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Tindak Balas Redoks
Bab 1 Redox Reaction

1.1 Pengoksidaan dan Penurunan
Oxidation and Reduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Keupayaan Elektrod Piawai
©PAN ASIA PUBLICATIONS
Standard Electrode Potential ..............................................................................................................................................................................................19
1.3 Sel Kimia
Voltaic Cell ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................22
1.4 Sel Elektrolisis
Electrolytic Cell ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................29
1.5 Pengekstrakan Logam daripada Bijihnya
Extraction of Metals from Its Ore ........................................................................................................................................................................................46
1.6 Pengaratan
Rusting ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................49

Sebatian Karbon
Bab 2 Carbon Compound
2.1 Jenis-jenis Sebatian Karbon
Types of Carbon Compound ................................................................................................................................................................................................55
2.2 Siri Homolog
Homologous Series ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................57
2.3 Sifat Kimia dan Saling Pertukaran antara Siri Homolog
Chemical Properties and Interconversion between the Homologous Series .......................................................................................................................68
2.4 Isomer dan Penamaan mengikut Tatanama IUPAC
Isomer and Naming According to IUPAC Nomenclature ....................................................................................................................................................83
Termokimia
Bab 3 Thermochemistry

3.1 Perubahan Haba dalam Tindak Balas
Heat Change in Reactions ...................................................................................................................................................................................................90
3.2 Haba Tindak Balas
Heat of Reaction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................96
3.3 Tindak Balas Endotermik dan Eksotermik dalam Kehidupan Harian
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions in Daily Life .....................................................................................................................................................123
Kimia Polimer
Bab 4 Polymer Chemistry

4.1 Polimer
Polymer .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................127
4.2 Getah Asli
Natural Rubber ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................136
4.3 Getah Sintetik
Synthetic Rubber ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................146

Kimia Konsumer dan Industri
Bab 5 Consumer and Industrial Chemistry

5.1 Minyak dan Lemak
Oils and Fats .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................149
5.2 Bahan Pencuci
Cleaning Agents ................................................................................................................................................................................................................154
5.3 Bahan Tambah Makanan
Food Additives. .................................................................................................................................................................................................................164
5.4 Ubat-ubatan dan Bahan Kosmetik
Medicines and Cosmetics ..................................................................................................................................................................................................166
5.5 Nanoteknologi dalam Industri
Nanotechnology in Industry ..............................................................................................................................................................................................170
5.6 Teknologi Hijau dalam Pengurusan Sisa Industri
Green Technology in Industrial Waste Management. ........................................................................................................................................................172

Bab

1 Tindak Balas Redoks

Redox Reactions





1.1 Pengoksidaan dan Penurunan
Oxidation and Reduction


A Menerangkan Tindak Balas Redoks
Describe Redox Reactions
1. Pengoksidaan dan penurunan boleh dijelaskan dari segi:
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Oxidation and reduction can be explained in terms of:
Pengoksidaan Penurunan
Oxidation Reduction
Oksigen Penambahan oksigen Kehilangan oksigen
Oxygen
Gain Loss
of oxygen of oxygen
Hidrogen Kehilangan Penambahan
Hydrogen hidrogen hidrogen
Loss of hydrogen Gain of hydrogen

Elektron Kehilangan elektron Menerima elektron
Electron
Loss Gain
of electrons of electrons
Nombor pengoksidaan Peningkatan Penurunan
Oxidation number nombor pengoksidaan nombor pengoksidaan
Increase in the oxidation number Decrease in the oxidation number

2. Tindak balas redoks ialah tindak balas kimia yang melibatkan penurunan dan pengoksidaan yang berlaku secara
serentak. Contoh tindak balas redoks:
Redox reactions are chemical reactions involving reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously. Example of redox reactions:
(a) Pemindahan elektron pada suatu jarak/ Transfer of electron at a distance
(b) Pertukaran ion Fe kepada ion Fe dan sebaliknya/ Change of iron(II) ions, Fe to iron(III) ions, Fe and vice versa
2+
3+
2+
3+
(c) Penyesaran logam daripada larutan garamnya/ Displacement of metal from its salt solution
(d) Penyesaran halogen daripada larutan halidanya/ Displacement of halogen from its halide solution
3. Agen pengoksidaan ialah bahan yang menyebabkan pengoksidaan . Dalam tindak balas redoks, agen
pengoksidaan mengalami penurunan.
The oxidising agent is the substance that causes oxidation . It is reduced in the redox reaction.
4. Agen penurunan ialah bahan yang menyebabkan penurunan . Dalam tindak balas redoks, agen penurunan
mengalami pengoksidaan.
reduction
The reducing agent is the substance that causes . It is oxidised in the redox reaction.

Agen penurunan/ Reducing agent Agen pengoksidaan/ Oxidising agent


1. Menderma/ Donates hidrogen/ hydrogen 1. Menerima/ Accepts hidrogen/ hydrogen

2. Menerima/ Accepts oksigen/ oxygen 2. Menderma/ Donates oksigen/ hydrogen

3. Menderma/ Donates elektron/ electron 3. Menerima/ Accepts elektron/ electron

4. Pertambahan/ Increase nombor pengoksidaan/ 4. Pengurangan/ Decrease nombor pengoksidaan/
in oxidation number in oxidation number





1

Contoh/ Examples: Contoh/ Examples:
1. Ferum(II) sulfat/ Iron(II) sulphate, FeSO 4 1. Larutan kalium manganat(VII) berasid/ Acidifi ed
2. Kalium iodida/ Potassium iodide, KI potassium manganate(VII) solution, KMnO / H +
4
3. Gas hidrogen/ Hydrogen gas, H 2 2. Larutan kalium dikromat(VI) berasid/ Acidifi ed
4. Serbuk zink/ Zink powder, Zn potassium dichromate(VI) solution, K Cr O / H +
7
2
2
5. Gas sulfur dioksida/ Sulfur dioxide gas, SO 2 3. Air klorin/ Chlorine water, Cl 2

6. Gas hidrogen sulfida/ Hydrogen sulfi de gas, H S 4. Air bromin/ Bromine water, Br
2 2
Contoh/Example 1

( Pengoksidaan/Oxidation )

Mg + PbO  MgO + Pb
Contoh/Example 3 ©PAN ASIA PUBLICATIONS

( Penurunan/Reduction )

(a) Magnesium, Mg mengalami pengoksidaan kerana berlaku penambahan oksigen.
oxidises gains
Magnesium, Mg is because it oxygen.
(b) Plumbum(II) oksida, PbO mengalami penurunan kerana berlaku kehilangan oksigen.
reduced loses
Lead(II) oxide, PbO is because it oxygen.
(c) Magnesium, Mg ialah agen penurunan kerana menyebabkan penurunan plumbum(II) oksida, PbO.
reducing reduction
Magnesium, Mg is the agent. It causes the of lead(II) oxide, PbO .
(d) Plumbum(II) oksida, PbO ialah agen pengoksidaan kerana menyebabkan pengoksidaan magnesium, Mg.
oxidises oxidation
Lead(II) oxide, PbO is the agent. It causes the of magnesium.


Contoh/Example 2

( Pengoksidaan/Oxidation )

H S + Cl  S + 2HCl
2
2
( Penurunan/Reduction )


(a) Hidrogen sulfida, H S mengalami pengoksidaan kerana berlaku kehilangan hidrogen.
2
Hydrogen sulphide, H S is oxidises because it loses hydrogen.
2
(b) Klorin, Cl mengalami penurunan kerana berlaku penambahan hidrogen.
2
Chlorine,Cl is reduced because it gains hydrogen.
2
(c) Hidrogen sulfida, H S ialah agen penurunan kerana menyebabkan penurunan klorin, Cl .

2 2
Hydrogen sulphide, H S is the reducing agent. It causes the reduction of chlorine,Cl .
2 2

(d) Klorin, Cl ialah agen pengoksidaan kerana menyebabkan pengoksidaan hidrogen sulfida, H S.
2 2
Chlorine,Cl is the oxidises agent. It causes the oxidation of hydrogen sulphide, H S.
2 2



Zn Zn +2e (Persamaan setengah/ Half-equation)
2+
Zn + CuSO  ZnSO + Cu
4
4
Cu + 2e Cu (Persamaan setengah/Half-equation)
2+



2

(a) Zink, Zn mengalami pengoksidaan kerana kehilangan 2 elektron untuk membentuk ion zink, Zn .
2+
oxidises
Zinc, Zn is because it loses 2 electrons to form zinc ion, Zn .
2+
(b) Kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO mengalami penurunan kerana ion kuprum(II), Cu menerima 2 elektron
2+
4
untuk membentuk atom kuprum, Cu.
reduced 2
Copper(II) sulphate, CuSO is because copper(II) ion, Cu gains electrons to form copper atom, Cu.
2+
4
(c) Zink, Zn ialah agen penurunan kerana menyebabkan penurunan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO .
4
reducing reduction
Zinc, Zn is the agent. It causes the of copper(II) sulphate, CuSO .
4
(d) Kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO ialah agen pengoksidaan kerana menyebabkan pengoksidaan zink, Zn.
4
Copper(II) sulphate, CuSO is the oxidising agent. It causes the oxidation of zinc, Zn.
4
daripada ©PAN ASIA PUBLICATIONS
Contoh/Example 4

Nombor pengoksidaan bertambah / The oxidation number increases

H + CuO H O + Cu
2 2
0 +2 –2 +1 –2 0



Nombor pengoksidaan berkurang / The oxidation number decreases

(a) Hidrogen, H mengalami pengoksidaan kerana nombor pengoksidaan bertambah daripada 0 kepada
2
+1 .
Hydrogen, H undergoes oxidation because the oxidation number increases from 0 to +1 .
2
(b) Ion kuprum(II), Cu mengalami penurunan kerana nombor pengoksidaan berkurang daripada +2
2+
kepada 0 .
Copper(II) ion, Cu undergoes reduction because the oxidation number of copper decreases from +2 to 0 .
2+
(c) Ion kuprum(II), Cu ialah agen pengoksidaan ./ Copper(II) ion, Cu is the oxidation agent.
2+
2+
(d) Hidrogen, H ialah agen penurunan ./ Hydrogen, H is the reducing agent.
2 2


Contoh/Example 5


Zn + CuSO ZnSO + Cu
4 4
0 +2 +6 –2 +2 +6 –2 0

(a) Zink, Zn mengalami pengoksidaan kerana nombor pengoksidaan meningkat daripada 0 kepada
+2 .
oxidation 0 +2
Zinc, Zn undergoes because the oxidation number increases from to .
(b) Kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO mengalami penurunan kerana nombor pengoksidaan ion kuprum(II), Cu menurun
2+
4
+2 kepada 0 .
+2
2+
Copper(II) sulphate, CuSO undergoes reduction because the oxidation number of copper(II) ion, Cu decreases from to
4
0
.
(c) Zink ialah agen penurunan ./ Zinc is the reducing agent.
(d) Kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO ialah agen pengoksidaan ./ Copper(II) sulphate, CuSO is the oxidising agent.
4
4



3

I Pemindahan Elektron pada Suatu Jarak/ Transfer of Electrons at a Distance
1. Dalam tindak balas redoks, agen penurunan menderma elektron kepada agen pengoksidaan.
donates
In a redox reaction, a reducing agent electrons to an oxidising agent.
2. Apabila agen pengoksidaan dan agen penurunan dipisahkan oleh elektrolit dalam suatu tiub-U, elektron
dipindahkan melalui litar luar .
When an oxidising agent and a reducing agent are separated by an electrolyte in a U-tube, the electrons are transferred
through an external circuit .
3. Pemindahan elektron boleh dikesan dengan galvanometer. Pesongan jarum galvanometer akan menunjukkan
arah aliran elektron.

The transfer of the electrons can be detected by a galvanometer. The defl ection of the galvanometer needle will show the
direction
of the fl ow of electrons.
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4. Elektrod yang diletakkan dalam larutan agen penurunan bertindak sebagai terminal negatif .
negative
The electrode placed in a reducing agent solution acts as the terminal.
5. Elektrod yang diletakkan dalam larutan agen pengoksidaan bertindak sebagai terminal positif .
positive
The electrode placed in an oxidising agent solution acts as the terminal.
A KTIVITI 1.1


Tujuan/ Aim:
Mengkaji pemindahan elektron pada suatu jarak dalam tindak balas redoks
To investigate the transfer of electrons at a distance in redox reaction
Bahan/ Materials:
–3
–3
Air klorin, larutan ferum(II) sulfat, FeSO 0.5 mol dm , asid sulfurik cair, H SO 2.0 mol dm , larutan kalium
4 2 4
-3
dikromat(VI), K Cr O berasid larutan kalium iodida, KI 0.5 mol dm , larutan kalium manganat(VII), KMnO
2 2 7 4
berasid 0.2 mol dm , larutan kanji 1%, larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH
-3
Chlorine water, 0.5 mol dm iron(II) sulphate, FeSO solution, 2.0 mol dm dilute sulphuric acid, H SO , acidifi ed
–3
–3
Eksperimen Wajib
2
4
4
potassium dichromate(VI), K Cr O solution, 0.5 mol dm potassium iodide, KI solution, 0.2 mol dm acidifi ed potassium
-3
-3
2
7
2
manganate(VII), KMnO solution, 1% starch solution, sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution
4
Radas/ Apparatus:
Tiub-U, galvanometer, elektrod karbon, wayar penyambung dengan klip buaya, elektrod karbon, kaki retort
dan pengapit, tabung uji, penitis, penutup satu lubang
U-tube, galvanometer, carbon electrodes, connecting wires with crocodile clips, carbon electrodes, retort stand with
clamp, test tube, dropper, stoppers with one hole
Prosedur/ Procedure:
G
Elektrod karbon Elektrod karbon
Carbon electrode Carbon electrode
Agen penurunan Agen pengoksidaan
Reducing agent Oxidising agent
Asid sulfurik cair H SO
2 4
Dilute sulphuric acid, H SO
2 4
Rajah/Diagram 1.1
1. Tiub-U diapit secara menegak pada kaki retort.
A U-tube is clamped upright to a retort stand.
–3
2. Asid sulfurik, H SO cair 1.0 mol dm dituang ke dalam tiub-U sehingga arasnya 6 cm daripada mulut
2 4
tiub-U.
1.0 mol dm dilute sulphuric acid, H SO is poured into the U-tube until its levels are 6 cm away from the mouth of
–3
4
2
the U-tube.
–3
3. Menggunakan penitis, larutan ferum(II) sulfat, FeSO 0.5 mol dm ditambahkan dengan berhati-hati pada
4
lengan kiri tiub-U sehingga lapisan larutan setinggi 3 cm.
Using a dropper, 0.5 mol dm iron(II) sulphate, FeSO solution is carefully added into the left arm of the U-tube until
-3
4
the layer of solution reaches the height of 3 cm.
4

-3
4. Menggunakan cara yang sama seperti langkah 3, 0.2 mol dm larutan kalium manganat(VII) berasid,
KMnO ditambahkan pada lengan kanan tiub-U.
4
-3
In a similar manner as in step 3, 0.2 mol dm acidifi ed potassium manganate (VII), KMnO4 solution is added to the
right arm of the U-tube.
5. Elektrod karbon diletakkan ke dalam setiap lengan tiub-U.
A carbon electrode is placed in each arm of the U-tube.
6. Elektrod disambungkan kepada galvanometer seperti ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1.1.
The electrodes are connected to a galvanometer as shown in Diagram 1.1.
7. Pesongan jarum galvanometer diperhatikan untuk menentukan elektrod yang bertindak sebagai terminal
positif dan negatif.
The defl ection of the galvanometer needle is observed to determine the electrodes that act as the positive and
negative terminal.
8. Susunan radas dibiarkan selama 30 minit. Sebarang perubahan direkodkan.
The set-up is left aside for 30 minutes. Any change is recorded.
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9. Menggunakan penitis yang bersih, 1 cm larutan ferum(II) sulfat, FeSO dikeluarkan dan dimasukkan ke
3
4
dalam tabung uji. Kemudian, beberapa titis larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH dimasukkan ke dalam
tabung uji. Sebarang perubahan direkodkan.
Using a clean dropper, 1 cm of iron(II) sulphate, FeSO solution is draw and placed in a test tube. Then a few drops
3
4
of sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution are added to the test tube. Any change is recorded.
-3
10. Langkah 1 hingga 8 diulang dengan menggunakan larutan kalium iodida, KI 0.5 mol dm dan larutan
kalium dikromat(VI), K Cr O berasid 0.2 mol dm .
-3
2
1
2
-3
Steps 1 to 8 are repeated using 0.5 mol dm potassium iodide, KI solution and 0.2 mol dm acidifi ed potassium
-3
dichromate(VI), K Cr O solution.
2 2 1
11. Menggunakan penitis yang bersih, 1 cm larutan kalium iodida, KI dikeluarkan dan dimasukkan ke dalam
3
tabung uji. Kemudian, beberapa titis larutan kanji dimasukkan ke dalam tabung uji. Sebarang perubahan
direkodkan.
3
Using a clean dropper, 1 cm of potassium iodide, KI solution is draw and placed in a test tube. Then a few drops of
starch solution are added to the test tube. Any change is recorded.
Mentafsir data/ Interpreting data:
1. Larutan ferum(II) sulfat, FeSO + larutan kalium manganat(VII) berasid, KMnO 4
4
Iron(II) sulphate, FeSO solution + Acidifi ed potassium manganate(VII), KMnO solution
4 4
Pemerhatian/ Observation Inferens/ Inference
(a) Pesongan jarum galvanometer menunjukkan Elekron mengalir daripada elektrod dalam larutan
elektrod dalam larutan ferum(II) sulfat bertindak ferum(II) sulfat kepada elektrod dalam
negatif
sebagai terminal manakala larutan kalium manganat(VII) berasid .
elektrod dalam larutan kalium manganat(VII) berasid
positif The electrons fl ow from the electrode in
bertindak sebagai terminal . iron(II) sulphate
The defl ection of the galvanometer needle shows solution to the electrode in the
that the electrode in iron(II) sulphate solution acts as acidifi ed potassium manganate(VII)
negative solution.
the terminal whereas the electrode in
acidifi ed potassium manganate(VII) solution acts as the
positive
terminal.
dioksidakan
(b) Larutan hijau muda larutan ferum(II) sulfat bertukar Ion ferum(II) kepada ion
perang ferum(III).
kepada .
brown Iron(II) ion is oxidised to iron(III) ion.
Pale green iron(II) sulphate solution turns .
diturunkan
(c) Larutan ungu kalium manganat(VII) berasid bertukar Ion manganat(VII) kepada ion
tidak berwarna manganese(II).
kepada .
Purple acidifi ed potassium manganate(VII) solution turns Manganate(VII) ion is reduced to
colourless manganese(II) ion.
.
perang ferum(III)
(d) Mendakan terbentuk apabila Ion hadir.
ditambah larutan natrium hidroksida. Iron(III) ions are present.
brown
A precipitate is formed when sodium
hydroxide solution is added.



5

pengoksidaan
-
2+
(e) Ion manganat(VII), MnO bertindak sebagai agen . Ion ferum(II), Fe bertindak sebagai
4
penurunan
agen .
oxidising reducing
Manganate(VII) ions, MnO act as the agent. Iron(II) ions, Fe act as the agent.
2+
–
4
2. Larutan kalium iodida, KI + larutan kalium dikromat(VI), K Cr O berasid
2
7
2
Potassium iodide, KI solution + acidifi ed potassium dichromate(VI), K Cr O solution
2 2 7
Pemerhatian/ Observation Inferens/ Inference
(a) Pesongan jarum galvanometer menunjukkan Elektron mengalir daripada elektrod dalam larutan
elektrod dalam larutan kalium iodida bertindak kalium iodida kepada elektrod dalam larutan
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negatif
sebagai terminal manakala kalium dikromat(VI) berasid .
elektrod dalam larutan kalium dikromat(VI) berasid
positif The electrons fl ow from the electrode in
bertindak sebagai terminal . potassium iodide solution to the electrode in the
The defl ection of the galvanometer needle shows that acidifi ed potassium dichromate(VI)
the electrode in potassium iodide solution acts as the solution.
negative
terminal whereas the electrode in
acidifi ed potassium dichromate(VI) solution acts as the
positive
terminal.
dioksidakan
(b) Larutan tak berwarna kalium iodida bertukar kepada Ion iodida kepada iodin.
perang oxidised
. Iodide ion is to iodine.
brown
Colourless potassium iodide solution turns .
diturunkan
(c) Larutan jingga kalium dikromat(VI) berasid bertukar Ion dikromat(VI) kepada ion
hijau kromium(III).
kepada .
Orange acidifi ed potassium dichromate(VI) solution turns Dichromate(VI) ion is reduced to chromium
green (III) ion.
.
biru tua
(d) Larutan perang bertukar kepada Iodin hadir.
apabila ditambah larutan kanji. Iodine is present.
dark blue
The brown solution turns to when starch
solution is added.
pengoksidaan
(e) Ion dikromat(VI), Cr O bertindak sebagai agen . Ion iodida, I bertindak sebagai agen
2-
-

2
7
penurunan
.
oxidising reducing
-
2-
Dichromate(VI) ions, Cr O act as the agent. Iodide ions, I act as the agent.
2 7
Perbincangan/ Discussion
1. Nyatakan bahan-bahan yang mengalami pengoksidaan dan penurunan. Terangkan jawapan anda.
State the substance, that undergoes oxidation and reduction. Explain your answer.
(a) Pengoksidaan/Oxidation:
Ferum(II) sulfat, kerana kehilangan elektron/ Iron(II) sulphate, because loss of electrons
Kalium iodida, kerana kehilangan elektron/ Potassium iodide, because loss of electrons
(b) Penurunan/ Reduction:
Kalium dikromat(VI) berasid, kerana menerima elektron/ Acidifi ed potassium dichromate(VI), because accept

electrons
Kalium manganat(VII) berasid, kerana menerima elektron/ Acidifi ed potassium manganate(VII), because accept
electrons





6

2. Tuliskan persamaan setengah bagi pengoksidaan dan penurunan yang berikut:
Write the half-equations for the following oxidation and reduction:
(a) Tindak balas antara larutan ferum(II), FeSO sulfat dengan larutan kalium manganat(VII), KMnO
4 4
berasid
Reaction between iron(II) sulphate, FeSO solution with acidifi ed potassium manganate(VII), KMnO solution
4
4
Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation:
Fe  Fe + e
3+
2+
Penurunan/ Reduction:
MnO 4 + 8H + 5e  Mn + 4H 2O
2+
–
–
+
(b) Tindak balas antara larutan kalium iodida, KI dengan larutan kalium dikromat(VI), K Cr O berasid
2
7
2
Reaction between potassium iodide, KI solution with acidifi ed potassium dichromate(VI), K Cr O solution
2
7
2
Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation:
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– + 2e –
2I  I 2
Penurunan/ Reduction:
Cr 2O 7 + 14H + 6e  2Cr + 7H 2O
3+
+
2–
3. Nyatakan yang berikut/ State the following:
(a) Agen pengoksidaan/ Oxidising agents:
Larutan kalium manganat(VII) berasid/ Acidifi ed potassium manganate(VII) solution
Larutan kalium dikromat(VI) berasid/ Acidifi ed potassium dichromate(VI) solution
(b) Agen penurunan/ Reducing agent:
Larutan ferum(II) sulfat/ Iron(II) sulphate solution
Larutan kalium iodida/ Potassium iodide solution
negatif
4. Elektrod dalam agen penurunan bertindak sebagai terminal manakala elektrod dalam
positif
agen pengoksidaan bertindak sebagai terminal .
The electrode in the reducing agents acts as the negative terminal while the electrode in the oxidising
agents acts as the positive terminal.
penurunan pengoksidaan
5. Elektron mengalir daripada agen kepada agen melalui litar luar.
The electrons fl ow from reducing agents to oxidising agents through external circuit.




B Tindak Balas Redoks Berdasarkan Perubahan Nombor Pengoksidaan
Redox Reaction Based on Changes in Oxidation Number
I Nombor Pengoksidaan bagi Unsur/ Oxidation Number of An element
1. Peraturan umum menentukan nombor pengoksidaan/ General rules to determine oxidation number:
(a) Nombor pengoksidaan bagi atom suatu unsur bebas ialah sifar , 0 .
The oxidation number of an atom in its elements state is zero , 0 .

(b) Nombor pengoksidaan bagi hidrogen biasanya ialah +1 .
The oxidation number of hydrogen usually is +1 .
(c) Nombor pengoksidaan bagi oksigen biasanya ialah –2 .
The oxidation number of oxygen usually is –2 .
(d) Nombor pengoksidaan bagi halogen biasanya ialah –1 .
The oxidation number of Halogen usually is –1 .
(e) Jumlah nombor pengoksidaan bagi semua unsur dalam suatu sebatian neutral mestilah sifar , 0 .
The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the elements in a neutral compound must be zero , 0 .
Contoh/ Example:
(a) Manakah antara persamaan kimia berikut ialah tindak balas redoks?
Which of the following chemical equations is a redox reaction?
Persamaan/ Equation I: Na SO + Ba(NO ) → BaSO + 2NaNO 3
2
3 2
4
4
Persamaan/ Equation II: Mg + CuSO → MgSO + Cu
4
4
7

Persamaan II ialah tindak balas redoks sebab ada perubahan pada nombor pengoksidaan. Mg dioksidakan
2+
kepada Mg (0 kepada +2), manakala Cu diturunkan kepada Cu (+2 kepada 0).
2+
Equation II is a redox reaction because there is a change in oxidation numbers. Mg is oxidised to Mg (0 to +2) while
2+
Cu is reduced to Cu (+2 to 0).
2+
(b) Persamaan berikut menunjukkan perubahan Fe kepada Fe . Namakan jenis tindak balas yang ditunjukkan?
2+
3+
The following equation shows the change of Fe to Fe . Name the type of reaction shown.
3+
2+
2+
Fe → Fe + e
3+
Pengoksidaan. Fe dioksidakan sebab Fe hilang satu elektron dan nombor pengoksidaan bertambah
2+
2+
daripada +2 kepada +3.
Oxidation. Fe is oxidised because Fe loses one electron and its oxidation number increase from +2 to +3.
2+
2+
(c) Persamaan berikut ialah tindak balas redoks. Yang manakah agen penurunan?
The following equation is a redox reaction. Which is the reducing agent?
Cu + 2Ag  Cu + 2Ag
2+
+
Cu bertindak sebagai agen penurunan sebab Cu menurunkan Ag kepada Ag. Nombor pengoksidaan Ag
+
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diturunkan daripada +1 kepada 0.
Cu acts as the reducing agent because Cu reduces Ag to Ag. The oxidation number of Ag is reduced from +1 to 0.
+
II Penamaan Sebatian Mengikut Sistem Penamaan IUPAC
Naming Compounds According to the IUPAC Nomenclature
1. Kebanyakan unsur hanya mempunyai satu nombor pengoksidaan. Sesetengah unsur seperti unsur peralihan,
karbon, nitrogen dan sulfur mempunyai lebih daripada satu nombor pengoksidaan.
Many elements have just one oxidation number, but some elements such as transition metals, carbon, nitrogen and sulphur
have more than one oxidation number.
2. Untuk mengelakkan kekeliruan, angka Roman (I, II, III...) dimasukkan dalam nama sebatian dengan unsur yang
mempunyai lebih daripada satu nombor pengoksidaan.
To avoid confusion, Roman numeral (I, II, III, etc) are included in naming of some compound with element which has
more than one oxidation number.
3. Bagi sebatian ion yang ringkas, angka Roman yang menyatakan nombor pengoksidaan unsur logam ditulis di
dalam kurungan selepas nama logam itu.
brackets
For simple ionic compounds, the Roman numeral of the oxidation number of metal element is written in ,
following the name of the metal.

Contoh/Example 6

Formula kimia sebatian Nombor pengoksidaan Nama IUPAC sebatian
Compound chemical formula Oxidation number IUPAC name of the compound

FeCl x + 2(–1) = 0, x = +2 Besi(II) klorida/ Iron(II) chloride
2
FeCl x + 3(–1) = 0, x = +3 Besi( III ) klorida/ Iron( III ) chloride
3
Cu O 2x + (–2) = 0, x = +1 Kuprum( I ) oksida/ Copper( I ) oxide
2
CuO x + (–2) = 0, x = +2 Kuprum( II ) oksida/ Copper( II ) oxide

SnO x + (–2) = 0, x = +2 Stanum( II ) oksida/ Tin( II ) oxide

SnO x + 2(–2) =0, x = +4 Stanum( IV ) oksida/ Tin( IV ) oxide
2
PbO x + (–2) = 0, x = +2 Plumbum( II ) oksida/ Lead( II ) oxide

PbO x + 2(–2) = 0, x = +4 Plumbum( IV ) oksida/ Lead( IV ) oxide
2

Tip SPM

Bagi unsur yang mempunyai hanya satu nombor pengoksidaan, tidak perlu ditulis dalam angka Roman. Contohnya, natrium
klorida, magnesium oksida dan aluminium klorida. Unsur-unsur ini berada di Kumpulan 1, 2 dan 13 dalam Jadual Berkala Unsur.
Tip
For elements with just one oxidation number, do not need to write it in Roman numerals. For example, sodium chloride, magnesium oxide and
SPM
aluminium chloride. Such elements are in Groups 1, 2 and 13 in the Periodic Table of Elements.
8

3+
2+
III Pertukaran Ion Fe kepada Ion Fe dan Sebaliknya/ Change of Fe Ions to Fe Ions and Vice Versa
3+
2+
1. Logam besi (ferum) mempunyai dua nombor pengoksidaan/ Iron metal has two oxidation numbers.
(a) Dalam ion ferum(II), Fe , nombor pengoksidaan ialah +2/ In iron(II) ions, Fe , the oxidation number is +2.
2+
2+
3+
(b) Dalam ion ferum(III), Fe , nombor pengoksidaan ialah +3/ In iron(III) ions, Fe the oxidation number is +3.
3+
2. Pertukaran ion ferum(II), Fe kepada ion ferum(III), Fe merupakan proses pengoksidaan .
2+
3+
oxidation
The change of iron(II) ions, Fe to iron(III) ions, Fe is an process.
3+
2+
3. Agen pengoksidaan diperlukan untuk mengoksidakan ion ferum(II), Fe kepada ion ferum(III), Fe 3+
2+
oxidising
An agent is required to oxidise the iron(II) ions, Fe to iron(III) ions, Fe 3+.
2+
4. Pertukaran ion ferum(III), Fe kepada ion ferum(II), Fe merupakan proses penurunan .
3+
2+
reduction
3+
2+
The change of iron(III) ions, Fe to iron (II) ions, Fe is a process.
3 ©PAN ASIA PUBLICATIONS
3+
5. Agen penurunan diperlukan untuk menurunkan ion ferum(III), Fe kepada ion ferum(II), Fe 2+.
A reducing agent is required to reduce the iron(III) ions, Fe to iron(II) ions, Fe 2+.
3+
A KTIVITI 1.2
Tujuan/ Aim:
3+
Mengkaji tindak balas pertukaran ion Fe kepada ion Fe dan sebaliknya
2+
2+
To investigate the change of Fe ions to Fe ions and vice versa
3+
Bahan/ Materials:
–3
Larutan ferum(II) sulfat, FeSO 0.5 mol dm yang baharu disediakan, larutan ferum(III) klorida, FeCl 0.5 mol Eksperimen Wajib
4 3
dm , air bromin, pita magnesium, larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH 2.0 mol dm , kertas turas
–3
–3
0.5 mol dm freshly prepared iron(II) sulphate, FeSO solution, 0.5 mol dm iron(III) chloride, FeCl solution, bromine
–3
–3
3
4
water, magnesium ribbon, 2.0 mol dm sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution, fi lter paper
–3
Radas/ Apparatus:
Penitis, spatula, penyepit tabung uji, penunu Bunsen, corong turas, rak tabung uji, silinder penyukat, tabung
uji
Dropper, spatula, test tube holder, Bunsen burner, fi lter funnel, test tube rack, measuring cylinder, test tube
A Pertukaran ion ferum(II), Fe kepada ion ferum(III), Fe 3+
2+
2+
Changes of iron(II) ions, Fe to iron(III) ions, Fe 3+
Prosedur/ Procedure:
3
1. 2 cm larutan ferum(II) sulfat, FeSO yang baharu disediakan dituang ke dalam sebuah tabung uji.
4
2 cm of freshly prepared iron(II) sulphate, FeSO solution is measured and pour into a test tube.
3
4
2. Air bromin ditambah setitik demi setitik ke dalam tabung uji yang berisi larutan dengan menggunakan
penitis sambil digoncang sehingga tiada perubahan warna dapat diperhatikan.
Bromine water is added to the solution in the test tube drop by drop using a dropper until no further changes are
observed.
3. Campuran digoncang dan dihangatkan perlahan-lahan.
The mixture is shaken well and warm gently.
4. Larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH 0.2 mol dm ditambah setitik demi setitik sehingga berlebihan.
–3
Perubahan direkodkan.
0.2 mol dm of sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution is added drop by drop until in excess. The changes are recorded.
–3
B Pertukaran ion ferum(III), Fe kepada ion ferum(II), Fe 2+
3+
Changes of iron(III) ions, Fe to iron(II) ions, Fe 2+
3+
Prosedur/ Procedure:
1. 2 cm larutan ferum(III) klorida, FeCl dituang ke dalam sebuah tabung uji.
3
2 cm of iron(III) chloride, FeCl solution is measured and pour into a test tube.
3
3
2. 2 cm pita magnesium ditambah ke dalam larutan.
2 cm of magnesium ribbon is added into the solution.
3. Campuran digoncang dan dihangatkan perlahan-lahan sehingga tiada perubahan diperhatikan.
The mixture is shaken well and warm gently until no further changes.
4. Campuran dituras ke dalam sebuah tabung uji.
The mixture is fi ltered into a test tube.
9

–3
5. Larutan natrium hidroksida, NaOH 0.2 mol dm ditambah setitik demi setitik sehingga berlebihan.
Pemerhatian direkodkan.
0.2 mol dm of sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution is added drop by drop until in excess. The changes are recorded.
–3
Mentafsir data/ Interpreting data:
Aktiviti/ Activity Pemerhatian/ Observation Inferens/ Inference
hijau muda kuning Fe 2+
A Larutan menjadi . Ion dioksidakan kepada ion
Pale green solution turns yellow . Fe 3+ .
Fe Fe
3+
2+
hijau muda ions are oxidised to ions
Mendakan tak larut dalam
larutan natrium hidroksida berlebihan. Mengesahkan kehadiran ion Fe 3+ .
Brown precipitate insoluble in excess Fe
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3+
sodium hydroxide solution. Confi rms the present of ions
perang hijau muda Fe 3+
B Larutan menjadi . Ion diturunkan kepada ion
Brown solution turns pale green . Fe 2+ .
Fe Fe
3+
2+
hijau kotor ions are reduced to ions
Mendakan tak larut dalam
larutan natrium hidroksida berlebihan. Mengesahkan kehadiran ion Fe 2+ .
Dirty green precipitate insoluble in excess Fe
2+
sodium hydroxide solution. Confi rms the present of ions
Perbincangan/ Discussion:
3+
1. Berdasarkan pengoksidaan ion Fe kepada Fe :
2+
2+
Based on oxidation of Fe ions to Fe ions:
3+
(a) Tuliskan persamaan setengah yang menunjukkan:
Write the half-equations to show:
2+
3+
Fe  Fe + e
(i) Pengoksidaan/ Oxidation:
Br + 2e  2Br -
(ii) Penurunan/ Reduction: 2
(b) Nyatakan perubahan nombor pengoksidaan bagi:
State the change in oxidation number for:
(i) Agen pengoksidaan/ Oxidising agent:
Air bromin (0 ke -1)/ Bromine water (0 to -1)
(ii) Agen penurunan/ Reducing agent:
Larutan ferum(II) sulfat (+2 ke +3)/ Iron(II) sulphate solution (+2 to +3)

(c) Tuliskan persamaan ion keseluruhan bagi tindak balas redoks yang berlaku.
Write the overall ionic equation for the redox reaction that takes place.
2Fe + Br 2  2Fe + 2Br -
3+
2+
2+
2. Berdasarkan penurunan ion Fe kepada ion Fe :
3+
Based on reduction of Fe ions to Fe ions:
2+
3+
(a) Nyatakan perubahan nombor pengoksidaan bagi:/ State the change of oxidation number for:
0  +2
(i) Magnesium/ Magnesium:
(ii) Ion ferum(III)/ Iron(III) ions: +3  +2
(b) Namakan agen pengoksidaan:/ Name the oxidising agent:
Larutan ferum(III) klorida/ Iron(III) chloride solution
(c) Namakan agen penurunan:/ Name the reducing agent:
Pita magnesium/ Magnesium ribbon

(d) Tuliskan persamaan ion keseluruhan bagi tindak balas redoks yang berlaku.
Write the overall ionic equation for the redox reaction that takes place.
2Fe + Mg  2Fe + Mg 2+
3+
2+


10

Uji Kendiri 1.1


1. Nyatakan definisi bagi agen penurunan.
State the defi nition of a reducing agent.
Agen penurunan ialah bahan yang menurunkan bahan lain. Dalam tindak balas redoks, agen penurunan mengalami

pengoksidaan.
A reducing agent reduces a substance. It is oxidised in the redox reaction.

2. Rajah 1.5 menunjukkan susunan radas bagi mengkaji pengoksidaan dan penurunan berdasarkan pemindahan elektron
pada satu jarak.
Diagram 1.5 shows the apparatus set-up to investigate the oxidation and reduction based on the transfer of electron at a distance.
©PAN ASIA PUBLICATIONS

G




Karbon P Karbon Q
Carbon P Carbon Q

Larutan kalium Air bromin
iodida Bromine water
Potassium iodide
solution
Asid sulfurik
Sulphuric acid

Rajah/Diagram 1.5
(a) Tuliskan perubahan nombor pengoksidaan bagi bromin dan iodin dalam tindak balas itu.
Write the change in oxidation number for bromine and iodine in the reaction.


Iodin/ Iodine Bromin/ Bromine


–1  0 0  –1


(b) Tuliskan perubahan nombor pengoksidaan bagi tindak balas.
Write the changes in oxidation number for the reaction.

Br + 2I  2Br + I
–
–
2 2
0 –1 –1 0



3. Hitung nombor pengoksidaan mangan, Mn dan namakan sebatian mengikut penamaan IUPAC.
Calculate the oxidation number for manganese, Mn and name the compound according to the IUPAC nomenclature.

KMnO MnO Mn O
4 2 2 3

+1 + x + 4(–2) = 0 x + 2(–2) = 0 2x + 3(–2) = 0,
x = +7 x = +4 2x = +6

x = +3


Kalium manganat(VII) Mangan(IV) oksida Mangan(III) oksida
Potassium manganate(VII) Manganese(IV) oxide Manganese(III) oxide





18

4. Rajah 1.6 menunjukkan suatu tindak balas penyesaran.
Diagram 1.6 shows a displacement reaction.




Serbuk logam
Metal powder




Kuprum(II) sulfat
Copper(II) sulphate


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Rajah/Diagram 1.6
Namakan logam yang dapat menyebabkan keamatan warna biru larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO berkurang. Jelaskan.
4
Name the metal that can cause the intensity of blue colour of copper(II) sulphate, CuSO solution to decrease. Explain.
4
Magnesium atau zink. Logam yang berada di atas kuprum dalam siri elektrokimia mampu menyesarkan kuprum
daripada larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO . Penurunan kepekatan ion Cu akan menyebabkan keamatan warna
2+
4
biru larutan berkurang.
Magnesium or zinc. Metals located higher than copper in the electrochemical series can displace copper from copper(II)

sulphate, CuSO solution. The decrease of Cu ions concentration will cause the intensity of blue colour of the solution to
2+
4
decrease.




1.2 Keupayaan Elektrod Piawai
Standard Electrode Potential


A Keupayaan Elektrod Piawai
Standard Electrode Potential
1. Beza keupayaan merentasi terminal sel ketika arus sifar (tiada beban) akan bertindak sebagai penggerak atau
“tekanan elektrik” yang menolak elektron melalui litar luar . Beza keupayaan ini disebut sebagai daya
gerak elektrik, d.g.e. atau daya keupayaan sel, E .
sel
The potential difference across the cell terminals when zero current (no load) will act as a mover or “electric pressure” that
pushes electrons through the external circuit . This potential difference is referred as electromotive force, emf or cell potential
force, E
cell.
2. Nilai d.g.e sel yang diukur pada keadaan piawai disebut sebagai keupayaan elektrod piawai , E 0 sel

The emf value of a cell measured at standard conditions is referred as standard electrode potential , E 0
cell
3. Keadaan piawai bagi sel/ Standard condition for cells:
-3
(a) kepekatan akueus ion 1.0 mol dm / aqueous concentration of ions 1.0 mol dm -3
(b) suhu 25 °C atau 298 K/ temperature 25 °C or 298 K
(c) tekanan 1 atm atau 101 kPa/ pressure of 1 atm or 101 kPa
(d) platinum digunakan sebagai elektrod lengai/ platinum is used as inert electrode

4. Dalam elektrokimia, keupayaan elektrod piawai, E ditakrifkan sebagai ukuran keupayaan elektrod , berbanding
o
sel hidrogen dengan elektrod platinum pada keadaan piawai dengan kepekatan akueus ion
1.0 mol dm –3 , suhu 25 °C dan tekanan 1 atm .

In electrochemistry, standard electrode potential, E is defi ned as the measure of electrode potential , compared
0
to hydrogen cell with platinum electrode at standard conditions with aqueous concentration of ions at
1.0 mol dm –3 , temperature 25 °C and pressure of 1 atm .




19

Eksperimen 1.1

Tujuan/ Aim:
Eksperimen
0
Mengkaji kesan nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai, E terhadap pemilihan ion untuk dinyahcas pada elektrod

0
To investigate the e ect of the standard electrode, E value on selective discharge of ions at the electrodes
Penyataan masalah/ Problem statement:
Bagaimanakah nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai, E mempengaruhi pemilihan ion untuk dinyahcas di elektrod?
0

How does the standard electrode potential, E value a ect the selective discharge of ions at the electrodes?
0
Hipotesis/ Hypothesis:
Eksperimen Wajib
Lebih positif nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai E° ion, lebih mudah ion dinyahcas secara pilihan.
0

e more positive the standard electrode potential, E valueof an ion,the easier the ion to selectively discharged.


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Pemboleh ubah/ Variables:
0
(a) Dimanipulasikan/ Manipulated: Nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai, E°/ Standard electrode potential, E value
(b) Bergerak balas/ Responding: Hasil elektrolisis/ Products of electrolysis
(c) Dimalarkan/ Fixed: Jenis elektrod, kepekatan larutan elektrolit/ Types of electrode, concentration of electrolyte solution

Bahan/ Materials:
Larutan asid sulfurik cair, H SO 1.0 mol dm , larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO 1.0 mol dm , kayu uji
–3
–3
2
4
4
1.0 mol dm dilute sulphuric acid, H SO , 1.0 mol dm copper(II) sulphate, CuSO solution, wooden splinter
–3
–3
2 4 4
Radas/ Apparatus:
Sel elektrolitik, tabung uji, bateri, ammeter, elektrod karbon, wayar penyambung
Electrolytic cell, test tubes, batteries, ammeter, carbon electrodes, connecting wires
Prosedur/ Procedure:
Tabung uji
Test tube
Karbon elektrod
Carbon electrodes
Asid sulfurik, H SO cair
2 4
Dilute sulphuric
acid, H SO
2 4
Suis
Switch A Ammeter
Ammeter
Bateri
Battery
Rajah/Diagram 1.16
1. Larutan asid sulfurik cair, H SO 1.0 mol dm dituang ke dalam sel elektrolitik hingga menutupi elektrod karbon.
–3
2
4

–3
1.0 mol dm dilute sulphuric acid, H SO is pouredinto an electrolytic cell until it covers the carbon electrodes.
2 4
2. Tabung uji diisi dengan larutan asid sulfurik cair, H SO 1.0 mol dm dan ditengkupkan ke atas elektrod karbon.
–3
2
4

e test tubes are lled with 1.0 mol dm dilute sulphuric acid, H SO and overturn onto the carbon electrodes.

–3
2 4
3. Elektrod karbon disambung kepada bateri dengan menggunakan wayar penyambung.
Carbon electrodes are connected to the batteries using the connecting wires.
4. Arus elektrik dialirkan melalui elektrolit selama 15 minit.
e electric current is passed through the electrolyte for 15 minutes.

5. Pemerhatian di anod dan katod direkodkan.
Observations at the anode and cathode is recorded.
6. Gas yang terkumpul di anod diuji dengan kayu uji berbara manakala gas yang terkumpul di katod diuji dengan
kayu uji menyala.
Gas collected at the anode is tested with a glowing wooden splinter while gas collected at the cathode is tested with a burning wooden
splinter.
7. Langkah 1 hingga 6 diulang dengan menggunakan larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO 1.0 mol dm .
–3
4
–3
Steps 1 to 6 are repeated by using 1.0 mol dm copper(II) sulphate, CuSO solution.
4
34

Pemerhatian/ Observation:
Elektrolit Asid sulfurik cair, H SO 4 Larutan kuprum(II) sulfat, CuSO 4
2
Electrolyte Dilute sulphuric acid, H SO Copper(II) sulphate solution, CuSO
2 4 4
Anod/Anode (+) Gelembung gas dibebaskan. Gas tidak Gelembung gas dibebaskan. Gas tidak
berwarna menyebabkan kayu uji berbara berwarna menyebabkan kayu uji berbara
menyala menyala
Gas bubbles are released. Colourless gas ignites the Gas bubbles are released. A colourless gas ignites the
glowing wooden splinter. glowing wooden splinter.
4OH  2H O + O + 4e 4OH  2H O + O + 4e
–
–
2
2
2
2
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Katod/Cathode (–) Gelembung gas dibebaskan. Gas tidak Pepejal perang terenap.
berwarna menghasilkan bunyi “pop” dengan Brown solid is deposited
kayu uji menyala.
2+
Gas bubbles released. Colourless gas produces a “pop” Cu + 2e  Cu
sound with the glowing wooden splinter.
2H + 2e  H
+
2
Kesimpulan/ Conclusion:
Ion yang mempunyai nilai keupayaan elektrod piawai, E° lebih positif akan dipilih untuk dinyahcas di elektrod.

e ion that have more positive standard electrode potential, E valuewill be selectively discharge at the electrodes.
0


I Kepekatan Ion dalam Elektrolit/ Concentration of Ions in the Electrolyte
Ion yang mempunyai kepekatan lebih tinggi dalam elektrolit akan dipilih untuk dinyahcas.
Ions with higher concentration in the electrolyte will be selected for discharge.



Eksperimen 1.2

Tujuan/ Aim:
Eksperimen
Mengkaji kesan kepekatan ion dalam elektrolit terhadap pemilihan ion untuk dinyahcas pada elektrod
To investigate the e ect of the concentration of ions on the selective discharge of ions at the electrodes

Penyataan masalah/ Problem statement:
Bagaimanakah kepekatan ion dalam elektrolit mempengaruhi pemilihan ion untuk dinyahcas di anod? Eksperimen Wajib

How does the concentration of ions in the electrolyte a ect the discharge of ions at the anode?
Hipotesis/ Hypothesis:
Ion halida yang mempunyai kepekatan lebih tinggi akan dinyahcas secara pilihan di anod
Halide ions of higher concentrations will be selectively discharged at the anode
Pemboleh ubah/ Variables:

(a) Dimanipulasikan/ Manipulated: Kepekatan elektrolit/ Concentration of electrolyte
(b) Bergerak balas/ Responding: Hasil elektrolisis/ Products of electrolysis

(c) Dimalarkan/ Fixed: Jenis elektrod, jenis elektrolit/ Types of electrode, type of electrolyte

Bahan/ Materials:
–3
Asid hidroklorik, HCl 2.0 mol dm , asid hidroklorik, HCl 0.001 mol dm , kertas litmus biru, kayu uji
–3
–3
2.0 mol dm hydrochloric acid, HCl, 0.001 mol dm hydrochloric acid, HCl, blue litmus paper, wooden splinter
–3
Radas/ Apparatus:
Sel elektrolisis, tabung uji, bateri, ammeter, elektrod karbon, wayar penyambung
Electrolytic cell, test tubes, batteries, ammeter, carbon electrodes, connecting wires


35

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