a
quasi-experimental, non-equivalent pre-test, post-test research design. The study was guided
by 2 research questions and 2 hypotheses. The instruments used for the study were Lesson
Understanding Written Statements (LUWS), Algebra Achievement Test (AAT) and Planned
Lessons Observation (PLO). The reliability coefficient obtained using Kuder-Richardson
Formula20 (K-R20) for the AAT and was 0.80. The Sample for the study consisted of 167
students selected from 3 coeducation senior secondary schools using a multi-stage sampling
technique. The AAT instrument was administered to the students in intact classes. Descriptive
statistics of Means and Standard Deviations were used to answer the research questions
while inferential statistic of ANCOVA was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of
significance. The findings revealed that male students significantly improved in achievement
in algebra more than their female counterparts at F1, 46 = 80.41, p=0.02 < α=0.05 in the
PLM group and F1, 60=102.18, p=0.09 > α=0.05 in the RPLM group. The study
recommended among other things that the two modes of lesson study should be used in
planning and implementing lessons for the various topics in mathematics to improve
students’ gender achievement in mathematics.
Key Words: Modes of Lesson Study, Students’ Achievement, Algebra
Introduction
Mathematics is an immense contributor to technological and nation’s development.
Stressing on the role of mathematics in nation building, Iyekekpolor and Bulus (2009) assert
that any nation that treats mathematics education of her youths with levity does so at her own
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scientific and technological peril. Mathematics is believed to have evolved and developed
out of human needs to meet up with certain expectations of lives and it holds the mirror of
civilization all over the world (Azuka, 2012). Moreover, Agwagah (2013) observes that the
overall national development of any nation and building of a healthy, happy and prosperous
society cannot be successfully achieved without mathematics.
In view of the above, it is quite imperative for secondary school students to acquire
mathematical knowledge and skills necessary for application in science learning and to
enable them prepare well for real life situations. Apart from enabling the students to acquire
essential mathematical knowledge, skills, develop appropriate interest and attitude, the
teaching of mathematics has to help them in many other ways (Sidhu, 2006). Teachers and
learners need to be actively involved in the teaching-learning processes and the instructional
method in use ought to create opportunity for the required interaction to take place (Eriba &
Achor, 2010). In this regards, Modes of Lesson Study (MLS) has been shown to be useful in
teaching and learning of mathematics (Dudley, 2012). Several research findings have
confirmed the effectiveness of lesson study in different countries (Ontario Ministry of
Education, 2014; Dudley, 2012; Fernandez, 2012; Bruce, 2009). The researcher therefore
embarked on this research to ascertain if a similar result could be replicated in Nigeria.
Mode of Lesson Study is a cycle that starts from a defined lesson through observed
lesson implementation to reflection/discussion session that identifies areas of lesson
modification and revision. In this research work, two modes (cycles) are used. In some cases
there could be more than two modes depending on students’ learning outcomes (Easton,
2009). The cycles are not expected to end until students attain a satisfactory learning
outcome (80% achievement rates or better).
The two modes adapted for this study were Planned Lesson Mode (PLM) which is
the first cycle and Revised Planned Lesson Mode (RPLM) would is the second cycle. In the
PLM, the teachers involved jointly plan the lesson with all material available to them, one of
the teacher do the actual teach while the other(s) observed and make notes which would be
used for deliberations after the lesson. At the end of the lesson, the students are interviewed
and information gather are taken back to the drawing board to plan a revision of the lesson
which is the RPLM (Dudley, 2012). The RPLM is focused on key areas identified by the
teacher and the students. This could go on and on till desired success is achieved however,
this study was restricted to two cycles.
Lesson study is a teaching improvement process that has origin in Japanese
elementary education, where it is a wide spread practice (Easton, 2009). It is a professionally
development process that Japanese teachers engaged in to systematically examine their
practices, with the goal of becoming more effective (Lesson Study Research Group, 2014).
Lesson study could be described as a teaching process that involves a group of teachers who
collaboratively plan a lesson, with any member of the group given the responsibility to teach
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the lesson by interacting with the students; the students also interacting among themselves in
peers or groups; while other teachers observe and gather evidence on students’ learning
outcomes; this is then followed by a reflection session after the lesson, to critique and revise
the lesson and teach the revised lesson to the same class or another by the same teacher or
another.
Lesson study requires teachers to work collaboratively to strengthen a given lesson
until it has been refined as much as possible with the aid of data that is generated in the
process. Working in a small group, teachers collaborate with one another, meeting to discuss
learning goals, to plan actual classroom lesson (called a “research lesson”), to observe how it
works in practice, and then to revise and report on the result so that other teachers could
benefit from it (Lesson Study Research Group, 2014). The refining process targets
improving students learning outcomes, specifically, achievement.
Achievement is all about completing goals that one has set for him/herself (Manion,
2014). Achievement can also be defined as the ability to perform a given task successfully
using appropriate knowledge, effort and skills. Iji and Uka (2012) aver that the teacher is a
critical factor in improving students’ achievement in mathematics. The achievement of
students in both internal and external examinations has continually been a cause of worry in
all education quotas (Adaramola & Adolphus, 2013). The West Africa Examination Council
(WAEC) Chief Examiner’s Report (2014) and National Examination Council (NECO) Chief
Examiner’s Reports (2015) indicate that students’ achievement in mathematics has been
poor. In secondary schools too, one of the major concerns among teachers is the issue of
poor achievement of students in mathematics (Tella, 2013).
The contributory role of gender to the poor achievement of students in mathematics
remains debatable with some findings reporting significant difference in students’
achievement (Kurumeh, Jimin, & Mohammed, 2012) others report no significant differences
between gender (Achor, Imoko, & Jimin, 2012). Adaramola and Obomanu (2013) support
the later that girls are equally likely able to achieve as well as boys in mathematics. The
authors assert that girls can study mathematics without gender inferiority. Kojigili (2013)
linked percieved problems with female students’ regarding their performance in mathematics
in Nigerian to the belief that women hold about mathematics as being a male domain.
Kolawole and Oginni (2009) however argue that intellectual curiosity in males is higher than
that of females as a result of their persistence and eagerness to achieve their goals in life.
This study is designed to investigate if gender differences exist among students’ achievement
in mathematics when exposed to MLS.
Research Questions
The following research question was provided to guide the study.
1. What are the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught algebra with
Planned Lesson Mode?
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2. What are the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught algebra with
Revise Planned Lesson Mode?
Null Hypotheses
The following Null hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance.
HO1 There is no significant difference between the mean performance scores of male and
female students taught algebra using PLM.
HO2 There is no significant difference between the mean performance scores of male and
female students taught algebra using RPLM.
Methodology
Quasi-experimental design was used in conducting this research. Specifically, it was
a non-equivalent pre-test, post-test time series experimental-control group design. This
design was adopted because students were used in their intact classes. The scope of
mathematics for the purpose of this study was limited to algebra. The area of study was
Kafanchan Education Zone, Kaduna State, Nigeria. The zone comprised four Local
Government Areas (LGAs). The population of the study consisted of 5,226 Senior
Secondary One (SS1) students made up of 3,545 boys and 1,681 girls from 49 coeducational
senior secondary schools.
A sample of 110 students was selected through a multi-stage sampling technique and
used for this study. In the first stage, two LGAs were selected out of the four LGAs in the
study area by random sampling technique. The random sampling technique was used to give
each element of the population an equal and independent chance of being included in the
sampling. This was done by writing down all the names of the LGAs on pieces of papers.
Purposive sampling technique was used at the second stage to select one co-educational
secondary school with at least one SS1 class in each of the LGAs selected in the first stage.
The purposive sampling technique was used because it ensured that one co-educational
secondary school was selected from each LGA. At the third stage, one intact class was
selected from each of the two schools selected at the second stage by random sampling
technique. If any of the selected schools had only one SS1 class, the class automatically was
selected. A random sampling technique was used to select one class out of the two intact
classes for the PLM group. The remaining intact class was used for the RPLM group. The
PLM consisted of 48 students made up of 33 male students and 15 female students while the
RPLM consisted of 62 students made up of 45 male students and 17 female students.
Three instruments were developed by the researcher and used for the research. The
instruments were Lesson Understanding Written Statements (LUWS), Algebra Achievement
Test (AAT) and Planned Lessons Observation (PLO). The LUWS instrument was made up
of five items for each of the PLM lessons. Items were generated from each learning activity
from the lessons. The items tested the understanding of each activity by the students. The
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instrument was administered at the end of each of the PLM lessons. Students responded to
the items by writing True (T) or False (F) against it. The corresponding weighting for T and
F were 1 or 0 respectively.
The AAT instrument was a 20-item multiple choice test with five options (A, B, C, D
and E). The items in AAT were developed to evaluate lower and higher thinking processes.
The instrument covered SS1 mathematics curriculum content. The PLO instrument had
a number of activities for each lesson. The response to each activities was on a scale ranging
from unsatisfactory, fairly satisfactory, satisfactory, quite satisfactory and very satisfactory
with students’ learning achievement, general remark and any other observation(s).The
research team members responded to the PLO instrument. The responses were used during
the reflection session after the presentation of each planned lesson and used to develop new
lessons for RPLM.
The instruments were validated by one expert in mathematics education and two from
measurement and evaluation. Correction and suggestions from the experts were used to
restructure AAT. Scores generated with the instrument were used to computed the reliability
of the AAT using Kuder-Richardson Formula 20(K-R20) and found to be 0.80.
In the field work, Algebra Achievement Test (AAT) was administered as pre-test
after which PLM were then administered to the first class followed by Lesson Understanding
Written Statements (LUWS). The team also met to discuss Planned Lessons Observation
(PLO) at the end of each lesson and the revised lesson used to teach the RPLM class in
another school. AAT was administered as post test after teaching for six weeks. Data
generated were analysed using descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation to answer
the research question while Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the
hypothesis formulated at 0.05 level of significance.
Data Presentation, Analyses and Interpretation
The result of the study is presented according to the research questions and hypotheses.
Research Question 1
What are the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught algebra with
PLM?
Table 1: Mean achievement scores and standard deviations of male and female students
taught algebra with PLM
Gender N Pre-test Post-test Mean Gain Within
Mean σ Mean σ Gender
Male 33 4.00 0.90 9.70 1.06 5.70
Female 15 1.80 0.77 6.60 1.13 4.80
Mean diff btw gender 2.20 3.10 1.10
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Table 1 presents mean achievement scores with standard deviations of students in
PLM according to gender. The results in the table indicate the mean difference between
gender at pre-test as 2.20 while at post-test, it the mean difference was reported as 3.10. The
mean gain by male students was reported as 5.70 while that of female students was reported
as 4.80. The difference between the mean gains in PLM group was 1.10.
Research Question 2
What are the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught algebra with
RPLM?
Table 2: Mean achievement scores and standard deviations for male and female students
taught algebra with RPLM
Gender N Pre-test Post-test Mean Gain Within
Mean σ Mean σ Gender
Male 44 4.11 0.84 15.18 1.59 11.07
Female 18 2.06 2.20 11.22 0.73 9.16
Mean diff btw gender 2.05 3.96 1.91
Table 2 presents mean achievement scores with standard deviations of students in
RPLM according to their gender. Results in the table indicate the mean difference between
gender at pre-test as 2.05 while at post-test, it the mean difference was reported as 3.96. The
mean gain by male students was reported as 11.07 while that of female students was 9.16.
The difference between the mean gains in RPLM group was 1.91.
Null Hypothesis 1
There is no significant difference between the mean achievement test scores of male and
female students taught algebra with PLM.
Table 3: One-Way ANCOVA for effect of PLM on achievement scores of male and female
students taught algebra with PLM
Source Type III Sum Df Mean Square F Sig.
of Squares
Corrected Model 98.91 1 98.91 80.41 0.00
Intercept 2738.91 1 2738.91 2226.76 0.00
Gender 98.91 1 98.91 80.41 0.02
Error 56.57 46 1.23
Total 3813.00 48
Corrected Total 155.48 47
Table 3 presents one-way ANCOVA for effect of PLM on mean achievement scores of
male and female students in algebra. Data in the table reveal that the observed mean
difference between male and female students taught algebra using PLM is significant at F1, 46
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= 80.41, P = 0.02 < α = 0.05. Hence, the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference
between the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught algebra with PLM
is rejected. The conclusion drawn is that there exists difference in mean achievement scores
of the students.
Null Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference between the mean achievement test
scores of male and female students taught algebra with RPLM
Table 4: One Way ANCOVA Report on effect of RPLM on achievement scores of male and
female students taught algebra
Source Type III Sum Df Mean Square F Sig.
of Squares
Corrected Model 200.28 1 200.28 102.18 0.00
Intercept 8905.83 1 8905.83 4543.79 0.00
Gender 200.28 1 200.28 102.18 0.09
Error 117.66 60 1.96
Total 12526.00 62
Corrected Total 317.93 61
Table 4 shows a one-way ANCOVA for effect of RPLM on the mean achievement
scores of male and female students in algebra. Results in the table indicate that the observed
mean difference between the achievement scores of male and female students taught algebra
using RPLM is not significant at F1, 60 = 102.18, p = 0.00 > α = 0.05. Hence, the null
hypothesis that there is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of
male and female students taught algebra using RPLM is not rejected.
Discussion of Findings
The findings of the study showed that the male students in the PLM group achieved
better than their female counterparts. This finding was attributed to the fact that, though
mathematics teachers teamed to develop lessons for the PLM, male students through their
personal experiences still had an upper hand in understanding mathematics. The finding is in
agreement with the findings of Lewis, Perry and Hurd (2009) who showed that male students
taught with PLM achieved significantly higher than their female counterparts. The finding of
this study also conformed with the finding of Pektas (2014) who also found that after
exposure to PLM lesson study, male students demonstrated significantly higher mastery of
mathematics concepts in examinations than female students.
The study also found that there was no significant difference in the mean achievement
scores of male and female students exposed to RPLM. This could be because both male and
students equally improved in the assimilation, accommodation, reflective abstraction
processes involved in subjective cognitive construction of knowledge and constructed
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knowledge and meanings from experiences through sharing of ideas in various groups, as a
result of interactions with one another in learning. The findings of this study are in line with
the findings of Sengul and Katranci (2014) who indicated that the mean achievement scores
of male and female students exposed to RPLM did not significantly differ at post-test. This
finding also correlates with Sikko and Lyngred (2011) finding that there was no significant
difference in mean achievement scores of male and female students in algebra in some
intervention study.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it could be said that the two modes of lesson study offer a framework for
outcome based education which is a thrust towards greater learner centred approach and
favours both male and female students. With this result, the persistent poor understanding
and achievement of Nigerian secondary school students in mathematics especially in algebra
need not continue indefinitely. There is hope that with the two modes of lesson study the
situation could be changed for the better.
Recommendations
This study has shown that the two modes of lesson study is effective and have great impact
on students’ achievement in mathematics. Based on this finding, the researcher recommends
that the following become very essential and immediate.
1. The two modes of lesson study should be used in planning lessons for the various topics
in mathematics to improve students’ understanding and enhance achievement in
mathematics especially in algebra aspect of mathematics.
2. School authorities should ensure that mathematics laboratories are established to
encourage hands-on-activities among the students especially the female students in
practical teaching and learning.
3. Where teachers are not competent in implement or knowledgeable about RPLM, extra
tutorials should be arrange for the weaker sex in order to boost their understanding of
mathematics concepts.
References
Achor, E.E., Imoko, B.I., & Jimin, N. (2012). Improving some Nigeria secondary school
students’achievement in geometry: a field report on team teaching. New York Science
Journal. 5 (1); 37-43.Retrieved March 3, 2014 from
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Adaramola, M. O, & Obomanu, B. J. (2013). Correlates of certain ability in mathematics
achievement measured using Bloom’s technology among secondary school students in
Nigeria. Abacus: The Journal of the MathematicalAssociation of Nigeria. 38(1); 93-
102.
Adaramola, M.O. & Adolphus, T. (2013). Teaching further mathematics in Nigeria secondary
schools for technological development through polya model. Proceedings of September
annual national conference Mathematical Association of Nigeria (M.A.N.). 24-33.
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Agwagah, U. (2013). Improving the teaching of mathematics for attainment of seven point
agenda: implication for gender parity. Abacus: The Journal of the Mathematical
Association of Nigeria. 38(1); 111-121.
Azuka, B.F. (2012). Improving the memory of students in mathematics classroom towards
better performance. Abacus: The Journal of the Mathematical Association of Nigeria.
37 (1); 65-72.
Bruce, C.D. (2009). Lesson study and demonstration classrooms: examining the effects of
two models of teacher professional development. Toronto: Ministry of Education
GAINS initiative.
Dudley, P. (2012) Lesson Study in England: from school networks to national policy.
International Journal of Lesson and Learning Studies, 1(1); 85-100
Eriba, J.O & Achor, E.E. (2010). Effects of school type and teacher gender on classroom
interaction patterns in integrated science classes. Brunei International Journal of
Science and Mathematics Education. 2(1); 48-58.Retieved March 3, 2014 from
http://shbieejournal.wordpress.com/journals/ bijsme/bijsme-vol-2-no-1-yr-2010/
Fernandez, C. (2012). Learning from Japanese approaches to professional development: The
case of lesson study. Journal of Teacher Education. 53(5); 393-405.
Iji, C.O. & Uka, N.K. (2012). Influence of teachers’ qualification on students’ mathematics
achievement and interest in Makurdi local government area secondary schools, Benue
State. Abacus: The Journal of the Mathematical Association of Nigeria. 37 (1); 38-48.
Iyekekpolor, S.A.O. & Bulus O.S. (2009). Teachers’ perception of the problems of secondary
school mathematics teaching in southern Taraba state. Abacus: The Journal of the
Mathematical Association of Nigeria. 34 (1); 112-119.
Kojigili, S.T. (2013). Mathematics beliefs of female preserve teachers of mathematics in
higher institutions in Adamawa state, Nigeria. Abacus: The Journal of the Mathematical
Association of Nigeria. 38 (1); 12-20.
Kolawole, E.B. & Oginni, I.O. (2009). Effectiveness of laboratory method of teaching on
students’ performance in senior secondary school mathematics. Abacus: The Journal of
the Mathematical Association of Nigeria. 34 (1); 120-125.
Kurumeh, M.S., N. Jimin., & A.S. Mohammed. (2012). Enhancing senior secondary
students’ achievement in algebra using inquiry method of teaching in Onitsha
Educational Zone of Anambra State, Nigeria. Journal of Emerging Trends in
Educational Research and Policy Studies, 3(6): 863-868.
Lesson Study Research Group (2014). What is lesson study? Retrieved March 3, 2014 from
http://www.tc.columbia.edu/lessonstudy/lessonstudy.html.
Lewis, C.C., Perry R.R. & Hurd, J. (2009). Improving mathematics instruction through lesson
study: a theoretical model and North American case. Retrieved June 9, 2014 from
http://elac.ex.ac.uk/lessonstudymld/userfiles/Lewis%20et%20al%202009.pdf
Manion, N. (2014). What is achievement? Retrieved March24,2014from http://www.ask.
com/question/what-is-achievement
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NECO (2015). Chief Examiner’s Annual Reports. Minna: NECO.
Ontario Ministry of Education. (2014). Leading mathematics success: mathematical literacy
grades 7-12. The Report of the Expert Panel on Student Success in Ontario.
http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/reports/numeracy/numeracyreport.pdf
Pektas, K. (2014). Effects of lesson study on science teacher candidates’ teaching efficacy.
Academic Journals of Educational Research and Reviews. 9(6); 164-172. Retrieved
May 31,2014from http://academicjournals.org/article1397057182 Pektas.pdf
Sengul, S. & Katranci, Y. (2014). Effects of jigsaw technique on seventh grade primary
school students’ attitude towards mathematics in Turkey. International Journal on New
Trends in Education and Their Implications. 5(4); 190-204.
Sidhu, K.S. (2006). The teaching of mathematics: New Delhi, India: Sterling Publishers
Private Limited.
Sikko, S.A. & Lyngred (2011). Effect of inquiry-based learning on students’ achievement in
algebra. Acta Didactica Norge. 6(1); 127-139.
Tella, A. (2013). Effects of environmental variables on students’ achievement in mathematics
in some selected schools in Ila LGA Osun state, Nigeria. Abacus: The Journal of the
Mathematical Association of Nigeria. 38 (1); 21-31.
WAEC (2014). Chief Examiner’s Annual Reports. Lagos: WAEC.
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Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo
Demographic Variables and Leadership Behaviour of Secondary School
Teachers in Kano State
Dr . Abdullahi Sango
Department of Curriculum and Instructions
Federal College of Education, Okene
[email protected] 08033619159
Muhammad Badamasi Abdullahi
Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education
Northwest University, Kano
Dr. Danladi Sa’adu Ibrahim
Department of Education
Sule Lamido University, Kafin Hausa
[email protected] 08023640004
Abstract
The study was conducted to identify the leadership style of teachers in secondary schools
of Kano state. Normative survey designed was deemed necessary for the study in order to
investigate the current scenario of teacher's leadership behavior in Kano state secondary
schools. Meanwhile, the investigator prepared and used a questionnaire titled “Leadership
behavior Scale (LBS)”. The scale contained 18 different items validated by experience
experts on Educational Planning and Administration. The 18 item instrument consisted of
first 6 item suited Autocratic type of leadership, the second 6 item for Democratic type of
leadership and the last six item Laissez-faire. Moreover, to ascertain the workability and
reliability of the prepared tool for the study, A pilot study was carried out on fifty teachers
in which they answered the same questions twice with three weeks interval a coefficient of
items stability of 0.60 was obtained. A sample size of 300 secondary school teachers was
used and stratified random sampling employed (Gender, qualification, experience) as the
strata. The data were carefully tabulated and statistically analyzed. Findings of the study
revealed that; there is no significant association between Gender, educational
qualification, working experience and leadership behavior of teachers in Secondary school
of Kano state. Recommendations were made for the application of strategies in teacher
training institute to take into account development of democratic leadership style through
teaching and learning and other extracurricular activities, e.g. Student Union
Keywords: Leadership styles; Behavior; Teachers; schools.
Introduction
Leadership- Is a process of mutual stimulation by any person who during the time,
and in so far as will, feelings and insight directs, controls others in the pursuit of specific
cause (Pigon 1935). However, to become a more effective leader, a person must analyze his
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own leadership style and determine the scope of his own leadership zone. Leadership style
differs from one individual to another which is cause due to discrepancies in total
personality of individual concerned (Ronald 2000).
Leadership is the ability of a manager to induce subordinates to work with
confidence and zeal; it is also seen as an activity of influencing people to strive willingly for
mutual achievement of objectives. Educations aims at total development of students, it is a
dynamic process that is influence by the personality of teachers and school managers, the
teachers of secondary schools organizes a number of curricular and extra-curricular activities
in attempt to develop students’ personality. The secondary school has the average age group
of 13-15 years. The period in secondary school is the time the maximum level of talent and
skills is achieved. In order to inculcate suitable experiences to students, the teachers are to
possess good skills and strategies that will make them to serve as a role model for the
growing students.
Mott (2014) viewed three major leadership style; the democratic, the multifactor and
the situational, the democratic styles promotes open communication with effective members
taking part in the decision making process. The multifactor style takes into account certain
"factors" with 'task" and "expressive" factors considered as the main factors, the "task"
factor includes activities that implement work objectives and set standard objectives and
goals. The “expressive" factors considers activities designed to integrate the group socio-
emotionally. The multifactor style considers many conditioning variables such as position in
the hierarchy, degree of professionalism, personality patterns present within work groups
and nature of work performed. The situational style also gives attention to different set of
conditioning variables as they influence the action of leaders. Included among these
situational variables are the positional power of the leader, the degree of group tasks and the
satisfying character of leader-member relations.
Jennings (2008) analyses by view the four different types of leadership style viz;
Autocratic, Bureaucratic, Democrat and Neurocrat. However, many identified similar
leadership style. The result is a continuum of styles ranging from the very Authoritative to
the very free, which divides readily into three general styles of classification; in regard to the
Autocratic approach to leadership: an individual using this style determines all policies,
activities and goals of the organization. Leaders with this style take no part in the work
except when conducting meetings, telling others what to do or when demonstrating how to
do what needs doing, members of the organization led by an Autocrat are uncertain about
what to do and usually take only actions they are told to take. An autocratic leader is
"personal" in both praise and criticism of the work performed by each organization member.
Next considered is the democratic leadership style, this produces a shared leadership
that promotes a feeling of satisfaction and achievement as the group makes progress in task.
The leader helps organization members to understand the steps required in working towards
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organizational goals. Members responds to this style by taking greater responsibility for
group maintenance and task performance, members also shows more interest in their work
because they feel that they have a "stake" in it.
Then the last type of leadership style among the three is the laissez-faire or in other
word, free- rein leadership style. In this approach, the leader gives minimum guidance.
Leaders using this style remain in the background and seldom express an opinion or work
with organization members. The members under this leader have almost complete freedom,
operate with a minimum of rules and often serve as leaders in making decisions that guide
the organization (Franklin, 2005). Leadership style is significant factor in the productivity of
any organization; however, human behavior is never consistent due to its dynamic nature. It
is good to identify the trend of leadership style in our schools especially among the teachers.
Therefore, the critical concern of this study is to find out the association of leadership style
and other demographic Gender, educational qualification and working experience.
Objectives of the Study
The main objective of the study was to determine demographic variables and leadership
styles of secondary school teachers in Kano State. Specifically the study sought to:
1. Determine gender and leadership style of secondary school teachers in Kano State.
2. Determine educational qualification and leadership style of secondary school teachers
in Kano State.
3. Determine working experience and leadership style of secondary school teachers in
Kano State
Null Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance
1. There is no significant association between gender and leadership style of secondary
school teachers in Kano state.
2. There is no significant association between educational qualification and teacher's
leadership styles in Kano state
3. There is no significant association between working experience and teacher's
leadership styles in Kano state
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Methodology
The researcher followed the normative survey design to conduct the research in Dala
zonal education unit. This is in order to reveal out the currently existing leadership behavior
in secondary school teachers in Kano state. The population of the study comprises of all
1473 senior secondary school teachers in Dala zonal Education as at the conduct of this
investigation. The population variability considered for this cut across gender, working
experience and qualification with respect to the already stated hypotheses. '
The determined sample size for this study was estimated at 300 secondary school
teachers on critical cognizance with Krejcie and Morgan table of sample size determination
(1970). This is because of its universal accessibility and applicability in numerous scholars
point of view in regard to determination of sample size. The sample size was selected based
on stratified random sampling technique; the strata involved Gender, working experience
and educational qualification.
The study involved the use of 18-item self-framed leadership behavior Scale (LBS).
It was validated through adherence to observations, recommendation and guidance from
expert committee specifically in educational planning and administration. The reliability
index of 0.60 (coefficient of stability) was obtained through test-retest method carried upon
50 secondary school teachers in government secondary school Kwachiri under Nassarawa
zone in the pilot study. This proved the suitability, validity and reliability of the instrument
for the study. The investigator has systematically selected 23 schools from four cardinal
points of the zone in which each point was allocated five schools while the remaining three
were selected from the center part of the zone. After formal approval from the Schools
principals, the leadership behavior scale was administered to 300 teachers. The data
collected were carefully tabulated and statistically analyzed with appropriate statistical
technique
Data Analyses
The collected Data were labelled, coded and analyzed using PASW (16.0 version). The
technique used for the analysis of the data was non-parametric Chi-square statistic for
taking into consideration the data.
Table I
Null Hypothesis 1
There is no significant association between gender and leadership style Secondary School
teachers in Kano State
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Gender and Leadership Style
Gender Autocratic Democratic Laissez- Fair Total
92 19 128
Male 17 124 20 172
Female 28 216 39 300
TOTAL 45
In the result of table-I, the obtained Chi-square value is 1.024 which is far
less than the table value of 5.991 at 0.05 level of significance, hence there is
no significant association between gender and leadership behavior
Null Hypothesis 2: There is no significant association between educational qualification
and
Table2 teacher's leadership behavior
Qualifications Autocratic Democratic Laissez- Fair Total
Diploma/NCE 24 119 17 160
Graduate/HND 21 97 22 140
Total 45 216 39 300
In table 2 the obtained Chi-square value in Table –II is 1.756 which is less
than the table value of 5.99 at 0.05 level of significance. Hence there is no
significant association between teacher's qualification and leadership style.
Null Hypothesis 3: There is no significant association between working experience and
teacher's leadership styles in Kano state
Table 3 Experience and Leadership Style
Experience Autocratic Democratic Laissey- Faire Total
1- 10 years 202
11- 20 years 30 147 25 87
21 years and 11
above 13 61 13
Total 300
02 08 01
45 216 39
The Chi-square value in Table 3 is 0.580 and this is less than the table value of 9.49 at 0.05
level of
significance. Hence, there is no significant association between teacher's working experience
and their leadership style.
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Discussion of Findings
It was observed in this study that few teachers are of Autocratic leadership style
majority are of Democratic type with only negligible numbers is of laissez fair type.
However, from the scores recorded, situational tendencies plays significant role in the
teacher's behavior of leadership in the way how scores goes in the same direction with
regard to behavior style in leadership. This is in line with the view of Mott (1972) in his
explanation of situational tendencies (one of the three).Another interesting development is
the outnumbering of democratic style over the autocratic and laissez- fair which is a
welcome trend in the administration of our schools in this democratic dispensation.
However, the three demographic variables of this study viz, gender, educational
qualifications and working experience does not determine individual style of leadership, for
this, they cannot be used as a yardstick upon which school leaders shall be made.
Conclusion
Based on this research, the tendency of autocratic leaders to change to democratic is very
wide if training from expert in behavior therapy and adjustment are involved, meanwhile,
the laissez-fair could also contribute to the student development for they provide a complete
freedom which can serve as an encouragement factor for growth of creativity and
innovations.
Recommendations
It is recommended that the teacher training program shall come forward to develop
democratic leadership style through teaching and learning and other extracurricular
activities e.g. SUG, MSS, Rotary club, Red cross, Scout among others. Furthermore,
teachers' welfare shall be given ample consideration to help student learning atmosphere
References:
Franklin, S.H. (2005).Group Leadership and Democratic Action. Cambridge, mass:
Houghton Mifflin co.
Lester, C.N. (1975). A celebration of teacher education in an open and distance learning
(ODL) in Nigeria: Attainments, challenges and strategies in teaching education.
Journal of Extension, Vol 4 No 2
Mott, P.E. (2014). The Characteristic of Effective Organization. NewYork, Herperad Row
Publishers.
Pigon, P. (1973). Leadership and Domination. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Ronald, E. (2000). Leadership and Leadership Effectiveness in Organization. Stride
Associate ltd. Enugu.
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Securing Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN), Review of some Models and
Frameworks.
Bello, Samaila & Jafaru, Badamasi
Department of Computer Science Education,
Isa Kaita College of Education,
P.M.B 5007, Dutsin-ma, Katsina State.
Email- [email protected]
Email-
[email protected]
Abstract
As the popularity of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) increases, recent researches revealed
its drawback and the delays for its rapid growth and development. Sensor nodes are the
building block of WSNs deployed in a hostile environment for monitoring, an act that makes
it vulnerable to attacks. This research showed how WSN resources constraint like memory,
energy and computational power is making it, even more, prone to security threats. The study
also analysed various existing security models and frameworks and conclude that no single
security model can be an appropriate countermeasure to all types of attacks. However, some
models were found to be better than others in terms of resource utilization or appropriate for
certain specific network topologies.
Keywords: Wireless Sensor Network, Sensor, Nodes.
Introduction
The world has witnessed a lot of technological developments that simplifies man’s
hardship, especially in recent decades. One of those developments is a computer technology
that enable communication without the use of physical wires, wireless technology. IEEE
802.11 is a known standard for Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN). Despite its
marvellous growth over the recent years, security remains the major concern in Wireless
Technology (Skendzic & Kovacic, 2014). Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is a wireless-
based technology that deploys several devices equipped with sensors that perform
collaborative measurement processes. The technology operates by using sensors (nodes) to
detect changes in physical parameters like the wind, temperature, pressure, movement, and so
on. Usually, these sensors are deployed in large number to foster large coverage and improve
efficiency (Khalil, 2011).
The application of WSN is mostly common in areas of ecological sensing such as
forest fire detection, monitoring of enemies in the war field by the military, traffic
surveillance, healthcare, etcetera. Despite the application of WSN in sensitive areas, there are
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certain constraints hampering its development. These includes limited energy, weak
computational power, limited memory, and communication bandwidth as noted by Khalil
(2011); Sengupta, Das, Nasir, Vasilakos and Pedrycz (2012); Movaghati and Ardakani
(2014); and Jianzhong, Guohua and Hong (2015). Obviously, it is noticeable that one of the
functions of sensors is to transmit data which of course require power to do that. Also, WSN
requires an efficient way of protecting nodes from being compromised or diverting the data
acquired to an entirely different location (to an adversary). This can only be achieved if the
network is guided against all sort of attacks using the best power effective method.
The fact that a network is wireless makes it susceptible to attacks. This is because air
is the medium of sending a signal, making it open to others. And the fact that people are
aware of this makes it more prone to security breaches. Therefore, WSN is insecure for the
fact that it is wireless and even worst because of its limitations mentioned above. With the
application of WSN in sensitive areas, (Adnan, Yossuff & Hashim, 2010) opined that WSN
needs to be protected especially from physical attacks. There are however other devastating
attacks like those mentioned by Tamil and Sridharan (2009) and Segovia, Grampin and
Baliosian (2013). According to them, they include collision, exhaustion, interrogation,
jamming, and eavesdropping.
Nevertheless, a lot of efforts were made in the past and even at present to develop
mechanisms as countermeasures to security issues bothering WSN. A feasible mechanism
local monitoring, nodes monitor a part of the traffic arriving or leaving its neighbour node to
identify any malicious attribute. Using this, intrusion can be detected and alarm can be
triggered. However, this does not work well due to its high-power consumption because of
the consistent monitoring by nodes (Khalil, 2011). Several other frameworks like the node
sleep-wake framework, secure boot model, data aggregation model, and so on were proposed
by different scholars like Bhuiyan, Guojun, Jiannong and Jie (2013); Wazid, Katal and
Goudar (2013) Farah and Nabila (2014); Shaukat, Hashim and Sali (2014); and Goyal,
Bhatia and Verma (2015); The present research is out to bridge the gap by analysing the likes
of those models and determine their suitability in terms of power consumption, memory
utilization, bandwidth consumption and processing efficiency in WSN.
Research Problem
The importance of WSNs cannot be overemphasized, especially in the present era of
terrorism, global warming, and other power and health challenges that requires the use of
sensors. Tamil and Sridharan (2009) identified collision, exhaustion, interrogation, jamming,
and eavesdropping as some of the devastating attacks on WSNs. This agrees with Segovia,
Grampin and Baliosian (2013). Similarly, there are a handful security models and frame
works designed to curve the known security problems. However, some of these models and
frame works could squarely address the problems of power, memory, and bandwidth in their
attempt to address the security challenges. Consequently, it is paramount to identify the right
models with efficient power utilization, memory efficiency, and bandwidth optimization on
the course of proving security solutions.
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